1 Geometric Period

Around 900 B.C., classical Greek culture began forming with the development of the alphabet and political system. During this time, Greek artwork emerged, with the majority being sculptures of some sort. Small bronze figurines were commonly produced. Artists frequently painted scenes on large vessels that focused on funerary rituals, as well as the hero warriors of the day. Geometric images can be hard to interpret, according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, because of the lack of inscriptions and identifying attributes.

Archaic Period

At the beginning of the seventh century B.C.---the inception of the Archaic Period---Greek artwork began to change. Instead of the geometric patterns popular in previous centuries, artists began engaging in jewelry-making, metal-working and gem-cutting, influenced by foreign styles of the Near East and Egypt. Additionally, pictoral motifs of animal hunts, griffins, sphinxes and sirens began to appear. The Archaic Period lasted 200 years, during which time sculptures were still prevalent. During the sixth century B.C., human sculptures became more natural and freestanding, and larger pieces became the norm. Eventually, artists began depicting the country's myths and customs through their artwork, which led the way to the Classical Period.

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Classical Period

The "golden age" of Greek art, the Classical Period was characterized by expression, movement and celebration of humankind. Human anatomy was fully represented in stone or bronze. While bronze sculptures were a major art form during this period, not many still exist. In addition to sculptures, many works of architecture were completed during the Classical Period, such as the Parthenon of Athens. Within the Parthenon are sculptural representations of mythological figures. The Classical Period lasted from approximately 380 B.C. to 323 B.C.

Hellenistic Period

Beginning in 330 B.C. with the conquests and ultimate death of Alexander the Great, Greek artwork underwent a final transformation into the Hellenistic Period, which lasted until 31 B.C.. Pieces focused on dramatic posing and contrasts of shadows and light. This is best shown in Winged Victory of Samothrace, now stationed in the Louvre in Paris. An even higher degree of naturalism came into play with the works of fourth-century sculptors such as Lysipos and Skopas.

This period of artwork leans toward more violence and intensty, with groups of mythical subjects engaged in violence. An example of this style is the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamum.

Read more: What Are the Different Periods of Greek Art? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_6400430_different-periods-greek-art_.html#ixzz24JePbFlU

Subtractive
Subtractive sculpture is the oldest form of sculpture and involves removing material, as in wood carving or stone sculpture, to create a finished work. Subtractive sculpture is by far the most technically difficult and due to the nature of the medium is the most restrictive in expression. Early Egyptian and Greek sculpture prior to the Golden age of the 5th century BC were all similar in their frontal, stiff, and formal composition, which were dictated by the limitations of the medium. Eventually stone artists began to compose their sculpture first in clay and then used a variety of mechanical devices to transfer the three dimensional coordinates of the clay surface to a block of stone. In this way, stone subtractive sculptures of the Roman era began to take on a new mobility and grace. Another reason the Roman Marbles were more expressive than their earlier Greek counterparts is that many were copies of Greek bronzes; bronzes which were created without the limitations of stone. During the Renaissance, the greatest stone sculptor ever known, Michelangelo, created his works first in clay. The clay would next be cast in plaster and a three dimensional pointing device would be used by a staff of assistants to transfer the dimensions to a block of marble; countless hours would then be spent drilling into the marble in thousands of spots to the proper depth required by the pointing device. The raw shaped marble was finally finished by the hand of the master himself. Only in Michelangelo's last few years of life did he began the incredible feat of actually carving figures directly out of stone without the aid of a preliminary work and pointing devices. The greatest drawback of subtractive sculpture is in the excessive demand of time and the one of a kind results. Editions are not an option, so today it would be difficult for any artist to make even a meager living dealing exclusively with stone. Another limitation of stone subtractive sculpture is the relative fragility of the stone itself. This particular limitation prevents the artist from creating open compositions with outstretched arms or legs. This necessity for tight composition led Michelangelo to explain that a well composed marble figure could be rolled downhill without anything breaking off.

Additive
Additive sculpture describes all other forms of sculpture and the process most commonly used today. Simply put, additive sculpture is the process of creating sculpture by adding

material to create the work. Although artists have worked in every medium from butter to cement, the most common material is typically wax or clay which is modeled by the artist to create the form desired. The term "modeling" is used interchangeably with the word "sculpting" to describe additive sculpture, especially appropriate when dealing with clay. Unlike the finality of each step in the subtractive process, clay can be removed as easily as it is added, which affords the artist the unlimited ability to keep working until the final product "looks right." This flexibility allows the artist great freedom, expression, and experimentation. Once a sculpture is "modeled" the artist will create a mold and cast the work in a more permanent material such as bronze. It was the additive modeling process that allowed the Greek artists of the Golden era of the 5th century B.C. to make a huge leap forward from the stiff subtractive stone poses to a new fluid grace found in later Greek bronzes.

THE HISTORY of the SPANISH ARCHITECTURE

PRESENTATION ROMAN MUDEJAR ISLAMIC NEOCLASSIC PREHISTORIC PRERROMANIC CISTERCIAN RENAISSANCE MODERNIST PROTOHISTORIC ROMANIC GOTHIC BAROQUE CONTEMPORARY

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

PRESENTATION

RELIGIOUS ARCHIT.

URBAN ARCHIT.

PUBLIC SPECTACLES A. COMMEMORATIVE BUILDINGS WORKS of ENGINEERING

BUILDINGS FOR PUBLIC SPECTACLES

A numerous and widespread population, now concentrated in big towns, asked for new entertainments and play activities. Spectacles would be used for the greatest glory of Roman leaders and gods. Big buildings were constructed in order to get it. They could house a great number of spectators. Indeed, increasing importance of arts, as theatre or "sport" asked a new kind of building for its practice and performance. That is why theatres, amphitheatres and circus were constructed. Rules concerning architectural design of elements and proportions for these buildings were written in a very important work: "De architectura" by Roman architect and engineer Vitrubius who lived during August age.

