Running head: SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

Secure Attachment is the Ideal Form of Attachment Regardless of Culture

Jae Stainsby School of Health and Human Sciences CQUniversity Australia

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE Abstract Studies involving John Bowlbys attachment theory have not only provided support for the

theory but also provided a plethora of empirical evidence as to the cross-cultural validity of the theory. It is not possible to be absolutely certain of a theorys validity under all circumstances or in this instance cultures, but the evidence generally supports this notion. Arguments relating to ethnocentrism of attachment theories have been addressed with studies based on Eastern cultures providing more supporting evidence. Studies conducted on participants from Eastern cultures have found the three types of attachment secure, anxious-avoidant and anxiousresistant to be applicable to these cultures also. Adult studies have shown that secure attachment is the most ideal form of attachment and supports healthy psychological functioning and the most adaptability when faced with unfamiliar or difficult environments.

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE Secure Attachment is the Ideal Form of Attachment Regardless of Culture

Attachment theory according to Bowlby states that attachment is "any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived of as better able to cope with the world (Bowlby, 1988, cited in Silverman, 1994, para. 3). It is difficult to generalise about any theory regarding every culture, but there is evidence to suggest that secure attachment is a consistent phenomenon found in many societies. Critics of the term secure attachment dispute the universality of the phenomenon by stating that it is a Western concept which cannot be generalised to many Eastern cultures. While the idea may have been theorised in a Western society, a multitude of studies have been conducted to prove otherwise. The three types of attachment, secure, anxious-avoidant and anxious resistant, have been shown to be valid in both Eastern and Western cultures. Eastern and Western cultures tend to differ significantly on the collectivism versus individualism scale which is the reason so many studies aim to look at the differences and similarities between the two culture types. Many supporters of the concept of secure attachment as the ideal form of attachment show that although some of the behaviours originally associated with this form of attachment are not cross-cultural, the underlying adaptability of those deemed securely attached remains universal. Adult studies on attachment have shown to support the relationship between secure attachment and adaptability. According to John Bowlbys attachment theory the role of the primary caregiver is as a secure base from which a child can discover and study their environment (Posada & Jacobs, 2001). The type of attachment a child develops is affected by the primary caregivers warmth and responsiveness during early development, (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978, cited in Pierrehumbert et al., 2009). Attachment theory assumes that a relationship with a warm and sensitive mother will enable a child to develop a secure attachment relationship and subsequent socio-emotional competence (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby,

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE 1969, cited in Carlson & Harwood, 2003, p. 54). This first relationship is considered the foundation for the development of expectations for future social and intimate relationships.

Mary Ainsworth coined the term secure attachment in 1967 after a study in Uganda where she noticed children do not always stay close to the mothers but rather make little excursions away from her, exploring other objects and interacting with other people, but returning to the mother from time to time" (cited in Posada & Jacobs, 2001, p821). According to the MacArthur classification system there are three types of attachment styles they are secure, anxiousavoidant and anxious-resistant (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978, cited in Posada, 2004). It is hypothesized that secure attachment forms when caregivers are perceived to be accessible and reactive, while anxious or avoidant styles develop when caregivers are considered either inconsistently reactive or accessible and not reactive (Van Oudenhoven & Hofstra, 2006). Posada, Jacobs and Richmond (2002) conducted a study using participants from the United States and South America which concluded that the link between quality of infant care and security holds in various cultural environments. In many studies these attachment styles are evaluated using MacArthurs strange situation procedure (Posada, 2006). This method assesses an infants behavior when looking for contact and intimacy with their mother as well as their behavior while exploring surroundings in a strange situation. In strange situation studies, children with secure attachment show distress when separated from their caregiver but are easily consoled when the caregiver returns. (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978, cited in Connors, 2011). Anxious-resistant types appear to be preoccupied with their mothers when they are present and show the greatest distress when separated, displaying anger or intense need for closeness when reunited (Connors, 2011). Children displaying the anxious-avoidant attachment style show no reaction to separation from their mother, often interacting just as happily with a stranger as with their mothers, these infants also tend to ignore their mothers when they return (Connors,

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

2011). Results from previous studies indicate that the secure-base phenomenon is common to children from different cultures and socioeconomic contexts (e.g., Ainsworth, 1967; Anderson, 1972; Posada, Gao, et al., 1995, cited in Posada et al., 2002 p. 67). Studies involving attachment theory have been accused of ethnocentrism arguing that most studies have been conducted by researchers from western cultures using Western concepts, therefore biasing the outcome of attachments studies to be in line with researchers expectations (Rothbaum, Kakinuma, Nagaoka, & Azuma, 2007). Rothbaum et al. states that many of these studies relied on Western measures, were conducted by Western investigators, and failed to consider indigenous constructs that would enrich the cultural understanding of attachment (2007, p. 466). As the term secure attachment was originally coined by Ainsworth (1967, cited in Posada & Jacobs, 2001) after studying families in a rural community in Uganda (a non-Western society), this statement by Rothbaum et al. appears to be inconsistent with the very foundation of secure attachment. Nevertheless, in an attempt to find support that attachment theories can be generalised to Eastern cultures Rothbaum, Kakinuma Nagaoka & Azuma (2007) examined the Japanese concept amae which they found to be closely associated with attachment, arguing that Japanese lay people tend to associate amae with securely attached children (Yamaguchi, 2004, p. 32, cited in Rothbaum, Kakinuma, Nagaoka, & Azuma, 2007). Rothbaum et al. admit that amae is a complex concept which is difficult to translate into English but describe it as referring to a childs expectation of indulgence and interdependence (2007, p. 467). Another study conducted by Posada and Jacobs across seven different countries from varying socioeconomic backgrounds found the behaviours displayed as part of secure attachment vary among cultures but the phenomenon is universal (Posada & Jacobs, 2001). Cultural groups which differ along the collective versus individualistic continuum also differ in parenting behaviors, and ideal child outcomes (Carlson & Harwood, 2003).

