CM121A, Introduction to Abstract Algebra

Solution Sheet 3

Solutions to problems 1-4 from exercise sheet 3:

1. Determine whether each of the following binary operations is commutative and/or associative: (a) on R dened by x y = xy + 1; Solution: COMMUTATIVE since x y = xy + 1 and y x = yx + 1, so x y = y x for all x, y R. NOT ASSOCIATIVE since (x y) z = (xy + 1) z = (xy + 1)z + 1 = xyz + z + 1, x (y z) = x (yz + 1) = x(yz + 1) + 1 = xyz + x + 1. but

These might not be the same; take for example x = y = 0, z = 1, so (x y) z = 2, but x (y z) = 1. (b) on R dened by x y = x + y + 1; Solution: COMMUTATIVE since xy = x+y +1 = y +x+1 = y x for all x, y R. ASSOCIATIVE since (xy)z = (x+y +1)z = (x+y +1)+z +1 = x + y + z + 2, and similarly x (y z) = x (y + z + 1) = x + y + z + 2, so (x y) z = x (y z) for all x, y, z R. (c) (composition) on the set of functions from Z to Z; Solution: NOT COMMUTATIVE; take for example the functions f : Z Z and g : Z Z dened by f (a) = a + 1, g(a) = 2a. Then (f g)(a) = f (g(a)) = f (2a) = 2a + 1, but (g f )(a) = g(f (a)) = g(a + 1) = 2(a + 1) = 2a + 2. ASSOCIATIVE; we saw in general (end of Section 3.2) that h (g f ) = (h g) f . (d) + on the set of functions from Z to Z (if f : Z Z and g : Z Z are functions, then f + g is the function from Z to Z dened by (f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a) for a Z); Solution: COMMUTATIVE since (f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a) = g(a) + f (a) = (g + f )(a) for all a Z, so f + g = g + f for all functions f, g : Z Z. ASSOCIATIVE since ((f + g) + h)(a) = (f + g)(a) + h(a) = f (a) + g(a) + h(a) = f (a) + (g + h)(a) = (f + (g + h))(a)

for all a Z, so (f + g) + h = f + (g + h). (e) + (vector addition) on R3 ; Solution: COMMUTATIVE since the formula x x x x x+x y + y = y+y = y + y z z z+z z z shows that v + v = v + v for all v, v R3 . ASSOCIATIVE since the formula x x x y + y + y = z z z x x x = y + y + y z z z

x+x +x y+y +y z + z +z ,

shows that (v + v ) + v = v + (v + v ) for all v, v , v R3 .

 x x (f) (cross product) on R3 (recall y y = z z Solution: NOT COMMUTATIVE; recall that v v all v, v 3 . Taking any v such that v v is R v, 1 0 v = 0 and v = 1 gives v v = v v. 0 0 NOT ASSOCIATIVE; taking for example 1 0 v = v = 0 , v = 1 0 0 gives (v v ) v = 0 = v (v v ).

yz zy zx xz ). xy yx = v v for non-zero, e.g.,

2. Suppose that is a binary operation on a set S. We say e S is a left identity for if e a = a for all a S. Similarly, we say e S is a right identity for if a e = a for all a S. (So an identity element for is one which is both a left identity and a right identity.) (a) Prove that if e is a left identity for and e is a right identity for , then e = e (and so e is in fact an identity element). Solution: We have e = ee = e , where the rst equality holds since e is a left identity for and the second since e is a right identity for . (b) Give an example of a set S with a binary operation for which there is no left identity or right identity. Solution: Let S = N with the operation +. (c) Give an example of an S and with more than one right identity. Solution: Let S be any set with more than one element (Z for example) and dene a b = a for all a, b S. Then every element of S is a right identity, but none are left identities. 3. Suppose that is a binary operation on a set S with an identity element e. If a, b S are such that a b = e, then we say a is a left inverse of b and b is a right inverse of a. Let S denote the set of functions from Z to Z with the operation of (composition). (a) Show that the function f dened by f (x) = x is an identity element for . Solution: If g S, then (f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = g(x) and (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x) for all x R. So f g = g f = g, showing that f is an identity element. (b) Find a function in S that has a left inverse, but no right inverse. Solution: Let g(x) = 2x. A left inverse for g is a function h : Z Z such that h(g(x)) = f (x) = x for all x Z. The function h(x) = x/2, if x is even, (x 1)/2, if x is odd.

has this property. A right inverse for g would be a function j : Z Z such that g(j(x)) = x for all x Z. This means that 2j(x) = x for all x Z. But since j(x) Z, this is only possible if 2j(x) is even. Therefore g has no right inverse. (c) Is the left inverse in your example unique? Solution: No, we could have dened h(x) however we liked for x odd, and it would still be a left inverse for g. Remark: The answer would be no for similar reasons in whatever example you come up with. Well see why later. 4. Suppose that a, b, c, d Z and m, n N. Prove the following:

(a) If a b mod n and c d mod n, then a c b d mod n. Solution 1: If a b mod n and c d mod n, then a = b + sn and c = d + tn for some s, t Z. Therefore a c = b + sn (d + tn) = b + d + (s t)n, so a c b d mod n. Solution 2: We use the analogous statements for sums and products proved in lecture (Prop. 3.3.4). If c d mod n, then 1 c 1 d mod n since 1 1 mod n. If also a b mod n, then a + (1) c b + (1) d mod n, so a c b d mod n. (b) If a b mod n and m|n, then a b mod m. Solution: If a b mod n then n|(a b), and since m|n it follows that m|(a b), which means that a b mod n. (c) If a b mod n, then am bm mod n. Solution: Suppose that a b mod n. We prove that am bm mod n by induction on m. If m = 1, this says a b mod n, which is what we assumed, so there is nothing to prove. Suppose that m > 1 and assume that am1 bm1 mod n. Let c = am1 and d = bm1 . By Prop. 3.3.4, ac bd mod n, so am bm mod n.