1.- Roman Theatre.

Though its origin is Greek, Roman Theatre has got asemicircular plan instead of a circular one. This change was made in order to form just one structure between scaena and rows. Decoration of the whole is very luxury: marmors, columns, inscriptions... specially on the scaena, where every design of orders is applied by Roman architects. Design of structure for Theatres could be of two kinds: directly on the floor or through a structure supporting it. The most usual was locating Theatres in concrete areas in order to get that the Plan and section of a Roman Theatre following Vitrubius most important part of the rows was directly fixed on the ground, that is, on the slopes of hills or mountains. Structural parts that could not take advantage from this situation were built with Roman concrete pillars and vaulted walls. The usual was that the upper area from rows: the summa cavea, was based on an artificial structure. The ways of designing structures did also change. In a first phase vaulted radial walls were built. They gave form to wide inner spaces. Later architects constructed vaulted circular corridors that could be used as walls. Finally they built a mix of both systems. In order to introduce them we can set three well defined areas:scaenae, orchestra and cavea.
o Scaenae. The whole of scene and all the elements and rooms for a right working of performings was placed on a podium that made it upper than the orchestra. We can distinguish different parts: Proscaenium: the space for actors to play. It was placed on the podium, betweenorchestraand scaenae frons. Its part near the orchestra was called pulpitum and was often more elevated. Its surface was usually covered with wood. Below it there was the hiposcaenium, a hidden chamber for decoration and machines. At the orchestra elevation there was a faade called frons pulpiti. We can point it out as the scene where actors play.

Along the centuries different kinds of design were set: Straight plan, with neither exedrae nor niches with a frons pulpiti without decoration or with pillars. Plan with a central exedra, semicircular with two minor rectangular sections at both sides. Plan with three exedrae. They were semicircular with five rectangular inserted next sections. Scaenae frons. It was the monumental wall that limited back part of proscaenium. It is doubtless the most spectacular part of the scaena. It was composed by one or several superposed orders with their columns and entablatures, crowned by a roof with a double function: acoustic and preservative. There were three doors at it: the central one or valva regia and two at both sides: valva hospitalarium. Postcaenium. It is the ensemble of rooms behind the scaenae frons: dressing room, walls, chambers... Parascaenium. Rooms at both sides of the scaenae frons. There two doors could be open: the itinera versurarum that directly communicated with Proscaenium. Porticus postscenium. Outer faade of the scene, with orders of blind archs, often making a back playground.

Orchestra. Semicircular surface placed between scaenae and cavea. In its Greek form, it was circular. There stood chorus that participated in dramatic plays. Its curved area was surrounded by rows -Poedria- for great authorities in the city: lawyers, senators, judges... They came in through big vaulted lateral walls called -aditus-. Areas for special spectators were placed on them. They were called tribunal. At the opposite side, limiting its right zone, raised the frons pulpiti: the faade of the scaenae's podium. It was composed by exedrae and decorated niches with pillars. They often communicated the scaenae with stairs.

Cavea. It is the row for public watching the plays. Because of its general structure it is divided in three horizontal high areas. Each one is made for a kind of spectator: ima cavea, media cavea and summa cavea. Ima cavea is the lower zone. It
o

is close the scene. People in this area belong to high society. It is usually composed by men, though many cities admited women's presence if they came from aristocracy. It was often the area with a greater number of rows, because, as it had a minor radius, each row can contain a minor number of spectators. Media cavea was open for all kinds of people. It was close the imma cavea and often reserved for men. When theatres were not wide enough to offer a summa cavea, women and children could occupy this area. Summa cavea was placed in the upper zone of the scene and was built for women and children. Smaller theatres would not have this area, because it supposed building more sofisticated structures. Indeed, more rom was required.

These areas used to be separated by small perimetral walls being 1,20 m. high called baltei. They limited horizontal walls: "praecinctia" that communicated stairs and doors. On the last zone of rows -summa or media cavea- there were walls or gateways "porticus" pointing to the inner place and completing the whole of the row. Vertically, many parts could be marked:

Scalaria or stairs to reach the different terraces. They ended by walls or "praecinctia" that communicated with "vomitorium": doors and walls to the rows. Cunei or cuneus, were places with a shape of wedge in wich row was divided. They were separated by stairs.

Exterior look of Theatres directly depends on orography on wich they are built: they are different whether rows are constructed on a hill or not. Anyway, external part is composed by a series of orders of columns and archs -on first stage- and pillars with blind archs -on upper ones-. They reflect the inner space; not only the cavea but also the frons scaenae. Classical and political plays were performed on theatres, since they were necessary for people "education".

More than 20 Roman theatres exist today in Spain. They have been already explored and scholars know about the existence of many others that have been lost because of the evolution of the cities in wich they were built. We can point out to the most important as those of:
o o o o o o o

Theatre of Emerita Augusta, in Merida, Badajoz.BASIC INFORMATION Theatre of Carthago Nova, in Cartagena, Murcia.BASIC INFORMATION Theatre of Tarraco, in Tarragona.Page
of TARRACO

Theatre of Italica, in Santiponce, Sevilla.BASIC INFORMATION Theatre of Segobriga, in Saelices, Cuenca.BASIC INFORMATION Theatre of Saguntum, in Sagunto, Valencia.BASIC INFORMATION Theatre of Clunia in Coruna de los Condes, Burgos.Page of the city of Clunia

Roman Theatre of Carthago Nova Press to enlarge.

There are others worse preserved, as the Theatre of Acinipo at Ronda la Vieja, Malaga; theatre of Baelo Claudia in Tarifa, Cadiz; theatre ofCaesar Augusta in Zaragoza,; theatre of Carteia ien Saint Roque, Cadiz; theatre of Gades in Cadiz; theatre of Pollentia in Alcudia, Baleares Iles; theatre of Urso in Osuna, Sevilla.

