Effects of Air Pollution

Part I Air Pollution : - Effects Of Pollutants And Public Policy Concern

2103555 Engine and Emissions Control

Effects of Air Pollution

One of the difficulties in coping with the air pollution lies in the variety of its effects on people. A farmer is most interested in its effects on his crops; A house will complain that dirt and soot soil clothing and furniture; A traveler, may be inconvenienced by low atmospheric visibility; A large segment of general public is concerned with the possible health effects of polluted air. The five most common effects of air pollution are; (i) Reduction in visibility (ii) Economic damage to property (iii) Annoyance to human senses (iv) Damage to health (v) Substantive changes in the ecology of the natural environment

Effects of Air Pollution: Limited Visibility

Restriction of visibility is the most widely noticed and probably least understood of all effects of air pollution. Smoke and dust clouds that are sufficiently dense to darken the sky will obviously limit visibility. Public objection to reduced visibility stems from two factors,
transportation hazards and delays and aesthetic considerations.

The blotting of the horizon in a smoke filled valley can well discourage tourist trade and reduce its land value. Eventually the problem must be faced on a cost benefit basis.

Effects of Air Pollution: Economic Damage to Property

Air pollution damage to property includes damage to materials, vegetation and animals as well as interference with production and services. Air pollution damages materials chiefly by corrosion of metals, presumably from acidic pollutants in atmospheres. The most important pollutant is sulphur dioxide, SO2, which is released in great quantities by the combustion of sulphur containing fuels. In the presence of oxygen SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3, which in turn combines with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid. Deposition of this acid on metal parts of equipment, building roofs results in considerable loss in most urban communities. Hydrogen Fluoride (h2F2) and Hydrochloride (HCl) will also react with water vapour to form highly corrosive droplets of fog.

Effects of Air Pollution: Economic Damage to Property

Another form of property damage is the 'rubber cracking'. Principal areas are the sidewalls of tyres and various forms of electrical insulation. This damage is caused by high ozone content in the atmospheric air. Hydrogen sulphide is a common cause for the damage to the painted surfaces by reaction with the lead in paints. Temporary damage results from the soiling of surfaces by smoke, soot and dust fall. Losses most commonly encountered are the additional cost of laundering, cleaning and redecorating the buildings.

Effects of Air Pollution: Economic Damage to Property

The pollutants like SO2, H2, F, Cl2, HCl, oxides of nitrogen, H2S, NH3, Hydrogen Cyanide, Mercury vapour, Ethylene etc, commonly cause vegetation damage. The nature of damage varies with the toxicant, usually in the form of chlorotic marking (disappearance of green colour), silvering or bronzing of the underside of the leaf, leading to death of the plant in extreme cases. The extent of damage to an individual plant also depends on many factors, e.g., the pollutant, type of soil, relative humidity, amount and type of plant food available, stage of growth, pollutant concentration, time of exposure and amount of light.

Effects of Air Pollution: Economic Damage to Property

The effect of pollution on animals is the damage caused to them by grazing in areas where grasses are contaminated by fluoride dusts or have absorbed fluoride compounds from the atmosphere. The chief effect of ingested fluorides on animals is fluorosis, an accumulation of fluoride in the bone structure of the animal leading to weight loss and lameness.

Effects of Air Pollution: Economic Damage to Property

Interference with production and services includes a variety of secondary effects occasioned primarily by other air pollution effects. Automobile and air traffic delays caused by poor visibility and a general lethargy in human activities because of depressing nature of some effects. Related interference to services of more direct economic consequence is loss of retail trade, loss of tourist trade and reduction in land and improvement values.

Effects of Air Pollution: Annoyance to senses of people

This category, of air pollution effects includes a multitude of reactions that can be generally divided into two classes; (a) Eye, nose and throat irritation (b) Odours When a known irritant escapes into the atmosphere it is easy to relate the cause and effect. Some times a mixture of unknown composition and unsuspected irritability is released into atmosphere and carried away by air. It is difficult to trace such a source. Nose and throat irritation have been often reported as effects of air pollution. Odour is also a subjective response of people and is more difficult to define than eye irritation. This is particularly true because an odour objectionable to one person may be pleasing to another.

Effects of Air Pollution: Annoyance to senses of people

Two forms of atmospheric eye irritation are recognized: (1) The emission of an irritating substance, such as tear gas, into the atmosphere, (2) The formation of an eye irritant in the atmosphere by reaction of otherwise non-irritating pollutant. The second type of eye irritants, those caused by atmospheric reactions, are becoming a major problem in urban communities. The photochemical reactions between certain organic materials and nitrogen dioxde, NO2, chiefly from automobile exhaust, have been shown to be responsible for the high incidence of irritation. Formaldehyde, acrolein and paroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) are the products of atmospheric photochemical reaction.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

Air is necessary for the survival of man and there is no such thing as absolutely pure or clean air, nor is there any such thing as an absolutely safe contaminant. At some concentration in air any gas or aerosol will damage health. The specific concentration at which a contaminant will damage health depends upon how the word health is defined, the nature of contaminant, the length of time the air containing the specific pollutant is breathed or in contact with the receptor, and the state of health of the receptor. The state of health of a receptor is a highly important variable. Health is defined (WHO) as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. A further complication is the subjective nature of health, which is the reason for the emotion approach to matters concerning air pollution.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

