OBSERVATION SHEET

Name : M.K.B.S.Munasinghe
Index No. : 090337U
Group : G8
Instructed by : Ms.Chenuka
Date : 01/03/2012

Line-Ground (L-G) fault

V
ao
= - 27.28 V I
ao
= 12 mA
V
a1
= 38.34 V I
a1
= 12 mA
V
a2
= - 10.75 V I
a2
= 12 mA

Line-Line (L-L) fault

V
a1
= 23.95 V I
a1
= + 26.5 mA
V
a2
= 23.84 V I
a2
= - 26.5 mA

Line-Line-Ground (L-L-G) fault

V
ao
= 19.85 V I
ao
= - 8.4 mA
V
a1
= 19.86 V I
a1
= + 31 mA
V
a2
= 19.87 V I
a2
= - 22 mA


Impedance readings

Z
1
= 1084
Z
2
= 897
Z
3
= 2471













THEORY
1. Importance of a fault study.
Power systems are frequently subjected to faulty conditions which may be due to insulation
failure or some natural disturbances or even human error. Under faulty conditions high currents
usually flow in the system which may lead to excessive heating of equipment and lines causing
further damage at the point of fault and throughout the system. Also these high currents may
cause large voltage drops which would disrupt the quality of power supply to other consumers.
Because of this faults must be isolated from the rest of the system as quickly as possible. Fault
analysis supply required information for this.
Also fault analysis of a power system is required in order to provide information for the selection
of protection equipment, switchgear, setting of relays and stability of system operation.
2. Analogue methods of studying the fault flow in a system

Symmetrical component method
In this method phase components are decomposed in to symmetrical sequence components zero
sequence, positive sequence and negative sequence. Usually used for symmetrical fault analysis.
Bus impedance or admittance method
This method is used for analysis of both symmetrical and asymmetrical faults. Here the bus bar
admittances are used for the analysis.
3. Using DC network analyzer

A network analyzer is an instrument that can be used to measures the network parameters of
electrical networks. It can be used to model and study symmetric and asymmetric faults in a
small scale by using positive, negative and zero sequence components. Alternators, transformers
with bus bars, transmission line sections and load sections can be separately modeled using this
and metering is possible using external meters.A multiplication factors is used to convert the
values in to real scale.
Asymmetrical faults study can be performed by symmetrical component method using the DC
network analyzer. For this first the three sequence networks have to be modeled according to
the given system. Per unit values multiplied by appropriate scale factor are used for modeling
in the range of DC network analyzer. DC power supply represents the generators in the network.
According to type of the fault the three independent sequence networks can be connected in
different configurations. Using metering equipments the values of current and voltage of
sequence components are measured and then by calculations the actual values can be obtained.
4. Importance of using sequence components

Unbalanced three phase systems can be decomposed into three balanced components, Positive
Sequence (balanced and having the same phase sequence as the unbalanced supply), Negative
Sequence (balanced and having the opposite phase sequence to the unbalanced supply) and Zero
Sequence (balanced but having the same phase and hence no phase sequence). These are
known as the Symmetrical Components or the Sequence Components.

+ +
a
b
c
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
0
c
0
b
0
Unbalanced system Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence






_
o
b
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
o
0
o
1
o
2
_ Where, = 1120
As knowledge of one sequence component directly gives the other related two components this
decomposing makes the analysis much easier.
5. The relationships between the sequence impedances for generators, transformers and
transmission lines.

Power system
component
Sequence Impedance values
Reasoning Positive
sequence
Negative
sequence
Zero
sequence
Transmission lines Z
1
= Z
2
= Z
0
No inherent direction
Transformers Z
1
= Z
2

Depend upon the
winding connection
and earthling
arrangement
No inherent direction but
zero sequence impedance
depends on earth path
Generators

Z
1
Z
2
Z
0

Has a inherent direction
due to rotation in one
direction

CALCULATIONS
1) Calculation of phase voltages and currents for the three types of faults using observed sequence
components of current and voltage.