2.- Roman amphitheatre.

It got an oval plan as a result of duplicating theatres joined by the stage. Its name shows it since it comes from a Greek word that means "two theatres" (amphi -twoand theatros). It is not exactly like that, because the result of two semicircular plans -theatre- should be a circumference and not an oval shape. The fact is that the idea was so and was only changed in order to enlarge the area for performance: the arena. These buildings were never used for performing literary plays nor political speechs. They were rather for spectacles like gladiators fighting against each other or aganist animals and for simulation of battles. They were even used for performing naval fights -naumachias-, including the water inside.

Plan of Roman Amphitheatre following Vitrubius

Supporting structures were solved as they did for theatres: sometimes a part of the row laid on a slope and the rest on a structure of radial and circular vaulted walls. The exterior part was usually composed by orders of pillars or columns with archs, often blind. Amphitheatre was divided in two different areas: the arena -stage-, and the cavea -rows-.

The arena.

Oval area where plays were performed. It was surrounded by the high wall of the podium that separated it from the cavea. Many doors were open on the cavea. They communicated with rooms or walls behind it. Gladiators and animals came out through them. Bellow the arena of the most important amphitheatres there were many divided rooms for the circulation and staying of animals called fossa bestiaria. It was covered by wood. Over it there was the arena, forming a uniform surface.

 The cavea.

It gets the features of a theatre's cavea, but it is built with an oval plan and is elevated on a high podium. It was usually endowed with three horizontal sections in a different level: the ima cavea, the media cavea and thesumma cavea.
o

The ima cavea is the inferior area. It is closer to the arena and separated from it by a high podium that sheltered the spectators against weapons and animals. This was the place for higher class from cities. The media cavea, built close to the imma cavea, was made for general public. The summa cavea is the upper part of the scene. It was not constructed in every

amphitheatre because of a lack of room or because of its structure. It used to end by a covered gateway.

They were separated from each other by perimetral walls or baltei that divided horizontal walls or "praecinctia" communicating stairs and vomitorium. These grades to go up and descending formed sections with the shape of a wedge called cunei. Sometimes, depending from the amphitheatre size, cavea was uniform; that is, without horizontal divisions (ima, media and summa cavea). On the cavea boxes were built, often at the center of any of the axes.

At Hispania there are ruins of amphitheatres, being the best preserved:

Amphitheatre of Italica, in Santiponce, Sevilla.BASIC

INFORMATION

Amphitheatre of Emerita Augusta, in Merida, Badajoz.BASIC INFORMATION Amphitheatre of Tarraco, in Tarragona.BASIC

INFORMATION

Amphitheatre of Segobriga, in Saelices, Cuenca.BASIC INFORMATION

Roman amphitheatre of Emerita Augusta Press to enlarge.

3.- Roman Circus.

A building in wich races -both for charriots and horses- were celebrated among other horse plays. It can be said that games celebrated in Circus were the most popular and successful for general public among all the shows that Roman governers offered to their people. It is proved by the width of their rows -up to 225.000 places in Maximus Circus at Rome-, by the many writtings for ruling them and by the chronicles of the deeds that happened there. In Hispania there are many data taken from burial inscriptions, paintings, mosaics, walls... In this country they were specially wellcome since horse spectacles were celebrated even when fighting in amphitheatres existed no more because of moral principles of the new religion: Christianism. Its highest success came in 4th Century. It can be seen through the phrase "panem et circus", that means "bread and Circus".
Plan of Roman Circus of Nero

Four "factiones" were set in Hispania as if they were "sport clubs". Each one was marked by a different colour: Albata (white), Veneta (blue), Praesina (green) and Russata (red). Drivers of charriots were called aurigae. They were often slaves. Charriots could be dragged by four horses cuadrigae or by two: bigae. Architecture of Circus consisted of a rectangular plan with a lateral semicircle at one of its shorter sides, as racing circuits in our days. We can point out to three different parts: It is the row of a building placed on a high podium that raises it in order to separate it from the racing circuit. Its plan looks like two straight rows, according to both long sides of a rectangle and a semicircular one at the short side. Fourth side, without row, is kept for the entering of fighters -porta pompae-, the stables and the way out points called carceres. This lateral side was not perpendicular to both lateral walls. It was rather slightly sloping -in plan- in order to regulate the departing of the racing sportmen and the distances they should complete. The "pulvinar" or Presidential box were often on it. In front of it, in semicircular grades the "porta triumphalis" could be seen. The box for Judges or tribunal iudicium was on it. At last, on lateral faades there were open doors for the entering of public. People came to the rows through vaulted walls and stairs that communicated with "vomitorium". Faades were decorated with pillars and blind archs. Its structure is composed by concrete and masonry

The cavea or maemiana.

disposed in a similar way to the theatres and amphitheatres.

The arena.

It is the space devoted to spectacles. It was originally designed for the main attraction: charriots racings. It got an almost rectangular plan with one semicircular short side. At its center there was the Spina, that separated it in two halves in order to mark the different directional ways in the racing. The arena marked two goals: meta prima usually at the curve, and the meta secunda at one of the lateral sides, opposite to the porta pompae.

The Spina.

A building with a long rectangular plan. It separated the circus' arena in two parts. It originally got no clearly central disposition -just on the longer axis-; it rather altered its course in order to make the curve's exit to the runners easy. It was composed by a podium, richly decorated. On it there were statues on platforms, monoliths or commemorative columns. Because of the circus' lenght it could be divided into sections in order to celebrate longer or shorter racings.

