Human Resource Management

Chapter X Morale
Aim
Aim of this chapter is to: enlighten the concept of morale enrich the significance of morale evaluate various methods of measuring morale of an employee enlighten the students with the relation of morale and productivity
Learning Objective
Learning objective of the chapter is to: understand morale and its importance understand the high and low morale concept evaluate the technique of measuring morale of an employee
Learning Outcome
After learning this chapter learners will be able to: explain the concept of high and low morale evaluate the method of measuring morale of an employee enrich themselves with the idea and methods used to boost the morale of an employee
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Human Resource Management
10.1 Introduction
Organisational morale: Organisational morale means as follows: The way people feel about their job and the organization they work for It includes the atmosphere of the workplace and the way people work together as a team The general level of confidence and satisfaction at work place is nothing but employees morale High organisational morale usually leads to happy workers and financial success Morale is internal feeling and it is inspired by the environment In general it is referred as esprit de crop, a feeling enthusiasm, zeal, confidence in individuals or groups that they will be able to cope with the tasks assigned to them
For example, an organization with high morale would have a busy, but positive atmosphere, where everyone knew what was expected and worked well together to meet these common goals
10.2 Meaning of Morale

Morale has been variously defined by different authors. Please refer table given below: Sr.no 1. Authors Name Professor Ralph C. Davis Definition Good organisational morale is a condition in which individuals and groups voluntarily make a reasonable subordination of their personal objectives for their organization. Morale means evident commitment, that is, demonstrated spirit, enthusiasm, and confidence in the organizations policies, programs, and accomplishments. Morale is revealed by what individuals and groups say and do to show an interest in, understanding of, and personal identification with work-team survival and success. A mental condition or attitude of individuals and groups which determines their willingness to co-operate. Good morale is evidenced by employee enthusiasm, voluntary conformance with regulations and orders, and a willingness to co-operate with others in the accomplishment of an organizations objectives. Poor morale is evinced by surliness, in subordination, a feeling of discouragement and dislike of the job, company and associates. It is a state of mind and emotions affecting the attitude and willingness to work, which in turn, affect individual and organisational objectives. The sum total of several psychological qualities which include courage, fortitude, resolution, and above all, confidence. Table 10.1 Morales Definition:
2.
Dale Yoder and Paul D. Standohar
3.
Edwin B. Filippo
4. 5.
Haimann Joseph D. Mooney
10.3 What is Low Morale?

Low morale, on the other hand, can be a destructive force It can reduce productivity, harm relationships with clients and customers, and, ultimately, destroy the organizations bottom line Many different things can trigger low organisational morale Layoffs and job insecurity are among the most obvious
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But, morale problems can also come from poor communication between managers and workers, hard work not being recognized or rewarded, or even missed opportunities for employees to socialize and bond with one another.
10.4 Importance of Morale

Morale directly impacts the working of an individual in a team towards the realization of common objectives Morale therefore is individual specific as well as general Building of morale is not a mechanical problem that could be solved by either rewards or by punishments The best way to manage it is to proactively do a lot of employee related interventions that will together impact morale positively Morale can be broadly divided into three categories: The first concerns, off-the job satisfaction that is expected from work such as Income Security Stature in the community
The second concerns on-the-job satisfaction: For example-job interest Opportunity for advancement Status within the organization
The third group concern personal satisfaction: Job satisfaction that employee get is for organization in the form of: Growth Achievement powers Job expertise etc.
Each category has its impact and can damage employee morale to varying degrees It can result in employee behavior that ranges from engaging in simple gossip to the employee exiting the company One of the ill effects of low employee morale is the bad-mouthing that the employee might engage in outside the workplace with friends and might even engage in negative press reporting This could be very harmful for the market perception about the company and even impact sales and revenue Morale can also be understood as the spirit and confidence with which the employee performs his/her job It is a complex psychological quality that is impossible to force on someone, difficult to measure, and easily destroyed The level of morale is a result of the degree to which the overall needs of the individual are fulfilled.
10.5 Employees Morale can be Classified as