MVA
3 base
= 40 MVA
Resistance multiplication factor = 4000
Simulation voltage/real voltage = 50V/132KV

Therefore,
Actuol Ioltogc = obscr:cJ:oltogc
13210
3
503
I
= obscr:cJ:oltogc 1S24.2u I

Z
base
=
(kv
LL
base)
2
NvA
S
base
=
132
2
40
= 4SS.6
Actuol currcnt = obscr:cJ currcnt _
13210
3
503
_
132
2
40

1
4000
_
= obscr:cJ currcnt 1S996.S7
Practical calculations

a) Single Line to Earth Fault (L-G Fault)


From observations, I
a1
=I
a2
=I
a0
= 12 mA therefore,
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
12
12
12
_
I
]
= I
u
= S I
ao
= S 12 mA
Therefore the actual fault currents are,
I
u
= S 12 1u
-3
1S996.S7 = SuS.87 A
I
b
= (1 + o
2
+ o) 12 = u
I
c
= (1 + o + o
2
) 12 = u
From the observations,
I
u1
= S8.S4I, I
u2
= -1u.7SI, I
u0
= -27.28 I
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
-27.28
+S8.S4
-1u.7S
_
Therefore the actual voltages are,
I
u
= (-27.28 + S8.S4 - 1u.7S) 1S24.2u = u.472S kv
I
b
= (-27.28 + S8.S4o
2
- 1u.7So) 264u
= (-27.28zu + S8.S4z24u - 1u.7Sz12u) 1S24.2u
= 9u.1u2z - 1S4.u1 kI
I
c
= (-27.28 + S8.S4o - 1u.7So
2
) 264u
= (-27.28zu + S8.S4z12u - 1u.7Sz24u) 1S24.2u
= 9u.1u2z1S4.u1 kI



b) Double Line to Earth Fault (L-L-G Fault)

From observations, I
a0
= -8.4 mA, I
a1
= 31 mA, I
a2
= - 22 mA therefore,
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
-8.4
+S1
-22
_
Therefore the actual fault currents are,
I
u
= (-8.4 + S1 - 22) 1u
-3
1S996.S7 = 8.S98 A
I
b
= (-8.4 + S1o
2
- 22o) 1u
-3
24242.4
= (-8.4zu + S1z24u - 22z12u) 1u
-3
1S996.S7
= 667.S1z - 1uS.698 A
I
c
= (-8.4 + S1o - 22o
2
) 1u
-3
41989.11
= (-8.4zu + S1z12u - 22z24u) 1u
-3
1S996.S7
= 667.S1z1uS.698 A
From the observations,
I
u0
= 19.8S I
u1
= 19.86 I
u2
= 19.87 Therefore,
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
19.8S
19.86
19.87
_
Therefore the actual voltages are,
I
u
= (19.8S + 19.86 + 19.87) 1S24.2u = 9u.811 kv
I
b
= (19.8S + 19.86o
2
+ 19.87o) 264u
= (19.8Szu + 19.86z24u + 19.87z12u) 1S24.2u
= u.u264z1Su kI
I
c
= (19.8S + 19.86o + 19.87o
2
) 264u
= (19.8Szu + 19.86z12u + 19.87z24u) 1S24.2u
= u.u264z - 1Su kI



c) Line to Line Fault (L-L Fault)

From observations, I
a0
= 0, I
a1
= 26.5 mA, I
a2
= - 26.5 mA therefore,
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
u
+26.S
-26.S
_
Therefore the actual fault currents are,
I
u
= (1 u + 1 26.S + 1 -26.S) 1u
-3
1S996.S7 = u A
I
b
= (u + 26.So
2
- 26.So) 1u
-3
24242.4
= (uzu + 26.Sz24u - 26.Sz12u) 1u
-3
1S996.S7
= 642.42z - 9u A
I
c
= (u +26.So - 26.So
2
) 1u
-3
24242.4
= (uzu + 26.Sz12u - 26.Sz24u) 1u
-3
1S996.S7
= 642.42z9u A
From the observations,
I
u0
= u I
u1
= 2S.9S I
u2
= 2S.84 Therefore,
_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
u
2S.9S
2S.84
_
Therefore the actual voltages are,
I
u
= (u +2S.9S + 2S.84) 1S24.2u = 72.842 kv
I
b
= (u + 2S.9S6o
2
+ 2S.84o) 264u
= (uzu + 2S.9Sz24u + 2S.84z12u) 1S24.2u
= S6.42z179.77 kI
I
c
= (u + 2S.9So + 2S.84o
2
) 264u
= (uzu + 2S.9Sz12u + 2S.84z24u) 1S24.2u
= S6.42z179.77 kI


2) Theoretical calculation of phase voltages and currents for the three types of faults

The given network is shown below. All values are in per unit with V
base
=132kV and
S
base
=40MVA.