These features were often changed, depending on the design and size of each Circus. The usual was changing location of boxes and goals. Scholars get solid traces about minor Circus that did not survive in Peninsula. Six Roman ones have been found on it. Main are:

Circus of Emerita Augusta in Merida, Badajoz.BASIC INFORMATION Circus of Tarraco in Tarragona.BASIC INFORMATION

Roman Circus of Emerita Augusta Press to enlarge.

The list
Country Date Place Notes Ref(s)

Ethiopia

195,000BP Omo Kibish Formation

The Omo remains found in 1967 near the Ethiopian Kibish Mountains, have been dated as ca. 195,000 years old, making them the earliest human remains ever found. They are older than the remains found at Herto Bouri, Ethiopia (155-160,000 BP).

[1]

Morocco

90,000190,000 Jebel Irhoud BP

Anatomically modern human remains of uncertain date, 90-190,000 years old.

[10]

United Arab Emirates

125,000 Jebel Faya BP

Stone tools made by anatomically modern humans.

[11]

South Africa

125,000 Klasies River Caves BP

Remains found in the Klasies River Caves in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa show signs of human hunting. There is some debate as to whether these remains represent anatomically modern humans.

[12][13]

Pakistan

125,000 Pothohar BP

On Adiyala and Khasala about 16 km (9.9 mi) from Rawalpindi terrace on the bend of the river hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. At Chauntra hand axes and cleavers were found. In the Soan River Gorge many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. 14 million year old fossils of human, gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Natural History Museum of Islamabad and their replicas at Natural History Museum UK, while some of them has been borrowed by harvard

[14]

Country

Date

Place

Notes university for more research.

Ref(s)

Israel

100,000 Skhul/Qafzeh BP

Discovered in 1929-1935; remains exhibit a mix of archaic and modern traits and may represent an early migration from Africa that died out by 80,000 years ago.

[15]

Oman

75,000125,000 Aybut BP

Tools found in the Dhofar Governorate correspond with African objects from the so-called 'Nubian Complex', dating from 75-125,000 years ago. According to archaeologist Jeffrey I. Rose, human settlements spread east from Africa across the Arabian Peninsula.

[2]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

90,000 BP

Katanda, UpperSemliki Semliki harpoon heads carved from bone. River

[16]

India

70,000 BP

Jwalapuram,Andhra Pradesh

Recent finds of stone tools in Jwalapuram before and after the Toba supereruption, may have been made by modern humans, but this is disputed.

[3][17]

Philippines

67,000 BP Callao Cave

Archaeologists, Dr. Armand Mijares with Dr. Phil Piper found bones in a cave near Peablanca, Cagayan in 2010 have been dated as ca. 67,000 years old. It's the earliest human fossil ever found in AsiaPacific

[18]

Taiwan

50,000 BP Chihshanyen

Chipped stone tool similar to those of the Changpin culture on the east coast.

[19]

Country

Date

Place

Notes

Ref(s)

Brazil

41,000Pedra Furada 56,000 BP

Charcoal from the oldest layers yielded dates of 41,000-56,000 BP.

[20]

Australia

48,000 BP Devil's Lair

The oldest human skeletal remains are the 40,000-year-old Lake Mungo remainsin New South Wales, but human ornaments discovered at Devil's Lair in Western Australia have been dated to 48,000 BP. Ochre fragments at Malakunanja II in Northern Territory are dated to ca. 45,000 BP.

[21][22][23]

Japan

47,000 BP Lake Nojiri

Genetic research indicates arrival of humans in Japan by 37,000 BP. Archeological remains at the Tategahana Paleolithic Site at Lake Nojiri have been dated as early as 47,000 BP.

[3][24]

Borneo

46,000 BP

(see Malaysia)

Greece

45,000 BP Mount Parnassus

Geneticist Bryan Sykes identifies 'Ursula' as the first of The Seven Daughters of Eve, and the carrier of the mitochondrial haplogroup U. This hypothetical woman moved between the mountain caves and the coast of Greece, and based on genetic research represent the first human settlement of Europe.

[5]

Italy

43,000- Grotta del 45,000 BP Cavallo, Apulia

Two baby teeth discovered in Apulia in 1964 are the earliest modern human remains yet found in Europe.

[4]

United Kingdom

41,500Kents Cavern 44,200 BP

Human jaw fragment found in Torquay, Devon in 1927.

[25]

Country

Date

Place

Notes

Ref(s)

Germany

Three Paleolithic flutes belonging to the early Aurignacian, which is associated with 42,000- Geienklsterle,Badenthe assumed earliest presence of Homo 43,000 BP Wrttemberg,Germany sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). It is the oldest example of prehistoric music.

[26]

Tasmania

41,000 BP Jordan River Levee

Optically stimulated luminescence results from the site suggest a date ca. 41,000 BP.

[27]

China

39,000Tianyuan Cave 42,000 BP

Bones found in a cave near Beijing in 1958 have been radiocarbon dated at between 3942,000 years old.

[28]

Malaysia

34,000Niah Cave 46,000 BP

A human skull in Sarawak, Borneo, has been dated to ca. 34-46,000 years ago. (Archeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, but precise dating analysis has not yet been published.)

[29][30]

Indonesian Side of New Guinea 40,000 BP New Guinea

Archeological evidence shows that 40,000 years ago, some of the first farmers came to New Guinea from the South-East Asian Peninsula.

[3]

Romania

37,800Petera cu Oase 42,000 BP

Bones dated as 3842,000 years old are among the oldest human remains found in Europe.

[31][32]

Sri Lanka

34,000 BP Fa Hien Cave

The earliest remains of anatomically modern man, based on radiocarbon dating of charcoal, have been found in the Fa Hien Cave in western Sri Lanka.

[33]

Country

Date

Place

Notes

Ref(s)

Canada

25,000Bluefish Caves 40,000 BP

Human-worked mammoth bone flakes found at Bluefish Caves, Yukon, are much older than the stone tools and animal remains at Haida Gwaii in British Columbia (10-12,000 BP).

