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Helsinki University of Technology Systems Analysis Laboratory Antti Malava 64705M Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics
1. 2.
Introduction..............................................................................................................................1 Principal Component Analysis.................................................................................................1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Mathematical formulation................................................................................................2 Choosing the number of Principal Components ..............................................................6 Interpretation of Analysis.................................................................................................6 Geometrical Interpretation ...............................................................................................7 Discussion ........................................................................................................................8
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Modelling Term Structure of Interest Rates with PCA............................................................8 3.1 3.2 3.3 Term Structure .................................................................................................................8 Literature Review of Principal Component Analysis on Term Structure........................9 Applications in Finance .................................................................................................10
4.
Implementation and Results...................................................................................................13 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Data Preparation.............................................................................................................13 Preliminary Analysis......................................................................................................14 Problem Formulation .....................................................................................................16 Individual Currency Zone Results .................................................................................16 Combined Currency Zone Results .................................................................................21
5.
References......................................................................................................................................25
1. Introduction
Term structure of interest rates has for long posed interesting challenges with regards to modelling, explaining and predicting its behaviour. However, analysing term structure often involves dealing with huge data sets that may cause the calculation processes to become slow and cumbersome and the results difficult to be interpreted and used in further applications. On the other hand, interest rates of different maturities exhibit distinguishable common behaviour. Therefore it may be very useful to simplify the data or the data structure by identifying factors of common behaviour such that not much of the contained information is lost. This paper introduces principal component analysis (hereafter referred to as PCA) as a powerful tool of identifying patterns in data of high dimension. PCA is a statistical technique in which the original variables are replaced by a smaller number of artificial variables that preserve as much as possible of the variability of the original variables. There are two objectives of data simplification: to reduce the number of variables and to detect a structure in the relationships between variables. The paper discusses PCA with focus on constructing a market model for different currency zones term structures of interest rates. PCA is applied to four interest rate curves, namely EUR, USD, JPY and GBP curves including both short and long term interest rates. Two different approaches are compared: performing PCA separately for each curve and performing one PCA for all curves combined. With regards to interest rates, the markets typically show three distinct patterns that are represented by first three principal components (hereafter referred to as PCs): level or shift, slope or twist and curvature or bow. The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the methodology of standard PCA in detail. Section 3 introduces term structure of interest rates, presents some of the PCA modelling performed on it in literature and discusses cases where it may be useful to apply PCA. In section 4, PCA is performed on term structure and the results are analysed. Finally, section 5 draws together conclusions and discussion arisen from the study.
X2
1. PC
X1 2. PC
The linear transformation allows describing the original data set exactly by the uncorrelated artificial variables called principal components that are ordered with decreasing explanatory power. However, the real purpose of PCA is to select those PCs that explain the variability of the data to a required degree and accuracy. This allows considerably reduction in the dimension of variables, which in turn simplifies calculation processes. PCA is often discussed with relation to factor analysis. However, although these two methods are similar statistical tools, they differ in the methodologies employed and the focus of the analysis. While PCA attempts to find a series of independent linear combinations of the original variables that provide the best possible explanation of diagonal terms of the matrix analysed, factor analyses focuses on the off-diagonal elements of the correlation matrix (Jorion, 2002). What this means is that PCA is not based on any particular statistical model whereas factor analysis is.
= T = 1
Vector b is a weight vector that tells us by what weight does each of the variables xj affect the variance of the linear combination T x . The condition
= T = 1
= T = 1
max
D 2 ( T x) = T 2 = 2 2
The linear combination is uncorrelated with the previously identified linear combinations These linear combinations form the principal components of random vector x.