Usually in large power systems the resistances of the transmission lines and machines are negligible
compared to their inductance values. Therefore calculations carried out below are done using only
the inductance components.
Positive sequence equivalent circuit

Negative sequence equivalent circuit

Zero sequence equivalent circuit

From the above equivalent circuit diagrams,
Z
1
= 0.2391 pu Z
2
= 0.2225 pu Z
0
= 0.6092 pu E
f
= 1 pu

Base current I
busc
=
vA
bcsc
v
bcsc
=
40MvA
1323kA
= u.1749 kA

Base impedance Z
busc
=
(v
bcsc
)
2
vA
bcsc
=
132
2
40MvA
= 4SS.6 0


a) Single Line to Earth Fault (L-G Fault)


Assuming that the fault impedance is zero and load currents are negligible,
I
u
= u I
b
= I
c
= u
_
I
u0
I
u1
I
u2
_ =
1
3
_
1 1 1
1 o o
2
1 o
2
o
_ _
I
u
I
b
= u
I
c
= u
_ This yield I
u0
= I
u1
= I
u2
=
I
c
3

_
I
u0
I
u1
I
u2
_ = _
u
E
]
u
_ - _
Z
0
u u
u Z
1
u
u u Z
2
_ _
I
u0
= I
u
S
I
u1
= I
u
S
I
u2
= I
u
S
_ I
]
= I
u
=
3L
]
z
0
+z
1
+z
2


Fault Current I
]
(pu) =
3L
]
z
0
+z
1
+z
2


I
]
(octuol) = I
]
(pu) I
busc


I
]
(octuol) =
S 1
u.2S91 + u.222S + u.6u92
u.1749 = u.49uu kA


I
u0
= I
u1
= I
u2
=
49u.uu
S
= 16S.SS A

From the matrix,
I
u0
= -Z
0
I
u0
= -(u.6u92 4SS.6) 16S.SS = -4S.S42 kI
I
u1
= E
]
- Z
1
I
u1
= 1S2uuu -(u.2S91 4SS.6) 16S.SS = S9.182 kI
I
u2
= -Z
2
I
u2
= -(u.222S 4SS.6) 16S.SS = -1S.8S kI

_
I
u
I
b
I
c
_ = _
1 1 1
1 o
2
o
1 o o
2
_ _
I
u0
I
u1
I
u2
_
Therefore the theoretical voltages are,
I
u
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
+I
u2
) = (-4S.S42 + S9.182 - 1S.8S) = u.uu9 kv
I
b
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
o
2
+I
u2
o)
= (-4S.S42zu + S9.182z24u - 1S.8Sz12u)
= 91.9S1z - 1SS.u2S kI
I
c
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
o+I
u2
o
2
)
= (-4S.S42zu + S9.182z12u - 1S.8Sz24u)
= 91.9S1z1SS.u2S kI
b) Double Line to Earth Fault (L-L-G Fault)



Assuming fault impedance and the load currents to be negligible, I
b
= I
c
= u& I
u
= u
Using the equivalent circuit diagram for the fault,


V
a1
= V
a2
= V
a



I
u1
=
E
]
(Z
0
Z
2
) + Z
1
=
1S2 1u
3
S
|u.2S91 + (u.6u92u.222S)] 4SS.6
= 4SS.1S A

I
u2
=
-(E
]
- Z
1
I
u1
)
Z
2
=
(1S2 1u
3
S - u.2S91 4SS.6 4SS.1S)
u.222S 4SS.6
= -S18.72 A

I
u0
=
-(E
]
- Z
1
I
u1
)
Z
0
=
(1S2 1u
3
S - u.2S91 4SS.6 4SS.1S)
u.6u92 4SS.6
= -116.41 A


I
u
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
+I
u2
) = SI
u1
= S (E
]
- Z
1
I
u1
)
= S (1S2 1u
3
S - u.2S91 4SS.6 7SS.66)
= 92.672 kI
I
a1
+ I
a2
+ I
a
=

I
b
= (I
a0
+ I
a1
o
2
+ I
a2
o)
= (-116.41zu + 4SS.1Sz24u - S18.72z12u)
= 67S.8uz - 1u4.97 A
I
C
= (I
a0
+ I
u1
o + I
a2
o
2
)
= (-116.41zu + 4SS.72z12u - S18.72z24u)
= 67S.8uz1u4.97 A

c) Line to Line Fault (L-L Fault)


