Analysis of the case study On whose side?

An ethical dilemma within a training role Introduction

The aim of this paper is to analyse from a critical perspective the case study On whose side? An ethical dilemma within a training role xxxxxxxx (2004): Appendix 1. As the stated aim is to adopt a critical perspective this term should first be defined. The analysis will adopt a reflective approach to facilitate the learning process, and as the case study itself describes a learning situation it is appropriate secondly to review learning theory. Having established a framework the participants will then be introduced. The learning interactions occur within a broader context and the impact of a professional body, the British Psychological Society (BPS) and several other organizations will be considered. The main theme is one of role conflict and the related issue of identity construction. The case study will be referred to and referenced in the following manner; [Appendix P1] where P1 represents paragraph 1 of the case study. The intention is to avoid repetition of historical fact.

A critical perspective Gough & McFadden (2001) argue that a critical approach should challenge social institutions and practices that may contribute to inequality and oppression. Critical social psychology it is argued is intimately bound up with language and representation. Language is said to construct meaning rather than reflect reality, knowledge produces rather than describes reality. Harre & Stearns (1995) introducing the new cognitivism argue for a psychology that sees the major topics of the discipline as examples of skilled actions that we should try to identify and give explicit expression to the norms, rules and conventions that are immanent. They further argue that the bodily organs with which we think and act are to be interpreted as among the tools we put to use in realizing our plans and intentions (p.8). Edgerton (1995) provides, (by means of a study of discursive norms for Northern Ireland troubles victims), an example of, discursive norms which constrain the interpretations that people give (p.192). It could be argued that the term unemployed is one such discursive norm that constrains people and fosters inequality and oppression. Re-labelling unemployed persons as Job Seekers or Trainees is perhaps an example of how peoples identity, status and role can be manipulated through the use of language to construct meaning.

Learning Theory Burgoyne (2002) identifies some fourteen schools of thought with regards learning theory and the construction of self. He identifies the following four clusters: 1. Individualised, passive, machine-like view of learning and the self 2. Self as a purposive learner 3. Social view of self, individuals exist in relation to others 4. Learning as a system- or context-located phenomenon, the totality of which the person is embedded in. The author felt that participants might think they were being cajoled into a situation similar to cluster 1 and was at pains in the initial interview to assure participants that they were not being sent back to school but would be treated as adults in a group workshop for a couple of weeks that hopefully would be enjoyable and beneficial. It was also appreciated that as participants had not chosen to attend the course they were probably not joining as a purposive learner described in cluster 2. [Ref: Appendix P5] The aim of the New Deal 25+ initiative was to prepare and help the long-term unemployed back to work. Although the commissioning organizations philosophy was more in line with cluster 1, with the aim of achieving some sort of outcome in line with cluster 2, the authors perspective was more in line with clusters three and four. The majority of workplace situations are about working with others in one way or another. Therefore relationship building and developing a team spirit within each cohort was considered important. Burgoyne (ibid) identifies Social Learning Theory (Social LT) and Situated Learning Theory (Situated LT) as falling within cluster three. With Situated LT the emphasis is upon the collective, local and informal nature of learning within communities of practice that individuals are slowly incorporated into through collective practice and community membership. In Social LT the learning entity is taken to be primarily a social construction, and what is at stake is identity or identity formation. It could be argued that one objective of New Deal 25+ was to help participants move from an unemployed identity to one of being a member of the working community. However, the authors experience of many trainees, particularly some of the older ones, was that they had retired in their own minds. There seemed little point in all the upheaval of starting a new job, particularly coming off benefits which, if the job didnt work out were very difficult to set up again and could result in building up rent arrears and debt. There were also a number of participants who because of mental illness or alcoholism would have found it very difficult to hold down a job. The attitude of the author was that the course should be an end in itself to benefit participants wellbeing in general, and if it motivated some to find a job all to the

better. The intention was to facilitate positive identity construction, increase self-esteem and offering, if only for a short while, something of a worthwhile community experience.

The Participants
Unemployed or Job Seeker? Given that the training role described in the case study involves the long-term unemployed Gough & McFaddens (ibid) example of unemployment from a critical perspective is appropriate. They suggest that the language constructed object unemployed relates to notions of individual responsibility; that it is the individual who is to blame and the onus is on him or her to find work or show that they are actively seeking work. Within this discourse it is said to be easy to position the unemployed as lazy or parasitic and for the unemployed themselves to feel ashamed, guilty or desperate. Alternative discourses are suggested such as framing unemployment in terms of economic or global forces or as a positive life choice, (citing Henriques et al. 1984). From a Marxist perspective it could be argued there is an inherent contradiction in running a training course such as New Deal 25+. Marx argued that the capitalist, capital personified, exploited surplus labour out of the direct producer beyond that required to satisfy existing needs. This surplus has an antagonistic form and is complemented by the complete idleness of a section of society. However, a certain quantity of surplus labour is required in order to meet various contingencies, as well as for the necessary progressive expansion of the process of reproduction in accordance with the development of needs and the increase in population. (Bottomore & Rubel, citing Marx, 1893-4) From this perspective unemployed people are inevitable and necessary, perhaps they could better be described as reserve labour. Yet from a social constructionist perspective labelling unemployed persons as Job Seekers socially constructs their identity to suggest they are employed in the business of finding a job. What used to be called unemployment benefit, now Job Seekers Allowance (JSA), is paid in exchange for materially unproductive labour, job seeking. These efforts are recorded as evidence of job seeking in a logbook that must be produced at the regular fortnightly signing for receipt of and entitlement to JSA. It is also worth noting that while attending the course participants ceased for nine months to count towards the unemployment statistics. For the duration of the course they also received a 15.00 per week increase over the usual JSA payment.