10.5.1 The Employees Background Which Includes Levels of indigence and education Type of personality The above two points largely determine the way in which one seeks to fulfill individual needs for belonging, esteem, and self-realization Morale hinges on the satisfaction of these needs.
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10.5.2 An Employees Personal Environment Encompasses His/her relations with his/her family, friends and neighbors The employee brings thoughts of his/her home and social life with work and they influence thinking and attitudes while on the job.
10.5.3 Management Practices Influencing Morale Include Manager behavior Company policies and procedures with respect to salaries Promotion methods Employee services and benefits Working conditions Handling grievances Disciplinary actions Handling employee issues etc.
10.5.4 Bottom Line Employee morale is all about the perception of the employees expectations and reality The closer the individuals environment comes to providing the kinds of rewards one expects; the better will be ones morale And as this is unique to each individuals expectations All of the categories mentioned above need to be proactively redressed in order to best manage morale.
10.6 Morale and Productivity

It is assumed that high morale and high productivity go hand in hand Since morale manifests itself in the attitudes of employees, it is important to know about the results of high and low morale One of the most unpredictable effects of the level of morale is its impact on employee productivity The productivity of a group is a composite of many factors, at least one of which is the general state of mind or the commitment of the group Formerly it was thought that high morale resulted in high productivity The more we study the casual relationship in business; the less prone we are to oversimplify these relationships Research is repeatedly proving that this correlation is not as simple Various studies have revealed that the group having the highest morale need not always be the highest in productivity As morale is made up of so many factors, so is productivity, hence both the terms are combination of complex factors The higher the groups satisfactions the higher the productivity Though high morale may not be the single cause of the high productivity A high-producing group nearly always has a reasonably high morale Morale development most of the time results in successful operations
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1. Where the individuals can relate their respective endeavors and objectives to the success of the enterprise as a whole 2. So this concluded that A morale-building organization tends to utilize fully the skill, initiative, judgment, and training of its members, and through such utilization succeeds in building up these and other qualities in everyone, so that the abilities of all constantly expand, and the organization thus is able to succeed and grow.
10.7 Measurement of Employees Morale

Morale can be measured by accessing attitude and job satisfaction As it is intangible and subjective concept, it cannot be directly measured or evaluated Employees may be unwilling to express their feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their job to the management Methods of measuring morale all the way from the hunch or general feeling, appraisal to reasonably scientific efforts. There are some scales on which we can measure employees Morale: The supervisor/executives impressions The guided interview The unguided interview A combination of the guided and unguided interview An analysis of company records The listening-in process The questionnaire A combination of any of the foregoing methods.
10.8 Interview Method

Interview may be of two types Guided Unguided
10.8.1 Guided Interview In guided interview method emphasizes mainly on the questions set out before hand by consulting the higher management Under this method, the investigators go to the respondent with printed questionnaires Explaining them the general objects and provide explanation, if asked for The interview asks a series of formal questions with simple choice responses Similar to those included in the printed questionnaire which answered orally.
10.8.2 Unguided Interview In unguided interview the participants are encouraged to talk freely about what he thinks about the organization and its people There are no specific or formal questions The interviewer listens to and encourages the employees to take freely with an assurance that talk will remain secret and confidential It may be held individually or in groups The interviewer may ask questions of general interest and should avoid specific questions.
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10.9 A combination of the Guided and Unguided Interview

To combine the two methods, the interviewer may start with the guided interview, which should be not too long or cover too much territory The interviewer is then invited to discuss any subject that (s)he may like to talk about During the guided interview some persons tend to bring in material that has no special significance in relation to the information sought The interviewer should observe such instances and encourage the interviewee to follow up these leads during the unguided position of the interview As a matter of fact, few guided interviews are strictly kept on the detailed subjects laid out in the formal program And a conscious effort has to be put forth to get the most out of the unguided phases of the interview.
10.10 Companys Record Method

The investigators analyses the records and bring out the variations in output, such as: Rate of absenteeism Labor turnover and accident Grievances Complaints and their severity
By analyzing the records, one checks the extent to which organization is achieving results The extent of increase or decrease in profitability, productivity or any other direct benefits to the enterprise It is the indirect method of measuring the employee morale.
10.11 General Impression of the Supervisor

Some supervisors may not be able to tell you how they know the morale of their men (team member) But they enjoy such an intimate relationship with their team member that they do know what their attitudes are They usually know how to get things done according to the methods they have been taught, but few of them have had any special training in evaluating morale as such Some executives are inspirational leaders and capable of developing a high morale, but few of these are trained in observing and evaluating morale standards Executives should be encouraged to strive to sense the morale situation and should be aided by more accurate tools that are available.
10.12 Listening-in by a Trained Observer