From above it is trivial that the principal components are obtained from the eigenvalue decomposition of the covariance matrix S: = BDB T in which D = diag (1 , 2 ,..., n ) is the diagonal matrix composed of the eigenvalues 1 2 ... n of the covariance matrix S, and the matrix
B = [ 1 M 2 M ...M n ]
is an orthogonal matrix B T B = BB T = I consisting of the corresponding eigenvectors as its columns. Therefore the principal components can be expressed as
y i = T x = 1i x1 + K + Ni x N i
representing the i.th principal component, i = 1, 2, , n The eigenvectors with the largest eigenvalues correspond to the dimensions that have the strongest correlation in the dataset. This means that the more correlated the data, the bigger share of the total variation is explained by the first principal component. After finding the PCs, we can express the original variables as a linear combination of principal components: xi = i y = Bi1 y1 + K + iN y N
i =1 i =1 N
> Threshold
Another criterion first sorts the eigenvalues in order of magnitude, then finds from the spectrum a break point that divides the eigenvalues in large and small and finally chooses the PCs corresponding to the large eigenvalues (Mellin, 2004). If the original variables are standardized for PCA (see section 2.5), each of them will have a unit variance. Therefore any PC with an eigenvalue of at least 1 explains more of the total variance than any of the original variables. Thus a simple heuristic would be select those PCs that have an eigenvalue of at least 1 (Clustan, 2006). Deciding to keep only the first r PCs allows us to replace the previous exact relationship by a close approximation: xi i y = Bi1 y1 + K + ir y r
1 1 M 2 2 MLM r r
= B r D 1/2 r
where
B r = [ 1 M 2 MLM r ]
D1/2 = diag 1 , 2 ,K, r r
)
6
If PCs are calculated from standardized data (that is, from the correlation matrix), the PC matrix elements represent the correlation between the r chosen PCs and the n original variables. We can also compute principal component scores that represent the value of each PC with respect to each observation:
y j = B r x j , j = 1,2,..., n
of r-vector
y j = ( y j1 , y j 2 ,..., y jr )
Quadratic form expression f (x) = x T 1 x = c where c is a constant determines an ellipsoid of n-dimensional space as a function of variable x. It can be shown that the principal components are the main axis of the ellipsoid
x T 1 Bx = c
The main axis of the ellipsoid coincide with the directions of the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix S and the lengths of the main axis relate to each other as numbers 7
i
where li is the ith eigenvalue of the covariance matrix S. The geometric interpretation is illustrated in figure 1, where all principal component vectors are drawn for 2-dimensional data.
2.5 Discussion
Although PCA appears to have many benefits, few things should be kept in mind when considering performing PCA to a particular data set. Firstly, PCA is not a statistical method from the viewpoint that there is no probability distribution specified for the observations. Therefore it is important to keep in mind that PCA best serves to represent data in simpler, reduced form. Another challenge to be kept in mind is that it is often difficult, if not impossible, to discover the true economic interpretation of PCs since the new variables are linear combinations of the original variables. In addition, for PCA to work exactly, one should use standardized data so that the mean is zero and the unbiased estimate of variance is unity:
zi =
where
xi x
zi = i.th standardized variable This is because it is often the case that the scales of the original variables are not comparable and that (those) variable (variables) with high absolute variance will dominate the first principal component. There is one major drawback to standardization, however. Standardizing means that PCA results will come out with respect to standardized variables. This makes the interpretation and further applications of PCA results even more difficult.
Term structures are calculated for different classes of bonds, most typically for risk free government bonds. The most important and widely used interest rates, however, consist of Interbank Offered Rates and swap rates that derive from high credit rating banks borrowing money from each other. These curves typically lie a little higher than government curves. There are numerous, ongoing challenges offered by the term structure: how to estimate it, how to use it to evaluate implicit interest rates in future (forward rates) and how to explain the shape and the movements of the curve, the most demanding challenge.
where E(W) = expected value of the portfolio at the end of the target horizon W * = lowest portfolio value at the given confidence level W0 = initial investment R * = lowest portfolio return at the given confidence level From the above definition, it is easy to compute for example parametric VaR as
VaRMEAN = W0 t
where = standard normal deviate corresponding to desired left-tail confidence level = standard deviation of portfolio return
A thorough discussion of VaR -methodology itself is beyond the scope of this study. A reader interested to explore the field of VaR is referred to a comprehensive guide to VaR by Philippe Jorion (Jorion, 2004).
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t = time adjustment factor It is obvious that correlations are essential driving forces behind portfolio risk (Jorion, 2004). However, the number of correlations increases geometrically with the number of assets (figure 2): with n assets, the number of correlations is n * ( n + 1) / 2 .
corrs Number of correlationsas a function of number of assets 20000
15000
10000
5000
This poses two problems with large portfolios. Firstly, when the number of assets increases, it is more likely that some correlations will be measured inaccurately or incorrectly. Secondly, the computation time of covariance matrix and the subsequent VaR calculations can increase dramatically, which is not feasible for making quick decisions on trading portfolio positions in fastchanging markets. Thirdly, the VaR of the portfolio may not be positive2. The benefit of performing PCA is that to examine the behaviour of original variables we can simulate the movements of principal components. Not only is the number of PCs much smaller but also the covariance matrix is positive definite, because the eigenvalue decomposition produces uncorrelated variables. Consider a portfolio z = wR mapped into its exposures on the first K principal components:
VaR is proportional to portfolio variance, which is positive only if the covariance matrix is positive definite. This requires the number of observations to be larger than the number of variables, and the series cannot be linearly correlated. The problem of positive-definiteness occurs more likely when portfolio consists of a large number of highly correlated assets such as zero-coupon bonds.
