oo-REVIEWER for CHEMISTRY-oo I.

Introduction Science Systematized body of knowledge that is based on facts which deals with the collection, tabulation, experimentation and investigation of data Chemistry It is the science of the fundamental structure of matter, the composition of substances, their transformation, analysis, synthesis and manufacture Branches of Chemistry Branch Focus Organic Chemistry Study of compounds of carbon Inorganic Study of all Chemistry elements and compounds other than organic compound Physical Study of Chemistry theoretical aspects of the structure and changes of matter Analytical Qualitative and Chemistry quantitative analysis Biochemistry Study of chemistry that deals with matter in living organisms It is a Physical Science along with Physics, Geology, and Astronomy. Scientific Method It incorporates observations, hypotheses, experiments, theories and law. - Identification of Problem - Collection of Data by Observation - Formulation of Hypothesis - Experimentation - Generalization of Theory Formulation Hypothesis - Tentative explanation of the observations - Intelligent guess Experiment - Sequence of observations carried out under controlled

condition with several times of testing Theory - Well tested hypothesis Law - A statement that summarizes observed facts Scientific Attitude S systematized C- comprehensive I- investigate E- experiment N- nature C- cause E- effect History of Chemistry I. According to BERGMAN (1799) - Mythological - Obscure - Certain II. According to CRANE, PETERSON and MARR (1957) - Prehistoric (before 1500BC) - Alchemical (1500BC-1500AD) - Iatrochemical (1500-1650) - Phlogiston (1650-1775) - Quantitative (1775-1900) - Atomic (1900-1960) - Sub-Atomic (1960 to present) Period Significance Pre-historic From the practical arts to the Greek theory Empedocles Water, Earth, Fire, Air Leucippus and Democritus matter is made up of tiny, minute particles atomos Alchemical Mans search for the elixir of life Alchemy pseudoscience that became the basis of modern day chemistry There are two major objectives: 1. Philosophers Stone change Pb, Fe and other base metals into gold 2. Elixir of Life prolong/restore youth and unending life Iatrochemical Search for new Medicinal substances Iatrochemistry study of the effects of medicine on the body

Phlogiston

Theophrastus Von Hoheinheim (1493-1541) Swiss physician, Paracelsus Chemistry becomes a science Study on the bile, blood and saliva Medical uses of S, Hg, and other minerals The birth of Modern Chemistry Application chemical knowledge Antoine Lavoisier, Father of Modern Chemistry combustion Development of the Modern Atomic Theory Fruitful period 60 years of tremendous progress Applied Chemistry Miniaturization period

Rule in Addition/Subtraction - Least decimal place Scientific Notation Expressing too large or too small values

Quantitative

Atomic

Sub-atomic

II. Measurement Collection of quantitative data Process of finding out how many times a quantity unit (kulang ung copy ko eh) Precision Refers to how close the measured values to each other if several trials are made Accuracy Refers to how close the measured values are to the accepted/true value Significant Figures Recording of the digits that are certain which is exactly known and another digit that is estimated which is uncertain Based on the degree of accuracy Measures the uncertainty Rule Condition Number 1 1-9 are all significant digits 2 Zeros between significant numbers are significant 3 Seros to the right of decimal are significant 4 Zeros to the left on non-zero digits are insignificant but used to indicate place value/decimal place 5 When a number ends in zero, the zeros are insignificant 6 If there is a bar over zero, that zero is significant Rule in Multiplication/Division - Follow the least number of SF

English System Foot-pound-second (FPS) Lbs Libras Not convenient to use because there is no regularity in the different units Metric System Base of 10 Meter/centimeter-kilogram/gramsseconds (MKS or CGS) January 1, 1983 adopted in the country Convenient 1960 - Modified metric system (SI Units) Base Name of Symbol Quantity Unit Length Meter m Mass Kilogram kg Time Second s Electric Ampere A current Temperature Kelvin K Amount of Mole mol substance Luminous Candela cd intensity Fundamental Units Base units Measured directly Important Conversions ( )

Derived Units Quantity which is a combination of 2 or more fundamental quantity Density Specific Heat Where q = heat, C = specific heat