[34][35]

Okinawa

32,000 BP

Yamashita-cho cave, Naha city

Bone artifacts and an ash seam dated to 32,0001000 BP.

[36]

France

32,000 BP Chauvet Cave

The cave paintings in the Chauvet Cave in southern France have been called the earliest known cave art, though the dating is uncertain.

[37]

Czech Republic

31,000 BP Mlade

Oldest human bones that clearly represent a human settlement in Europe.

[38]

Poland

30,000 BP Obazowa Cave

A boomerang made from mammoth tusk.

Portugal

24,500 BP Abrigo do Lagar Velho

Possible Neanderthal/Cro-Magnon hybrid.

[39]

United States

16,000 BP

Meadowcroft Rockshelter

Stone, bone, and wood artifacts and animal and plant remains found inWashington County, Pennsylvania indicate the earliest known human settlement in North America.

[40]

Chile

14,800 BP Monte Verde

Carbon dating of remains from this site represent the oldest known settlement in the Americas.

[41]

Peru

14,000 BP Pikimachay

[42]

Stone and bone artifacts found in a cave of

Country

Date

Place

Notes the Ayacucho complex.

Ref(s)

Cyprus

12,500 BP Aetokremnos

Burned bones of megafauna.

[43]

Norway

9,200 BC Aukra

The oldest remnants of the so-called Fosna culture were found in Aukra in Mre og Romsdal, and date from this period.

[44]

Argentina

9,000 BC Piedra Museo

Spear heads and human fossils.

[45]

Ireland

7,700 BC Mount Sandel

Carbon dating of hazel nut shells reveals this place to have been inhabited for 9,700 years.

[46][47]

Estonia

7,600 BC Pulli

The Pulli settlement on the bank of the Prnu River briefly pre-dates that atKunda, which gave its name to the Kunda culture.

[48]

Cambodia

7,000 BC Laang Spean

Laang Spean cave in the Stung Sangker River valley, Battambang Province

[49]

Zhokhov Island

5,900 BC

Hunting tools and animal remains in the High Arctic.

[50]

Malta

5,200 BC Gar Dalam

Settlers from Sicily brought agriculture and impressed ware pottery.

[51]

Trinidad

5,000 BC Banwari Trace

Stone and bone artifacts mark the oldest archaeological site in the Caribbean.

[52]

Greenland

2,000 BC Saqqaq

Saqqaq culture was the first of several waves of settlement from northern Canada and from

[53]

Country

Date

Place Scandinavia.

Notes

Ref(s)

Baffin Island

2,000 BC Pond Inlet

In 1969, Pre-Dorset remains were discovered, with seal bones radiocarbon dated to 2035 BC

[54]

Wrangel Island

1,400 BC Chertov Ovrag

Sea-mammal hunting tools.

[55]

Tonga

1,180 BC

Pea village onTongatapu

Radiocarbon dating of a shell found at the site dates the occupation at 3180100 BP.

[56]

Canary Islands

1,000 BC

Genetic studies show relation to Moroccan Berbers, but precise date uncertain.

[57]

Samoa

1,000 BC Mulifanua

Lapita site found at Mulifanua Ferry Berth Site by New Zealand scientists in the 1970s.

[58]

Hawaii

290 AD Ka Lae

Early settlement from the Marquesas Islands.

[59]

Madagascar

500 AD

The population of Madagascar seems to have derived in equal measures fromBorneo and East Africa.

[60]

Faroe Islands

600 AD

Agricultural remains from three locations were analysed and dated to as early as the sixth century A.D.

[61]

Iceland

874 AD Reykjavk

Inglfr Arnarson, the first known Norse settler, built his homestead in Reykjavkthis year, though Norse or Hiberno-Scottish monks might have arrived up to two hundred

[8]

Country

Date

Place years earlier.

Notes

Ref(s)

Pitcairn Island

1050 AD

Settled by Polynesians in the 11th century.

Easter Island

1200 AD Anakena

Settled by voyagers from the Marquesas Islands, possibly as early as 300 AD.

[62]

New Zealand

1250 Wairau Bar 1300 AD

Though some researchers suggest settlements as early as 50150 AD, that later went extinct, it is generally accepted that the islands were permanently settled by Eastern Polynesians (the ancestors of the Mori) who arrived about 12501300 AD.

[63][64]

Norfolk Island

1300 AD Emily Bay

Settled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled by British 1788.

[65][66]

Auckland Islands

Sandy Bay,Enderby 1300 AD Island

Settled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled from the Chatham Islands in 1842, later abandoned.

[67]

Madeira

1420 AD

Settlers from Portugal.

Azores

1439 AD Santa Maria Island

Settlers from Portugal led by Gonalo Velho Cabral.

[68]

Cape Verde

1462 AD Cidade Velha

Settlers from Portugal.

[69]

So Tom and

1485 AD So Tom

Portuguese settlement in 1485 failed but was followed in 1493 by a successful settlement

[70]

Country Prncipe

Date

Place

Notes led by lvaro Caminha.

Ref(s)

Saint Helena

1516 AD

Settled by Ferno Lopes (soldier). Later populated by escaped slaves fromMozambique and Java, then by English in 1659.

Chatham Islands

1550 AD

Moriori settlers from New Zealand. This was the last wave of Polynesian migrations.

[71]

Bermuda

1609 AD

Settled by English survivors of the Sea Venture shipwreck, led by George Somers.

Svalbard

1619 AD Smeerenburg

Settled by Dutch and Danish whalers.

[72]

Mauritius

1638 AD Vieux Grand Port

First settled by Dutch under Cornelius Gooyer.

[73]

Falkland Islands

1764 AD Puerto Soledad

Settled by French during the expedition of Louis Antoine de Bougainville.

[74]

Tristan da Cunha

1810 AD

First settled by Jonathan Lambert and two other men.