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= (w T 1 ) 2 1 + ... + (w T K ) 2 K
2 = 12 2 ( y1 ) + ... + K 2 ( y K )
In other words, the variance of the portfolio z is given by sum of the squared exposures times the variance of each PC. This is a remarkable simplification compared to the variance calculated with original variables because instead of requiring all of the variances and covariances of the original variables, it is enough to use K independent variables. In other words, for a portfolio of m variables the covariance matrix of dimension m*m can be replaced with just a few variables. However, it is not difficult to construct a portfolio which has a large position sensitive to risk factors that appears unimportant in the PCA (Kreinin et al., 1998). This means that to perform efficient PCA on a portfolio, one should select the PCs not based on how much they explain of the total variability of the data but on how much of the variability of the particular portfolio. For example Hull (2005) presents a portfolio that has little exposure to the first component but significant exposure to the second component (calculated for U.S. Treasury data). Using only one component to hedge the position, which is similar to duration-based hedging that considers a parallel shift in term structure, would dangerously understate VaR. This important remark is surprisingly often not mentioned in literature regarding principal component analysis.
(Litterman et al, 1991). Given the simple computation of portfolio returns and variance, it is easy to create portfolios that are immune to a factor by selecting asset holdings that make the sensitivity of the portfolio equal to zero.
Macroeconomic Analysis
Empirical research in literature suggests that although PCA produces artificial variables that explain the variability of interest rates, one can associate rational macroeconomic interpretations to these variables (Wu, 2003). For example, there is tendency for strong correlation between surprises of monetary policy and the subsequent movement of the slope component. This area of study is vital among central bankers and agents involved in and directly affected by central bank actions. In addition, PCA overcomes some computational problems often confronted in macroeconomic analysis. Typical macroeconomic models try to explain or predict variations in response variables by variations in prediction variables trough, for example, Multiple Linear Regression (MLR). However, macroeconomic variables often tend to be somewhat linearly dependent which leads to problems of multicollinearity. PCA resolves this problem by creating uncorrelated variables on which the original response variables can be regressed. The methodology of combining PCA with MLR is called Principal Component Regression.
In the cases studied in this paper, all of the variables represent interest rates with variances of comparable magnitude. Evidence suggests that with such variables standardized and nonstandardized data produce very similar results (Rodrigues, 1997). Therefore we have not standardized the data (except for the mean) to facilitate the interpretation of the results. Analysing first differences, rather than levels, has the advantage that it allows constructing different interest rate curve scenarios that are often very useful considering applications of PCA. The disadvantage, however, is that taking first differences has a tendency to artificially increase noise and therefore decrease the efficiency of estimation (Heidari et al., 2002). I performed PCA on two different setups. Firstly, I analysed each currency zone term structures independently and compared the correlations between PCs specific to different currency zones. In the second setup I performed one aggregate analysis.
In fact, on 14th July 2006, during the writing of this paper and slightly after the end of the observation period used, Bank of Japan ended its 6-year period of effectively zero interest rates by raising the key interest rate to 0.25%.
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GBP Interest Rates Development 5,30 5,20 5,10 5,00 4,90 4,80 4,70 4,60 4,50 4,40 4,30
06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 5 6 5 5 6 6 4 4 4 6 6 5 4. 9. 16. 23. 30. 2. 5. 12. 19. 26. 7. 14. 21. 28. Date
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that explain completely the variability of the original variables. The aim is to be able to explain at least 90% of the total variability of interest rates across the term structure with as few PCs as possible for each currency zone. In order to determine how many PCs are sufficient, we need to analyse the explanatory power of them. Similar analysis is conducted for aggregate data with 4 (currency zones) * 12 (maturities) variables x = (x1, x2,, x72) and corresponding 72 principal components.