Conversion Table

Length 1 mi 1m 1 ft 1 in 1 ft 1 1 yd Mass 1 metric ton 1 Kg 1 lb 1 lb 1 oz Volume 1L 1 qt 1 gal 1 m3 1 qt

1.609 Km 3.2 ft 30.48 cm 2.54 cm 12 in 10-10 m 91.4 cm 2200 lbs 2.2 lbs 454 g 16 oz 28.40 g 1000 ml 0.946 L 3.78 L 103 L 2 pi (pint)

III. Matter Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass Phases of Matter Solid porous, hardness Liquid viscosity Gas diffusion Plasma ionized Bose-Einstein Condensate super fluid Physical Properties of Matter Ductility - Can be formed thin wires - Cu, W Malleability - Can be drawn into thin sheets - Au, Ag, Fe Brittleness - Some are hard but easily breaks - Glass and porcelain Luster - Shiny Flexibility - Can be bent without easily breaking - Iron bar, steel bar Hardness/Durability Elasticity - Ability to be stretched and to return to its original shape after being stretched, pressed or twisted Solubility

Conductivity Changes of Matter Physical - Change in appearance but the individual properties remain - Doesnt produce any form of matter but simply results in a same kind Chemical - Change and formation of new substance - Change that involves a transformation of the reactants into another kind Chemical Reaction Insertion of energy Exothermic - Heat is released, heat is from the object to environment Endothermic - Heat is absorbed. Heat is from the environment to the object Classification of Matter Homogeneous Materials - Only one phase. The properties of one part are identical with the properties of all other parts. Heterogeneous Materials - Two or more phases. These materials with parts that are composed of different properties Classification under Homogeneous Solutions - Homogeneous throughout either be solid, liquid or gas Pure Substances - Homogeneous throughout - ELEMENTS (consist of only one kind of atom) - COMPOUND (2 or more different elements chemically combined in definite proportions) Mixtures Are of variable-composition components of mixtures maybe separated physically Named by description rather than the symbols and formulas of elements and compounds Ways of Separation - Filtration - Flotation - Centrifugation - Distillation

Solutions TYPE Solute S-S Brass Copper S-L Salt Sugar S-G

Fractional Crystallization Chromatography Solvent Bronze Aluminum Water Water Air Air Silver Water (polar) Product Alloy metal Cu-Al alloy Salt solution Sugar solution Diffused into air Dental amalgam Rubbing alcohol (miscible) Miscible Partially miscible Moisture in air Metal Metal Carbonat ed Drinks Air Acetylen e-Air moisture (highly flammabl e)

L-S L-L

Albatross Naphthalene balls Mercury Isopropyl alcohol (polar)

L-G G-S G-L G-G

Gasoline (non- Kerosene polar) (non-polar) Ether Water (partially polar) Water vapor Air Platinum Hydrogen Palladium Hydrogen O2 H2O CO2 H2O 78% N2 + 21% O2 + 1% others Acetylene Air O2

Properties of Solutions - Concentrated * large solute/volume of solvent - Dilute * small solute/volume of solvent - Saturated *as much solute as it hold *unsaturated can still hold more *supersaturated has more solute than it should normally hold Water - Ionic - Good solvent for Acids, bases and salts

Immiscible with Benzene (m. in sulfur), Carbon disulfide (m. in phosphorus) and Carbon tetrachloride (m. in wax) Classification of Solvents Polar - Dipoles (unsymmetrical arranged so that the center of + and electrical charges IS NOT LOCATED at the same point in the molecule) Non-Polar - Symmetrical molecules with the center of + and electrical charges at the same point within the molecule Like Dissolves Like Miscible When the components readily dissolve in any amount Partially Miscible When the components of a solution only have limited solubility Immiscible Substances dont dissolve and form two phases/layer Law of Chemical Change Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy - Antoine Lavoisier - Matter is not destroyed Energy is not created nor destroyed Law of Definite Proportion - Joseph Proust - Every compound has a fixed composition Law of Multiple Proportion - John Dalton - When two elements form more than one compound, with the weight of one element remaining fixed, the different weights of the other element always relate to each other in a simple ratio