[75]

Ascension Island

1815 AD

Settled as a British military garrison.

Lord Howe Island

1834 AD Blinky Beach

Whaling supply station.

[76]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Sun God - The God of Sun Energy

Most of the recorded history reveals that sun is being worshiped as a god throughout the world since millions of years. In a number of areas in the world there is a concept of solar deity or sun god who is the representative of the sun. According to the ancient literature, sun worship was prevalent in Hinduism, Buddhism, Chinese mythology, Egyptian religion, Indonesian religion etc. Perhaps the reason behind worshiping the sun may be that ancient people were aware of the fact that sun produces energy, it means that they had the answer for the question "how dose the sun produce energy?" They were of the view that by worshiping the sun, sun will provide them more sun power or sun energy which is now called solar energy.

In Hinduism the sun is revered god. Hindus honor the sun as one of the most important deities. A number of hymns in Vedas are dedicated to Adityas, Mitra, Varuna, Savitr etc. who are the deities belonging to Solar class and representing the sun. The most sacred "Gayatri mantra" of Vedic hymns is also dedicated to Savitr who is nothing but the sun at the time of sunrise. Hindu mythology is not only related to the religion but it is related to science also and Hindus knew that the sun not only produces energy but the sun energy or solar energy is a renewable energy. It appears that they were utilizing the energy from sun to perform various works even the 'Adityastra', a great weapon was made on the basis of sun energy, a renewable energy source.

Ancient Indians not only knew about the sun energy but they were also aware of all types of energy. Using various types of energy they made their weapons like brahmastra, agneyastra, varunastra etc. However, ancient Indians were so dedicated to the sun and sun power that they established sun temple at Konark, a place in Orissa state of India.

If the ancient Indians were able to develop solar technologies, the modern scientists also can find the ways for exploitation of solar energy source. Plenty of sunlight is available to us which must be utilized for human welfare by developing the techniques to convert the sustainable energy received from sun at free of cost into electricity at a lower cost. Though solar cells are available today for making solar panels but making solar panels is very costly, hence we have to find some way to make it at an affordable cost.

Egyptian mythology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nun, the embodiment of the primordial waters, lifts thebarque of the sun god Ra into the sky at the moment of creation.

Egyptian mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Egypt, which describe the actions of the Egyptian gods as a means of understanding the cosmos. Myth appears frequently in Egyptian writings and art, particularly in short stories and in religious material such as hymns, ritual texts, funerary texts, and temple decoration. These sources rarely contain a complete account of a myth and often describe only brief fragments. This lack of narrative in myth-related writings has prompted debate among scholars about whether cohesive myths existed in ancient Egyptian culture. Inspired by the cycles of nature, the Egyptians saw time in the present as a series of recurring patterns, whereas the earliest periods of time were linear. Myths are set in these earliest times, and myth sets the pattern for the cycles of the present. Present events repeat the events of myth, and in doing so renewmaat, the fundamental order of the cosmos. Amongst the most important episodes from the mythic past are the creation myths, in which the gods form the universe out of primordial chaos; the stories of the reign of the sun god Raupon the earth; and the Osiris myth, concerning the struggles of the godsOsiris, Isis, and Horus against the disruptive god Set. Events from the present that might be regarded as myths include Ra's daily journey through the world and its otherworldly counterpart, the Duat. Recurring themes in these mythic episodes

include the conflict between the upholders of maat and the forces of disorder, the importance of the pharaoh in maintaining maat, and the continual death and regeneration of the gods. The details of these sacred events differ greatly from one text to another and often seem contradictory. All Egyptian myths, however, are meant primarily as symbols, expressing the behavior and essence of the mysterious deities in metaphorical terms. Each variant of a myth represents a somewhat different symbolic perspective, enriching the Egyptians' understanding of the gods and the world. Mythology profoundly influenced Egyptian culture. It formed much of the basis for ancient Egyptian religion, inspiring or influencing many of its rituals and providing the ideological basis for kingship. Scenes and symbols from myth appeared in art in tombs, temples, andamulets. In literature, myths or elements of them were used in stories that range from humor to allegory, demonstrating mythology's prevalence and versatility in Egyptian tradition.

The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480323 B.C.)

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After the defeat of the Persians in 479 B.C., Athens dominated Greece politically, economically, and culturally. The Athenians organized a confederacy of allies to ensure the freedom of the Greek cities in the Aegean islands and on the coast of Asia Minor. Members of the so-called Delian League provided either ships or a fixed sum of money that was kept in a treasury on the island of Delos, sacred to Apollo. With control of the funds and a strong fleet, Athens gradually transformed the originally voluntary members of the League into subjects. By 454/453 B.C., when the treasury was moved from Delos to the Athenian Akropolis, the city had become a wealthy imperial power. It had also developed into the first democracy. All adult male citizens participated in the elections and meetings of the assembly, which served as both the seat of government and a court of law.