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100.00 % 98.00 % 96.00 % 94.00 % 92.00 % 90.00 % 88.00 % 86.00 % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Principal Component
Cumulative % of Variance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Principal Component
Breaking down the explanatory power of principal components on the variability of original variables reveals further insight (figure 5). Considering the wish to explain at least 90% of the variability of the interest rates across all maturities, we require 5 first PCs for each currency zone. Therefore the model for each currency zone is: xi i y = Bi1 y1 + Bi 2 y 2 + Bi 3 y 3 + Bi 4 y 4 + i 5 y 5 The 1st PC explains very little of money market interest rates, almost all of medium-term swap rates and quite well very long swap rates. The 2nd PC shows opposite behavior: money market and longterm rates are more explained than medium-term rates by it. 3rd PC, similarly, is responsible for explaining some of the variation in short and long-term ends of the interest rate curve. However, the variation patterns differ from that of 2nd PC (otherwise the 3rd PC variation would be included in 2nd PC). Interestingly, 4th and 5th PCs are significant in describing movements of short-term interest rates - a result not often confronted in literature.
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1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC Total
1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC Total
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1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC Total
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PC coefficients
Figure 6 shows to coefficients of the first five principal components for each currency zone. The coefficients describe loadings of each principal component on a particular variable, i.e. the effect of each PCs on different maturity. The distinction of loadings to curves in figure 4 is that loadings only describe what effect each PC has on each maturity without considering the absolute magnitude of the effect, whereas in figure 4 the curves represent the amount of total variation explained by each component. In general the 1st PC shows quite flat behavior and therefore explains shift of the interest rate curves. Similarly, the 2nd PCs for each currency zones show clear downward trends, therefore explaining twist of the interest rate curves. The 3rd PCs shows a bell-shaped trend and therefore explains the bow of the interest rate curves4. The 4th and 5th PCs are important for shortterm interest rates, but their rational interpretation is more difficult.
In literature the first three components are most often referred to as level, slope and curvature. This notation is meaningful when performing PCA on levels, rather than differences. Unfortunately, however, the notation is employed for differences quite often, too. This is an example of findings that PCA is a black box that is widely used but poorly understood.
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Loadings - EUR
0,9 0,7 0,5 0,3 0,1 -0,1 -0,3 -0,5 -0,7 -0,9
3Y 4Y 7Y 8Y 5Y 6Y 6M 12 M 9Y 10 Y 12 Y 15 Y 20 Y 25 Y 30 Y 1M 3M 2Y
Loadings - USD
0,9 0,7 0,5 0,3 0,1 -0,1 -0,3 -0,5 -0,7 -0,9
Coefficient value
coefficient value
1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC
1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC
6M 12 M 2Y
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Maturity (months)
Loadings - GBP
0,9 0,7 coefficient value 1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC
coefficient value 0,9 0,7 0,5 0,3 0,1 -0,1 -0,3 -0,5 -0,7 -0,9
Loadings - JPY
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1. PC 2. PC 3. PC 4. PC 5. PC
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Figure 6. Loadings of first 3 principal components as features of interest rate curve: shift, twist and bow
Scenarios
Changes or shocks in PCs cause the interest rate structure to shift relative to the loadings of particular PC in question. For example, if there is a twist shock, the effect will be larger on the mid-term (2-5y) interest rates than short (-12m) or very long interest rates (+5y). Therefore one can use loadings to construct several market shock scenarios and investigate how well the market model composing of the chosen components captures these scenarios. There are different methods for creating market scenarios. For example, one can assume that PCs can move up or down some amount (for example 2.33 standard deviations corresponding to 1st and 99th percentiles of standard normal distribution). This method allows constructing 2n different scenarios as possible combinations of chosen n PCs. I decided to create scenarios based on Monte Carlo simulation. I create random vectors whose elements are drawn from multinormal distribution with zero mean and covariance matrix equal to diagonal matrix of chosen eigenvalues (that correspond to variances of chosen PCs) and multiply this vector with PCs to get different linear combinations representing daily interest rate movement scenarios. The advantage of Monte Carlo method is that one can choose the number of scenarios arbitrarily, the formation of scenarios (i.e. the combinations of changes in chosen PCs) randomly and examine the correlations between scenarios and original data, for example. Compared to simulating the original data, we now only need to simulate 5 variables each time instead of 18, which clearly shows the advantage of PCA in saving computational time. 19
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Figure 7 plots the different scenarios for each currency zones. Thicker long-dashed curves representing 5th and 95th quantiles are drawn on the same diagram together with a particular days observed changes shown in short-dashed curves. The scenarios seem to vary as expected within the quantiles. Only in few occasions are the quantiles exceeded by a particular scenario (such as for JPY). This suggests that the market model with the chosen PCs performs quite well in estimating the daily changes.