The trainers role There is no need to repeat the historical data with regards the authors background. [See Appendix 1, P1-3] Again, from a critical perspective, the question is whether the author first and foremost be a servant of the State or was his responsibility primarily towards the participants? This question is perhaps at the heart of the ethical dilemma to be discussed. should

The trainers perspective The trainers perspective is discussed in detail in the case study [See Appendix 1, P5 & P6]. From first meeting the aim was to gain the trust of the participants and to put them at their ease. The first Tuesday was a general introduction day and appointments made for one to one sessions the next day. The purpose of these was for the trainer to get to know the participants individually so that it would be possible to manage the group interactions with insight and sensitivity. On more than one occasion the trainer had on first meeting been challenged by a participant, one saying, Well Ive been inside twenty-five years for murder so what the f*** are you going to teach me. Yet others were vulnerable individuals who had genuinely suffered. The author questioned the wisdom of throwing together such diverse people from such very different backgrounds and situations. The only way to manage the situation was to know where people were coming from. Identity Watson (2002) proposes a process-relational view of people, work and organizations. The orthodox systems-control view regards the individual as a more-or-less fixed entity with a given personality. People decide what actions to take in the world to meet needs and wants. Acquiring attitudes, learning knowledge and skills from others they can set aside emotions and through rational analysis and decision-making act to achieve their goals. This view of people would seem to capture the philosophy underpinning the New Deal 25+ initiative. Provide the skills and with the right attitude people will make the rational decision to get a job and income to adequately satisfy needs and wants. Watsons (ibid) process-relational view suggests the individual is always emergent. People are said to interpret and make sense of the world by learning how the world works so one can operate skilfully within it. It was clear to the author that some participants were skilfully playing the system. On one occasion a window cleaner who worked early in the mornings used to leave his ladder propped up against the wall when he came in for training. Another, a Buddhist monk, formerly an academic, said that he no longer bought in to the system. This is an example of emergent orientations (p.105) as individuals make sense of changing situations in light of their life-shaping and situational projects. Rationality and emotion are said to be simultaneously involved in all thought and action and that reflective reasoning reveals feelings

and values are part of it. Such a view challenges in a critical way the New Deal 25+ ethos. On reflection it seems that the author was also challenging this ethos. Not to say that the window cleaner was right but that there would be others in the group, like the Buddhist monk, who had made choices that should be respected.

The Organizations involved

The professional organization Reflecting upon the possibilities for the IT-based enterprise Groth (1999) considered the professional bureaucracy. Pertinent to this analysis are his views on the nature of such organizations. He notes that professional bureaucracies rely upon professionals and suggests that education normally serves to indoctrinate them with norms about ethical standards and proper conduct towards fellow professionals and customers or clients. Content and process is set by the larger professional community and the main pull is towards extending the supremacy of expertise throughout the organization. The author had followed the professionalisation of the BPS from the late 1980s which indeed had made it seem that in his counselling role the BPS was sat on his shoulders like some Freudian superego. The practice of naming and shaming in the societys publication The Psychologist members who had transgressed from the Code of Conduct heightened this sense. On reflection this felt sense is probably related to childhood fears and anxieties not fully resolved. (Word restraints limit further elucidation) The employer and other training providers The authors employer was a private limited company that was a member of a consortium that included another private company, the IT training organization, other Local Authority training providers and some other government funded organizations. From a psychodynamic perspective (Gabriel and Carr, 2002) it could be argued that the employer was in denial of the organizations critical financial situation, [See Appendix 1, closing statement]. One unfortunate consequence of this was that no funds were available to provide any equipment for the training and the author paid for flipcharts and other materials out of his own wages.