IV. Atoms Atomos Indivisible Studied by atomists History Democritus - atomos John Dalton - Matter is composed of atoms

- Atomic theory of matter Joseph John Thomson - Plum-pudding model - Electron discovery Ernest Rutherford - Planetary model - Gold foil experiment - Proton discovery Neils Bohr - Orbital model Arnold Sommerfeld - Elliptical model James Chadwick - Neutron discovery Wilhelm Roentgen - Xrays Subatomic Particles Electron Proton Neutron Mass Number (A) = proton + neutron Atomic Number (Z) = proton = electron Isotopic Abundance

Percent Abundance ( )

IV. Atomic Structure Electronic Configuration Describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom Energy Level Distance from the nucleus to the electrons Subshells S (spin) P (principal) D (diffuse) F (fundamental) Subdivision of Main Energy Levels Mai No. No. Kinds and no. Max. Tot n of of of Orbitals no. of e- al Ener Subs Orbit ma gy hell als x.n Lev o. el of e1 1 1 S=1 2 2 2 2 4 S=1,p=3 2,6 8 3 3 9 S=1,p=3,d=5 2,6,10 18 4 4 16 S=1,p=3,d=5,f 2,6,10,1 32 =7 4

Mnemonic 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p Si Sally Pumasok Sa Pinto 4s 3d 4p Sa Door Pinto 5s 4d 5p Sa Door Pinto 6s 4f 5d 6p Sa Front Door Pinto 7s 5f 6d 7p Sa Front Door Pinto 6f 7d 7f Front Door Front Method of Representing Electron Distribution Spectronic/SPDF Notation - common Half-Shell method - Electrons in an energy level Rectangle-Arrow method - Orbitals and arrows Electron Dot Formula - Valence electrons Magnetic Properties Paramagnetic - With unpaired electrons - The more UNPAIRED electrons, the more ATTACHED to a magnetic field Diamagnetic - With no unpaired electrons Paulis Exclusion Principle Limits the number of electrons in an orbital to 2 Hunds Rule Fill up first the orbital before pairing Aufbaus Principle The lower sublevels were occupied first before the higher one Configuration of Ions Cations - Positively charged - Removal of electrons - Clue: cations prang caution positibo ung effect Anions - Negatively charged - Receiver of electrons - Clue: anions prang onion pinapanegative ung effect sau Finding the element using SPDF Group (electrons in the outermost shell) Period (main energy level) Quantum Number Principal (n) - Main energy level - 1,2,3,4,5. As to K,L,M,N,O. - Distance of the nucleus to the elctron

 Orbital (n-1) - Sublevel - S=0, p=1, d=2, f=3. - Azimuthal or angular momentum - Shape of orbital Magnetic (ml) - Orbital available - Direction and defines the orbit of an electron in a magnetic field Magnetic Spin (ms) - Direction of the electron spin arrow up only arrow up and an arrow down

Electronegativity H decreasing

increasing Structure of the oxides of the elements COVALENT MOLECULAR (share electron) IONIC (transferring electron) Acidity of the oxides of the elements H increasing basicity ACID OXIDES increasing acidity BASIC OXIDES ELECTRONEGATIVITY Ability to attract in electrons toward itself VALUES: 0 NONPOLAR 0.1 1.8 POLAR 1.9 above IONIC Subtract the electronegativities of the elements in a compound Subtract the same electronegativity from the electronegativity of a DIATOMIC element IONIC SIZE Size of charge cations (+) and anions (-) GUIDE: HIGHER (+), the bigger the size of an atom HIGHER (-), the smaller the size of an atom Group Number MNEMONIC 1 (Alakali Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Sodium Metals) (Na), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), Francium (Fr) 2 (Alkaline Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Earth Metal) Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra) 3 (Boron) Boron, Aluminum. Gallium, Indium, Thallium 4 (Carbon) Carbon, Silicon, Germanium. Tin, Lead 5 (Nitogen) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth 6 Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium,