Scenarios - EUR
8 6 Basis Points 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 Basis Points 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10
Scenarios - USD
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Figure 7. Scenarios
Levels vs Differences
As noted before, taking first differences may artificially increase noise and therefore decrease efficiency of PCA. To study this effect, I performed PCA on levels of interest rates, too. The results suggest that 3 PCs is enough to explain most of the variation of all maturities (figure 8), compared to 5 PCs required for differenced data. This supports the disadvantage of taking first difference. Therefore one is faced with a trade-off between efficient estimation (low dimensionality of model) and applicability of results (scenarios and other applications where standard deviation of PCs is required). However, more extensive research, analysis and discussion on levels vs. differences are beyond the scope of this study.
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Figure 8. Breakdown of explanatory power of principal components for levels of interest rates
Correlations
Research and analysis performed in literature proposes that some correlation between the first components extracted from different country bond data exists although correlation between second and third components is less evident (Rodrigues, 1997). I investigated the correlations between first five principal components estimated for different countries. Correlations are calculated from principal component scores for the observation period. It can be seen that for 1. PC, all of the currency zones correlate quite strongly with each other, highest being 0.79 for EUR/GBP and lowest being 0.53 for USD/JPY and GBP/JPY (table 1). This means that the relative levels of interest rate changes have been quite stable between the currency zones. Only EUR/USD shows moderate correlation (0.33) for 2. PC, while other combinations correlate much less obviously. This suggests that the twist effect (and therefore possibly monetary policy
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Maturity
actions) has been quite inconsistent between the currency zones during the observation period. Similar small correlations are found for 3. PC. These findings support the evidence presented in literature. Interestingly, there is evidence of some EUR/USD, USD/GBP, USD/JPY and GBP/JPY correlation for 4. PC. Similarly, 5. PC shows correlations of comparable magnitude. Taking into account correlations for all PCs, it can be concluded that the interest rates fluctuate to some degree within same dimensions. In other words, several variables can be found that explain movements of interest rates across different currency zones, which suggests there exists some common global interest rate movements.
1st Principal Component Correlation EUR USD GBP JPY EUR 1,00 0,77 0,79 0,64 USD 0,77 1,00 0,65 0,53 GBP 0,79 0,65 1,00 0,53 JPY 0,64 0,53 0,53 1,00 Correlation EUR USD GBP JPY 2nd Principal Component EUR 1,00 0,20 0,00 0,06 USD 0,20 1,00 0,12 -0,17 GBP 0,00 0,12 1,00 -0,15 JPY 0,06 -0,17 -0,15 1,00
3rd Principal Component Correlation EUR USD GBP JPY EUR 1,00 0,33 -0,12 0,02 USD 0,33 1,00 -0,17 -0,18 GBP -0,12 -0,17 1,00 0,12 JPY 0,02 -0,18 0,12 1,00 Correlation EUR USD GBP JPY
4th Principal Component EUR 1,00 -0,10 0,04 0,05 USD -0,10 1,00 -0,11 -0,08 GBP 0,04 -0,11 1,00 0,00 JPY 0,05 -0,08 0,00 1,00
5th Principal Component Correlation EUR USD GBP JPY EUR 1,00 0,17 0,14 0,00 USD 0,17 1,00 -0,05 -0,16 GBP 0,14 -0,05 1,00 -0,19 JPY 0,00 -0,16 -0,19 1,00
However, it should be noted that the results are dependent on the observation period. Empirical evidence has shown that correlations across different currency zones may change significantly over a few-year observation period (Rodrigues, 1997). This suggests that multiple currency zone models are less stable than single country models.
capture 99% of the total variability. In other words, quadrupling the dimensions about quadruples the number of PCs needed to explain the variability of the data. This suggests that there is not much scope for additional dimension reduction by combining different interest rate markets.
Explanatory Power - Currency Zones Combined
Cumulative % of Variance 120,00 % 100,00 % 80,00 % 60,00 % 40,00 % 20,00 % 0,00 % 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 Principal Components
Breaking down the explanatory power of PCs reveals that PCA on aggregate data seems most efficiently work to long-term interest rates, while short-term interest rates show less common behavior across currency zones. For example, while first common 5 PCs explain 99% of JPY 4 year swap variability, the figure is less than 30% for 6 month Libor for the same currency zone (table 2). However, the differences across currency zones are so large that further general conclusions are hard to be extracted.