The ethical dilemma explored

It is clear from the introduction of the case study that the author appreciated returning to employment or changing careers is not a straightforward option; that such obstacles as training costs, ageism, opportunity made it difficult, particularly for older participants. Compelling them to change their views did not seem appropriate, nor did signing them absent, although most attending seemed to enjoy the workshops and discussions. As a psychologist it is not appropriate to hold a view as to whether a client should or should not seek work. However, as a trainer representing the New Deal 25+ programme it is perhaps essential to believe that the participants would be better off working rather than being unemployed. However, is a psychologist value free? For a start there are fundamental assumptions underpinning the very practice of psychology; that people seek happiness or fulfilment as opposed to being depressed or purposeless; that relationships potentially add positively to peoples lives rather than only being destructive. But perhaps such views are common to most people rather than a professional opinion. It is perhaps this view that influenced the author to turn a blind eye to the absence of antagonistic participants who sought to wreck proceedings. Was it perhaps an avoidance psychic defence? Role conflict One role of the author was manager, another trainer. He was required to manage other people to make the workshops work and train them to meet the indirect employers objectives of motivating people to accept training with a view to returning to work. Yet the failure of the direct employer to provide adequate training for the trainer meant he had to fall back on the only role he was familiar with, that of a psychological counsellor answerable to the BPS. Fontana (1989) describes role conflict as a situation where two aspects of our job are incompatible. This case study would seem to describe such a situation, loyalty to the aims and objectives of the joint employers conflicted with an ethical responsibility towards the participants determined by the published code of conduct of the BPS. Summerfield (2002) explores the thin line between coaching and counselling suggesting it is not an easy mix. Whilst learning is more effective when participative it also becomes more emotive such that situations requiring counselling are more likely to arise. She emphasises that trust and an ethical stance are important to both coaching and counselling. Feedback and challenging the client are also said to be important. The difference between acquisitional learning, where new knowledge and skills are acquired, and transformational learning, leading more to a change in feelings and behaviour, is highlighted. Summerfield concludes that it all comes down to judgement, recognising the persons need; is it an acquisitional need or a

transformational need? It was perhaps the authors lack of experience and skills in training that limited his ability to switch from counselling to coaching mode. Identity revisited Gergen (1996) argues that there is no single basic self. He suggests that critics of multiple masks theory work on two basic assumptions; that it is normal for a person to develop a firm and coherent sense of identity and that it is good and healthy to do so. He argues that ones identity will change markedly even in the presence of strangers and often with little conscious awareness. The individual is said to have many potential selves and the social conditions around help determine which of these options are evoked. He suggests that the value society puts on a coherent identity is unwarranted and potentially detrimental. In this case it would seem that the dilemma experienced by the author could be described as less of a dilemma and more a case of inflexibility with regards identity. It is perhaps a sign of insecurity to view the BPS as such a dominant influence and attempt to maintain such a rigid identity in the professional role. Reflecting upon Summerfields explanation of the difference between coaching and counselling, recognising the clients need is what should determine the role of the practitioner, not his or her insecurities.

Conclusion
For the conclusion I will switch to the first-person. I do this because I realize there is a need to reflect upon my experience of this case study analysis and upon my learning experience to date. Mezirow (1990) suggests reflecting back on prior learning to determine whether what we have learned is justified under present circumstances (p.5). It would seem that given the circumstances what I had learned in counselling training had not equipped me adequately for the training role. This reflection exercise is a good place to begin to address this failing, to reevaluate my experience and change. It is perhaps my background of being a builder that has made me deferential towards the BPS. Am I perhaps trying to assume an identity that I think is expected of me rather than developing an identity grounded in acquisitional and transformational learning? Do I just want to be a member of some professional club to gain status and boost my own ego? For Gergen (ibid) that is exactly what we do, we take on board an identity determined by the social conditions. Clients have expectations of how psychologist should behave; do I think I know what those expectations are and am I trying too hard to act them out? If I am, is that right? It is right that there should be some objective soundboard such as a Code of Practice that the practitioner can refer to when he or she reflects upon practice. But this is different to assuming a professional identity as opposed to acting in a professional manner. For one it is not honest,

the identity stands between you and the client, you cannot truly relate to the client, you relate through anothers mask. It is possible that some participants were not helped in the training situation described because the issues raised here were not addressed. I believe I have learnt valuable lessons from this exercise that will guide my future practice. References Burgoyne, J.G. (2003) Learning Theory and the Construction of Self: What Kinds of People Do We Create through the Theories of Learning that We Apply to their Development? In Pearn, M. (ed), Individual Differences and Development in Organizations. Chichester: Wiley Edgerton, M. (1995) Emotions and Discursive Norms in Harre, R. and Stearns, P. (eds), Discursive Psychology in Practice. London: Sage pp. 183-193. Fontana, D. (1989) Managing Stress Leicester: British Psychological Society Gabriel, Y. and Carr, A. (2002) Organizations, management and psychoanalysis: an overview. Journal of Management Psychology, 17(5), pp.348-365 Gergen, K. (2001) Social Construction in Context Thousand Oaks: Sage Gough, B. and McFadden, M. (2001) Critical Social Psychology: an Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Groth, L. (1999) Future Organizational Design: the scope for the IT based enterprise. Chichester: Wiley Harre, R. and Stearns, P. (1995) Discursive Psychology in Practice. London: Sage XXXXXXXX (2004) On whose side? An ethical dilemma within a training role Masters case study, unpublished. Marx, K. (1963) Das Kapital: Vol III in Bottomore, T. and Rubel, M. (eds.) Selected writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy Harmondsworth: Penguin Mezirow, J and Associates (1990) Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Summerfield, J. (2002) Walking the Thin Line Training Journal November issue, pp. 36-39 Watson, T. (2002) Organising and Managing Work FT: Pearson