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

Individualistic societies place high value on behaviours which foster self-confidence, individual achievement, and independence, whereas collectivistic societies emphasise social responsibilities, personal dignity, and respect for others (Bekker, Arends-Tth & Croon, 2011). Children from individualistic societies tend to be raised by nuclear family members while many collectivistic cultures tend to involve extended family members in the upbringing of children, although in many of these collectivist societies the childs mother is still the primary caregiver (Guilamo-Ramos et al, 2007). A further criticism of cross-cultural studies on attachment is the focus on the motherchild relationship. Many tribal cultures share the responsibility of the primary caregiver. Attachment theories are usually centred on the relationship between mother/primary caregiver and child. While many cultures raise children communally where there is less emphasis on the primary caregiver it has been shown that children still idealise their mother as the attachment figure (Tronick, Morelli & Ivey, 1992). Research conducted by Tronick, Morelli & Ivey (1992), found that infants of the Efe tribe of Zaire spent more than 50% of their time with individuals other than their mother and by the age of three this figure rose to 70%. Their research found that despite the limited time spent with their mothers they were still the primary attachment figure by six months of age. This research involving the Efe tribe provides further evidence supporting the theory that attachment theory generalises to non-Western cultures (Tronick, Morelli & Ivey, 1992). Secure attachments are associated with lower levels of anxiety, anger and psychological defensiveness later in life making it the most adaptive form of attachment in terms of future psychological health regardless of culture (Colin, 1995). Adult studies on attachment styles show that securely attached individuals fair better when posed with new challenges such as transition to university from high school (Ames et al., 2011). Studies have shown that students with secure attachment styles performed better academically than their

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

insecure counterparts. Secure attachment also helped students to cope in group settings (Rice, Fitzgerald, Whaley, & Gibbs, 1995 & Rom & Mikulincer, 2003, cited in Ames et al., 2001). Other studies focusing on adult attachment styles have found that adults classified as securely attached were better equipped to adapt and assimilate into a new culture when immigrating to another country (Polek, Whrle & Van Oudenhoven, 2010). The study conducted by Polek, Whrle & Van Oudenhoven found that secure attachment induces optimal behavioral and emotional patterns, which are crucial for individuals to experience positive interpersonal interaction(2010, p. 64). They also stated that participants scoring highly in secure attachment view others as more trustworthy and dependable, therefore increasing their ability to make social contacts (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991, cited in Polek, Whrle & Van Oudenhoven, 2010). With the world changing at such a rapid pace and many societies becoming increasingly multicultural, being equipped to adapt to the changing environments is more important than ever. Secure attachment styles appear to support this adaption more than any other form of attachment. There is limited research, if any conducted by researchers from Eastern societies using Eastern concepts. Further studies into Eastern perceptions of attachment, similar to the idea of amae would provide further empirical evidence as to the soundness of attachment theorys universality. A study based around the concept of amae by a Japanese researcher or using a theory specifically based on amae with a Western society participant base would bring a new perspective to the field of attachment research and provide strong evidence as to whether secure attachment or its equivalent is in fact cross-cultural. While more research needs to be conducted to include other cultures the evidence so far suggests that secure attachment is a universal concept and is the ideal form of attachment based on which attachment style is most adaptable. With the modern world changing so quickly it is important to ensure people of all cultures are equipped to deal with this change. This leads to

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

many researchers suggesting changing the terms secure and insecure attachments to adaptive attachment and maladaptive attachment respectively. Possible future directions for research may be the incorporation of research on attachment using Eastern concepts of relatedness conducted by researchers of non-Western descent. Further studys similar to the one conducted by Tronick, Morelli and Ivey into the applicability of Bowlbys theory with tribal communities is also needed. Such studies will provide a stronger evidence base for the notion of the motherchild attachment relationship in cultures where children are raised communally.

SECURE ATTACHMENT IS IDEAL REGARDLESS OF CULTURE

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Silverman, D.K., (1994). Attachment Themes: Empirical Work, Analytic Implications, and Future Directions. Bulletin of the Psychoanalytic Research Society, 3(1), retrieved from http://www.columbia.edu/~hc137/prs/v3n1/v3n1!4.htm Tronick, E. Z., Morelli, G. A., & Ivey, P. K. (1992). The Efe forager infant and toddler's pattern of social relationships: Multiple and simultaneous. Developmental Psychology, 28(4), 568-577. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.568 Van Oudenhoven, J., & Hofstra, J. (2006). Personal reactions to 'strange' situations: Attachment styles and acculturation attitudes of immigrants and majority members. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30(6), 783-798. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.05.005