Greek artists of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. attained a manner of representation that conveys a vitality of life as well as a sense of permanence, clarity, and harmony.
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Perikles (r. ca. 461429 B.C.), the most creative and adroit statesman of the third quarter of the fifth century B.C., transformed the Akropolis into a lasting monument to Athen's newfound political and economic power. Dedicated to Athena, the city's patron goddess, the Parthenon epitomizes the architectural and sculptural grandeur of Perikles' building program. Inside the magnificent Doric temple stood the colossal gold-and-ivory statue of Athena made by the Greek sculptor Pheidias. The building itself was constructed entirely of marble and richly embellished with sculpture, some of the finest examples of the high Classical style of the mid-fifth century B.C. Its sculptural decoration has had a major impact on other works of art, from the fifth century B.C. through the present day (27.45). Greek artists of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. attained a manner of representation that conveys a vitality of life as well as a sense of permanence, clarity, and harmony. Polykleitos of Argos was particularly famous for formulating a system of proportions that achieved this artistic effect and allowed others to reproduce it. His treatise, the Canon, is now lost, but one of his most important sculptural works, the Diadoumenos, survives in numerous ancient marble copies of the bronze original (32.11.2). Bronze, valued for its tensile strength and lustrous beauty, became the preferred medium for freestanding statuary, although very few bronze originals of the fifth century B.C. survive. What we know of these famous sculptures comes primarily from ancient literature and later Roman copies in marble (14.130.9). The middle of the fifth century B.C. is often referred to as the Golden Age of Greece, particularly of Athens. Significant achievements were made in Attic vase painting. Most notably, the red-figure technique superseded the black-figure technique, and with that, great strides were made in portraying the human body, clothed or naked, at rest or in motion. The work of vase painters, such as Douris, Makron, Kleophrades, and the Berlin Painter (56.171.38), exhibit exquisitely rendered details. Although the high point of Classical expression was short-lived, it is important to note that it was forged during the Persian Wars (490479 B.C.) and continued after the Peloponnesian War (431 404 B.C.) between Athens and a league of allied city-states led by Sparta. The conflict continued intermittently for nearly thirty years. Athens suffered irreparable damage during the war and a devastating plague that lasted over four years. Although the city lost its primacy, its artistic importance

continued unabated during the fourth century B.C. The elegant, calligraphic style of late fifth-century sculpture (35.11.3) was followed by a sober grandeur in both freestanding statues (06.311) and many grave monuments (11.100.2). One of the far-reaching innovations in sculpture at this time, and one of the most celebrated statues of antiquity, was the nude Aphrodite of Knidos, by the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles. Praxiteles' creation broke one of the most tenacious conventions in Greek art in which the female figure had previously been shown draped. Its slender proportions and distinctive contrapposto stance became hallmarks of fourth-century B.C.Greek sculpture. In architecture, the Corinthian characterized by ornate, vegetal column capitalsfirst came into vogue. And for the first time, artistic schools were established as institutions of learning. Among the most famous was the school at Sicyon in the Peloponnese, which emphasized a cumulative knowledge of art, the foundation of art history. Greek artists also traveled more extensively than in previous centuries. The sculptor Skopas of Paros traveled throughout the eastern Mediterranean for his commissions, among them the Mausoleum at Halicarnassos, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. While Athens began to decline during the fourth century B.C., the influence of Greek cities in southern Italy and Sicily spread to indigenous cultures that readily adopted Greek styles and employed Greek artists. Depictions of Athenian drama, which flourished in the fifth century with the work of Aeschylus, Sophokles, and Euripides, was an especially popular subject for locally produced pottery (24.97.104). During the mid-fourth century B.C., Macedonia (in northern Greece) became a formidable power under Philip II (r. 360/59336 B.C.), and the Macedonian royal court became the leading center of Greek culture. Philip's military and political achievements ably served the conquests of his son, Alexander the Great (r. 336323 B.C.). Within eleven years, Alexander subdued the Persian empire of western Asia and Egypt, continuing into Central Asia as far as the Indus River valley. During his reign, Alexander cultivated the arts as no patron had done before him. Among his retinue of artists was the court sculptor Lysippos, arguably one of the most important artists of the fourth century B.C. His works, most notably his portraits of Alexander (and the work they influenced), inaugurated many features of Hellenistic sculpture, such as the heroic ruler portrait (52.127.4). When Alexander died in 323 B.C., his successors, many of whom adopted this portrait type, divided up the vast empire into smaller kingdoms that transformed the political and cultural world during the Hellenistic period (ca. 323 31 B.C.).

6 Greek art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is part of the series on: History of Greek art Greek Bronze Age Cycladic art - Minoan art Mycenean art Art in ancient Greece Archaic Greek art - Classical Greek art

Hellenistic art Greco-Roman art

see also: Greco-Buddhist art Medieval Greece Byzantine art - Macedonian art Post-Byzantine Greece Art in Ottoman Greece - Cretan School Heptanese School Modern Greece Modern Greek art - Munich School Contemporary Greek art
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Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan prehistorical civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the ancient period (further developing this during the Hellenistic Period). It took in influences of Eastern civilizations and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantineera and absorbed Italian and European ideas during the period of Romanticism (with the invigoration of the Greek

Revolution), right up until the Modernist and Postmodernist. Greek art is mainly five forms: architecture, sculpture, painting, pottery and jewelry making.

8 Belief about death

Death is regarded as a 'messenger of joy' for the deceased. Baha'is believe the soul lives on after the body's death and embarks on aspiritual journey.

Funeral practices Baha'i dead must be buried within an hour's travel distance from the place of death. Baha'is do not embalm or cremate their dead. The dead body is washed and wrapped in a shroud. Baha'is are often buried wearing a Baha'i burial ring. The only ceremonial requirement of a funeral is the recitation of the Prayer for the Dead.

Mourning rituals There are no Baha'i mourning rituals.