There are certain factors that appear to be incontestable. People have died as a result of polluted air as evidenced by several air pollution episodes in London, Donora and other places. Mandy of these people many not have died as a direct result of air pollution but air pollution was a contributing factor. There is a concentration or a dosage of specific air pollutants, which evokes various physiological responses from receptors. Certain contributions of atmospheric pollutants aggravate the symptoms of chronic pulmonary disease and possibly other diseases. Some pollutants irritate sensitive membranes, those of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs particularly, but the irritation varies greatly from one person to another. Health effects that may be caused or aggravated by overcrowding, occupation, working conditions, nutrition, habits (such as smoking, climate and other variable. It is probable but not proved conclusively that mixture of pollutants will affect some people more than would be predicted by the additive effects of individual pollutants.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

The three common means for determining the effects of various concentrations and dosages of pollutants on people are; (i) Experimental exposures of men and animals under controlled conditions to various concentrations and dosages. (ii) Clinical Studies involve observations made on subjects who are or were exposed to atmospheric pollutants under controlled conditions. (iii) Epidemiological studies for relationships between the distribution of specific diseases in human population and the factors that determine the distribution.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

(i) Experimental exposures of men and animals under controlled conditions to various concentrations and dosages. Like all biological studies, the results must be subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. Experimental exposures of human beings must be limited to low concentrations that will not result in serious illness. Types of effects noticed and measured are detection of odor, eye-nose-throat irritation, variation in lung capacity, breathing frequency, pulse rate, reduction in physical activity, darkness adaptation and many other physiological responses.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

(ii) Clinical Studies predominantly involve observations made on subjects who are or were exposed to atmospheric pollutants under controlled conditions. Patients visiting physicians to complain of symptoms supposedly caused by living in polluted areas may upon observation yield clinical data of importance. Studies on downtown traffic police, truck drivers and other occupational groups may yield valuable information.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

(iii) In Epidemiological studies for relationships between the distribution of specific diseases in human population and the factors that determine the distribution. Many compare mortality records, hospital admissions, morbidity (illness) records, absenteeism and other health related data from several geographical areas with levels of atmospheric pollutants in the same area to determine if significant correlation may be discovered. To avoid misinterpretation, population under study must be carefully screened for smoking habits, occupational exposures etc. that might prejudice the results of the study.

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health Special Health Effects

Chronic pulmonary diseases (bronchitis, asthma, emphysema) is aggravated by sufficiently high concentrations of SO2, NO2, Particulates and photochemical smog (ii) It has been difficult to relate atmospheric pollution to lung cancer, unlike the more convincing relationship between heavy cigarette smoking and lung cancer. (iii) Cardiovascular diseases are related to pollutants in that any pollutant placing sufficient stress on the pulmonary function may affect the heart. (iv) Carbon monoxide ties up the haemoglobin in the blood to a sufficient amount to put added stress on those suffering from cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. (v) Photochemical smog irritates the eyes but apparently does not damage them. Persons with pulmonary diseases may suffer aggravation of symptoms. (vi) A variety of particulates, particularly pollens, irritate asthmatic attacks. (vii) Various gases, e.g., H2S and ammonia have noticeable odours at low concentrations. (viii) Certain heavy metals, e.g., lead may enter the body through the lungs and accumulate in the bones and various tissues. In the case of lead, however, the amounts which enter the body by way of food and drink are more important. (i)

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

Summary of Health Effects for Criteria Pollutants
Criteria CO NO2 Pollutant Health Effects O3 (Ground level) Reduces O2 delivery to tissue & organs cardiovascular disease sufferers at risk Higher levels see Figure 4 Short-term (<3 hrs.) exposure to current NO2 concentrations may lead to changes in airway responsiveness and lung function in individuals with pre-existing respiratory illnesses May lead to increases in respiratory diseases in children (5-12 yrs. old) Short-term (1-3 hrs.) and prolonged (6-8 hrs.) exposures linked to increased hospital admissions and ER visits for respiratory causes. Repeated exposure (a) increases susceptibility to respiratory infection (b) results in lung inflammation, and (c) aggravates pre-existing diseases such as asthma Significant decreases in lung function, particularly during exercise. Increased incidence of respiratory symptoms such as chest pain & coughing. Long-term exposure at moderate levels may cause irreversible changes in the lung leading to pre-mature aging of lungs and/or chronic respiratory illnesses. Coarse particles (PM10) aggravate respiratory conditions such as asthma. Fine particles (PM2.5) are associated with: (a) increased hospital admissions & ER visits for heart & lung disease (b) increased respiratory systems and disease (c) decreased lung function, and (d) premature death Temporary breathing impairment for asthmatics. Contributes to same symptoms as PM2.5 above

PM10 and PM2.5

SO2

Effects of Air Pollution: Damage to health

Summary of Health Effects for Criteria Pollutants

Figure 4 Effects of CO exposure on human.

Effects of Air Pollution: Ecosystem Changes Some effects of pollutants may occur far from the site at which they are emitted and may induce changes in the environment.
For example, storms, cloud formations, and increased rainfall in areas downwind from large pollution sources. Beyond these changes in regional environmental systems, other evidence suggests that man caused pollution discharges may now be leading to ultimate changes in global weather patterns and to other alterations in the planetary ecological system.