Currency Zone Maturity 1M 3M 6M 12M 2Y 3Y 4Y 5Y 6Y 7Y 8Y 9Y 10Y 12Y 15Y 20Y 25Y 30Y First 3 PCs 3,4 % 0,3 % 6,7 % 16,4 % 74,4 % 78,7 % 83,8 % 85,4 % 87,4 % 88,1 % 87,9 % 87,8 % 87,3 % 86,5 % 83,9 % 80,8 % 80,2 % 78,4 % First 5 PCs 8,0 % 1,4 % 12,4 % 22,1 % 84,0 % 89,6 % 94,5 % 96,6 % 98,4 % 99,4 % 99,7 % 99,4 % 99,1 % 98,4 % 97,0 % 94,7 % 93,9 % 92,5 % EUR First 10 PCs 23,0 % 62,5 % 83,1 % 90,3 % 98,3 % 98,6 % 99,4 % 99,4 % 99,5 % 99,6 % 99,7 % 99,6 % 99,6 % 99,7 % 99,7 % 99,2 % 98,9 % 98,8 % USD First 10 PCs 37,6 % 87,1 % 97,8 % 98,2 % 98,9 % 99,3 % 99,5 % 99,8 % 99,7 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,7 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,7 % 99,5 %
First 20 PCs 94,5 % 88,6 % 97,7 % 99,1 % 99,5 % 99,6 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,8 %
First 3 PCs 5,9 % 2,8 % 6,5 % 9,5 % 85,7 % 90,4 % 94,1 % 96,6 % 97,8 % 99,0 % 99,2 % 99,3 % 99,0 % 98,5 % 97,5 % 95,8 % 95,0 % 93,7 %
First 5 PCs 27,5 % 73,8 % 83,8 % 84,4 % 90,6 % 94,0 % 96,8 % 98,3 % 99,0 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,5 % 99,2 % 98,4 % 97,2 % 96,6 % 95,6 %
First 20 PCs 95,8 % 97,5 % 99,2 % 99,7 % 99,8 % 99,8 % 99,7 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,8 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,8 %
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Currency Zone Maturity 1M 3M 6M 12M 2Y 3Y 4Y 5Y 6Y 7Y 8Y 9Y 10Y 12Y 15Y 20Y 25Y 30Y First 3 PCs 7,3 % 18,1 % 20,5 % 27,5 % 76,7 % 81,2 % 90,0 % 93,2 % 94,9 % 96,2 % 95,7 % 94,9 % 94,9 % 95,1 % 90,1 % 89,1 % 79,7 % 80,0 % First 5 PCs 14,3 % 26,2 % 42,1 % 52,5 % 78,9 % 82,3 % 91,2 % 94,5 % 96,9 % 98,6 % 98,9 % 98,8 % 98,8 % 98,1 % 95,5 % 94,6 % 83,7 % 89,0 %
GBP First 10 PCs 26,1 % 50,4 % 76,3 % 85,7 % 96,0 % 96,5 % 98,9 % 98,8 % 98,7 % 99,2 % 99,1 % 99,0 % 99,0 % 98,8 % 97,4 % 98,1 % 90,7 % 95,3 %
JPY First 20 PCs 38,7 % 68,3 % 96,2 % 99,3 % 99,4 % 99,6 % 99,6 % 99,5 % 99,6 % 99,7 % 99,6 % 99,7 % 99,5 % 99,1 % 99,6 % 98,8 % 99,9 % 99,6 % First 3 PCs 20,2 % 13,0 % 19,2 % 19,4 % 70,3 % 80,7 % 89,4 % 93,7 % 94,7 % 95,8 % 96,5 % 96,8 % 96,3 % 88,8 % 86,4 % 81,7 % 78,2 % 74,9 % First 5 PCs 22,5 % 19,6 % 28,0 % 27,4 % 74,4 % 84,3 % 93,5 % 95,9 % 96,8 % 97,6 % 97,9 % 97,9 % 97,1 % 91,2 % 88,3 % 85,5 % 82,7 % 80,0 % First 10 PCs 49,1 % 59,7 % 68,1 % 62,7 % 95,3 % 97,7 % 99,0 % 99,1 % 99,3 % 99,3 % 99,3 % 99,1 % 98,8 % 97,5 % 96,4 % 98,0 % 98,8 % 98,2 % First 20 PCs 67,8 % 95,4 % 97,2 % 98,3 % 99,5 % 99,6 % 99,4 % 99,6 % 99,7 % 99,9 % 99,9 % 99,7 % 99,5 % 98,4 % 99,6 % 99,5 % 99,7 % 99,7 %
Table 2. Cumulative explanatory power of principal components calculated from data consisting of all currency zones interest rate curves.
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