Assuming zero impedance and negligible load currents, I
b
= I
c
I
u
= u&I
u2
= -I
u1

Using the equivalent circuit diagram for the fault,

I
u0
= u

I
u1
=
E
]
Z
2
+ Z
1
=
1S2 1u
3
S
|u.2S91 + u.222S] 4SS.6
= S79.u2 A

I
u2
= -I
u1
= -S79.u2 A
I
u1
= I
u2
= -I
u2
Z
u2
= S79.u2 4SS.6 u.222S = S6.7SS kI
As I
u0
= u, I
u0
= u
I
u
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
+I
u2
) = u + S6.7SS + S6.7SS = 7S.47 kI
I
b
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
o
2
+I
u2
o) = uzu + S6.7SSz24u + S6.7SSz12u = S6.7SS z18ukI
I
c
= I
b
= S6.7SSz18ukI

I
b
= (I
u0
+ I
u1
o
2
+ I
u2
o) = uzu + S79.u2z24u - S79.u2z12u = 6S6.48 z - 9uA
I
c
= -I
b
= -6S6.48 z - 9uA = 6S6.48 z9uA




RESULTS
1. Comparison of theoretical results with results obtained through the practical using DC network
analyzer.

Type of
fault
Values
Fault current(A) Fault voltage(kV)
I
a
I
b
I
c
V
a
V
b
V
c

L-G
Practical
1511.61
0
0 0
0.4725
0
90.102
-134.01
90.102
134.01
Theoretical
503.87
0
0 0
0.009
0
91.931
-135.03
91.931
135.03
L-L-G
Practical
8.398
0
667.31
-105.70
667.31
105.70
90.811
0
0.0264
150
0.0264
-150
Theoretical 0
675.80
-104.97
675.80
90
92.672
0
0 0
L-L
Practical 0
642.42
-90
642.42
90
72.842
0
36.42
179.77
36.42
179.77
Theoretical 0
656.48
-90
656.48
90
73.47
0
36.735
180
36.735
180







DISCUSSION
1. Assumptions made in a fault study and their validity.

All the sources in the system under consideration are assumed to be balanced and equal in
magnitude and phase. Although slight differences magnitude and phase may be present
between different source voltages that does nothave a major effect on the results of the
calculations.
When analyzing the fault,Sources that are connected to the system are represented by the
Thevenins equivalent voltage prior to fault at the fault point.
Large systems are usually represented by infinite bus bars.The effect from a small system to
a much larger scale system, on to which the smaller system is connected, is very small.
Therefore this assumption is valid for all practical purposes
Transformers are assumed to be on the nominal tap position. But if any tap changing
transformers are present, the actual transformer impedance values of those transformers may
be different from the values used for calculations. This may have a effect on the accuracy of
the calculations.
Resistances are usually assumed to be negligible compared to reactance.But when resistance
values too are significant, like in the system used for this experiment, neglecting those
values may have negative effect on the accuracy and usefulness of the calculations.
Transmission lines are assumed to be fully transposed so that all three phase have the same
impedance. But three can be small differences if the transmission lines are not transposed or
if the spacing between conductors is uneven.This would change the line inductances which
would eventually lead to errors in the calculations.
Loads currents are negligible compared to fault currents. Depending upon the fault level of
the point the fault current may vary in kA range. But compared with load currents (in
ampere range) this is hundreds of times larger. So there is no significant effect to the final
result by ignoring load currents.
Line charging currents can be completely neglected. As line charging currents are small
compared to load current, ignoring line charging currents will not have a significant effect
on the final results.

2. State the reasons for the deviation of practical results and theoretical results.

The resistance values which were set on the DC network analyzer were not exactly the same
as the values used for calculations.
Some assumptions made above may not hold true for the experiment.
Resistance values of connecting wires and joints were not taken in to consideration.
Observer errors

3. Practical problems encountered during the experiment and state the steps you have taken to
avoid them

Not many problems were encountered in the experiment. Only the resistor values of the DC
analyzer posed a problem as a result of un availability of fine tunable resistors. This was
overcome by selecting suitable the resistor combinations to approximate the needed values
as close as possible.