More Online :

A Baha'i View of Life After Death Baha'i World: Life, Death and the Soul

 Baha'i Prayer for the Dead

Buddhism
Belief about death Death of the physical body is certain, but only a part of an ongoing process of re-incarnation until one receives enlightenment. After death it is believed that the dead person goes through a transformation in which they discover death, and prepare for their rebirth (if there is one). Funeral practices In early times and commonly today, Buddhists cremate the bodies of their dead. The first seven days after death are the most important for final and funereal prayer. Mourning rituals Prayers are said weekly, during a 49-day funeral period. It is during this period that the prayers of the mourners are believed to help the deceased during the post-death transformation and awaken their spirit to the true nature of death. More on Beliefnet: A Buddhist Meditation on Death More online: Buddhist Funeral Rites

Catholicism
Belief about death Catholics see death as a passage from this life to the new, everlasting life promised by Christ. The soul of the deceased goes on to the afterlife, which includes Purgatory as well as Heaven and Hell. According to Catholic belief, the bodies of the dead will be resurrected at the end of time. Funeral practices The Catholic funeral service is called the Mass of the Resurrection. During it, Jesus Christ's life is remembered and related to that of the deceased. Eulogies are not allowed during the funeral mass, but may be delivered at a wake or other non-religious ceremony. There is also a final graveside farewell, and additional traditions depending on the region. The Church encourages Catholics to be buried in Catholic cemeteries. In 1963, the Vatican lifted the ban on cremation for Catholics. However, the cremains must be interred, not scattered or kept at home. Mourning rituals The community and the church support mourners through the funeral mass and through nonreligious services like wakes. More on Beliefnet:

 Catholic Rituals for the Dying More online: Catholic Funeral Guidelines

The Burj Dubai Tower: The Tallest Building in the World

http://www.burjdubai.com/

The emirate of Dubai is home to yet another architectural wonder, the magnificent Burj Dubai Tower which, when completed in late 2008, will far surpass its competition as the highest building structure in the world. Construction on the Burj Dubai began in 2004 and it is expected to open for occupancy in the fall of 2009. Originally, the contractor had planned the Burj as a 90 story building. It was the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum that inspired the company to "resist the usual [and] build a global icon" that would far surpass the tallest buildings on Earth. As of July 2007, the Burj Dubai Tower has now surpassed the Taipei in Taiwan as the World's Tallest Building. It has also surpassed the CN Tower in Canada as the World's Tallest freestanding Structure of any kind. Already the Burj measured 141 stories and 512 meters in height. The final planned height is being kept a strict secret due to competing building ventures, yet figures released by a project contractor suggest a total height of about 818 meters with 160 usable floors. When pressed for more precise figures, the contractor would only say the Burj Dubai will measure over 700 meters and be the tallest structure in the world, by any measure, when complete. The Burj Dubai was designed by American architect Adrian Smith and is a joint construction venture of several international companies led by Emaar Contracting. The design is derived from patterns found in Islamic architecture. The Burj Dubai's tripsle-lobed footprint is an abstract reproduction of a Dubai wild flower. The Dubai attraction is composed of three basic elements surrounding a central core. A spiraling pattern forms as the Burj reaches toward the sky and the skyscraper gradually tapers inward to a graceful finishing spire. A Y-shaped floor plan allows maximal views of the Persian Gulf. The Burj Dubai exterior will be covered with reflective aluminum and steel panels to repel the fierce desert sun. The unparalleled interior will be decorated by the incomparable Giorgio Armani. The Burj Dubai Tower will house the very first Armani Hotel with 175 guest rooms on the lower 37 floors. The Armani Residences, 144 exclusive luxury apartments, will sit above the hotel on Burj Dubai floors 45 through 108. According to Emaar, these Dubai luxury apartments were completely sold out within eight hours of the offering. The Armani hotel will feature its own private spa, restaurants, and exercise rooms. Residents of the Burj Dubai Tower enjoy a host of upscale amenities including a private resident's lounge, four swimming pools, spas, world-class restaurants, vast exercise facilities, and a cigar club, as well as exclusive corporate and residential suites, many designed by the one and only Giorgio Armani. Corporate offices will take up most of the remaining floors above the hotel suites, except for specially designed exceptions. The 123rd floor of the Burj Dubai will house a massive guest lobby. The Burj skyscraper's indoor/outdoor observation deck resides above the lobby on the 124th floor. A lovely gradual-entry swimming pool takes up the 78th floor of the Burj Dubai Tower. This remarkable feat of architecture will feature the world's fastest elevator with a speed of 40 mph (18 m/s). The Burj Dubai will have a total of 56 elevators, many of them doubledecker models that can carry 42 people at a time. The amount of raw materials, such as concrete and steel, which have gone into building the Burj Dubai is almost inconceivable. The foundation alone required 110,000 metric tones of concrete. The majority of the Burj Dubai structure is made from reinforced concrete. Special mixtures of concrete have been developed for the Burj Dubai to withstand extreme pressure from the tower's weight and the fierce desert temperatures that will constantly work upon the structure. The building was designed to withstand both high winds and seismic activity. When completed, the Burj Dubai skyscraper will have required 330,000 cubic meters of concrete, 39,000 metric tons of steel rebar alone, 142,000 square meters of glass, and an incredible 22 million man hours of labor. The Burj Dubai is being constructed directly in the heart of the planned community of Downtown Burj Dubai. This 500

acre development is home to residents who live, work, and shop in this modern Dubai community. The world will continue to watch with anticipation as the Burj Dubai Tower strives to reach the sky and bring out the wonder in all of us.

10 Prehistoric art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ceramic stirrup spout vessel representing a crustacean.Moche Culture, Peru, 100 BCE to 700 CE.

Saharan rock carving depicting a lying antelope or gazelle, petroglyph in Southern Algeria

Gold shoe plaques from the Iron Age Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave, Germany, c. 530 BC

Art history series

Prehistoric art Ancient art history Western art history Eastern art history

Islamic art history Western painting History of painting Art history (study) History of art

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate,prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with another culture that has, and that makes some record of major historical events. At this point ancient artbegins, for the older literate cultures. The end-date for what is covered by the term thus varies greatly between different parts of the world. The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject of some debate; it is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic era. From the Upper Palaeolithic through the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable art such as figurines and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early potteryappeared, as did sculpture and the construction of megaliths. Early rock artalso first appeared in the Neolithic. The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought additional media available for use in making art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have any obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well as early writing systems. By the Iron Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient China. Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce artistics works distinctive to their geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed writing during the time they flourished, which was then later lost. These cultures may be classified as prehistoric, especially if their writing systems have not been deciphered.