V. Periodic Classification of Elements Metallic Character Hydrogen is placed in the same group as the halogen because the behavior of hydrogen is better described by such placement rather than its usual place in group 1 increasing H Most nonmetallic Decreasing Most metallic Atomic Size/Radius increasing H smallest Decreasing Biggest Ion Formation Noble Gases do not form +/- because it has high ionization energy and low electron affinity H High electron affinities Low ionization energy CATION formers Ionization Energy/Potential H decreasing

increasing

(Chalcogens) 7 (Halogens) 8 (Noble Gases)

Polonium Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon

VI. Chemical Bonds The force of attraction that joins atoms in a molecule together Ionic Bonds Are formed by the transfer of elements from one atom to another Covalent Bonds Are formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms POLAR - Unequal sharing - E.g. water H2O NON-POLAR - Equal distribution of electrons - E.g. diatomic elements A dash (-) is used to represent a covalent bond which contains two electrons - Single bond (-) Cl2 - Double bond () O2 - Triple bond () N2 Octet Rule Used to determine reactivity to the main group elements in the periodic table To attain stable situation, an atom can either LOSE or ACCEPT an electron to the other atom Like noble gases, it has eight stable electrons in their outermost s and p subshell (except He2, which only has two) because the first energy level has only the s subshell) Lewis Dot A model used to represent the electrons in the outermost s and p subshell. It helps us visualize the octet rule and chemical bonds better. Electrons in the outermost s and p subshell are represented by dots NOTE: Group IA and IIA give up eeasily Group VIA and VIIA accept e- easily Lone pairs Electrons that are not paired Should be indicated Exceptions to Lewis Dot Molecules with odd number of e Molecules which an atom has more than an octet

Molecules which an atom has less than an octet VII. Chemical Reaction Combination/ Synthesis Reaction Mg + S MgS 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl Decomposition / Analysis Reaction 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2 Ca(HCO3)2 CaO + CO2 + H2O Replacement / Displacement/ Substitution Reaction 2Al + 3ZnCl2 2AlCl3 + 3Zn Double Replacement 2NaNO3 + BaCl2 Ba(NO3)2 + 2NaCl Neutralization Reaction- a reaction between acid and base to form salt and water VIII. Moles Jans Jakob Berzelius System on the symbols of elements mole counting unit Avogadros number

Percentage Composition
(

IX. Empirical and Molecular Formula Empirical formula Simplest ratio Procedure - Determine the mass of element - Convert mass to mole - Divide the results with the smallest number of moles - Get the ratio Molecular formula Exact ratio Procedure - Find the EF - Divide the given mass with the molecular mass to get the ratio - Multiply the ratio to the EF X. Stoichiometry Computation dealing with the amount of substances Procedure Balance the equation Determine the number of moles of the starting substance Determine the mole ratio (coefficient)

 Change the number of moles to the desired unit XI. Mole Fraction Is the ratio of moles of solute in a given mole of solution XII. Molarity Concentration of solute in moles per volume of solution in liter

Psensya na kung ngayon lng, may idinagdag lng ako kc ung iba wala ditto e.. ung bandang umpisa, nde nalesson sa atin ni Mam ung tungkol sa History ng Chem Hindi ko n nailgay ung oxidation number kc marami. Ifamiliarize nyo n lng ung mga common na compounds. Try nyo ring bashin ung book ntin sac hem kung nasa inyo pa. Practice kau mag write ng formula tpos tingin tingin din kau ng mga chemical formula. Aun lang.. sana makatulong sa inyo

XIII. Molality Concentration of solute in moles per one kilogram of solvent XIV. Normality

( ( )

( )( ) Equivalence Numbers of moles of acid or base multiplied by the number of replaceable hydrogen or hydroxide ions it has Equivalence weight Molecular weight of an acid or base divided by the equivalence of H+ or OHit has per molecule

Gas Laws Boyles Law pressure is inversely proportional to volume P1V1 = P2V2 Charles Law Volume is directly proportional to temperature V1 / T 1 = V2 / T 2 Gay Lussacs Law pressure is directly proportional to temperature P1 / T1 = P2 / T2 Combined Gas Law P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT Where: P = pressure (atm/torr) V = volume (L) N = no. of moles R = 0.08205 liter *atm / mole*K or 62.4 liter*torr / mole*K (ideal gas constant) T = temperature (Kelvin)