Whiting Williams of Cleveland, Ohio has developed the listening-in technique to which is called Whiting Williams Method. He personally possesses the ability to make his observations largely objective, something that is unusual in men who might be available for such work.
10.13 The Questionnaire Method

This method is generally used to collect employee opinions about the factors which affect morale and their effect on personnel objectives
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Morale surveys are generally conducted with a view to: Finding out what employees really think Finding out about the kind of education and information they need Improving morale and keeping a check on the effectiveness of personnel programs Determining the training needs of employees Finding out what employees really like.
In the questionnaire, questions may be asked in various ways The interviewer has to determine the type of questions to be used depending on the objectives of the survey These include multiple choice, dichotomous (yes or no) and open-ended questions.
10.14 Conducting the Survey

Management may engage an outside consultant to conduct the entire survey In this event, the consultant must be introduced to the employees, and they should be assured that the person will not reveal to anyone an individuals answer In some cases the companys representatives may give the employees the questionnaires in a stamped envelope Then they do planning on a table about how to distribute those envelopes They let the employees to get them if they wish to Employees can even give that envelop to their fellow employees to distribute them The stamped envelopes are frequently addressed to some management consultant or college professor who tabulates the results.
10.15 Measurement of Employee Morale

An organization with low morale must move quickly and decisively to fix the problem before it is out of control For the most part, it is up to the managers and other senior staffs to implement strategies that will fix the problem However, the average worker does have some influence over improving morale Dale Yoder and other pointed out the following as signals of low morale: Employee unrest High rate of absenteeism Tardiness High employee turnover Grievances Need for discipline Fatigue and monotony
10.16 Improving Morale

There are a number of measures which can be used to control the warning signal of low morale The following are the positive measures to be taken to bring job satisfaction to the employees and reconcile individual interests with the interests of the organization Creation of whole jobs Job enrichment
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Building responsibility into job Modifying the work environment Job-sharing Rotation of jobs Profits-sharing
Morale can be improved in several other measures such as: Employee contest Special recognition Awards to long service employees Free coffee during rest pauses Films shows to employees during their lunch hour Training the supervisors in how to handle people
Under these methods complete jobs are assigned to workers The complexity of a job should be increased so that it may appeal their higher needs Job enrichment tries to deal with dissatisfaction by increasing job depth Under this, individual employees may be given responsibility for setting their own work pace for concerning their own error, and/or for deciding on the best way to perform a particular task Employees should be encouraged to take risk decision This can be achieved by: Developing work groups Developing the social contact of the employees The use of music Regular rest breaks
Flex time permits employees to arrange their work hours to suit their personal needs and life-styles This is particularly suited to situations with fluctuating work loads Flex time employees are responsible for coordinating their functions with other employees Furthermore, it will increase the responsibility and autonomy on employee Two workers divide a full-time job between themselves splitting not only the hours of work but also salary This reduced employees boredom which arises out of the monotonous nature of his work Morale can be improved by effective profit-sharing schemes In addition to its economic aspects, profit sharing has also psychological aspects relating to friendly move by the management in providing the workers an opportunity to participate in the profits.
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Summary
Good organisational morale is a condition in which individuals and group voluntarily make a reasonable subordination of their personal objectives of their organization Morale can be measured by assessing attitude and job satisfaction The guided interview is based on the hypothesis that employees answers to certain questions will reveal their attitudes Questionnaire method is generally used to collect employee opinions about the factors which affect morale and their effect on personnel objectives. Definition of morale by Professor Ralph C. Davis, Good organisational morale is a condition in which individuals and groups voluntarily make a reasonable subordination of their personal objectives for their organization. Morale is nothing but esprit de crop, a feeling enthusiasm, zeal, confidence in individuals or groups that they will be able to cope with the tasks assigned to the employees. Low morale can reduce productivity, harm relationships with clients and customers, and, ultimately, destroy the organizations bottom line Morale can be divided into three categories:
1. off-the job satisfaction:

Income Security Stature in the community
2. On-the-job satisfaction:
job interest Opportunity for advancement Status within the organization
3. Personal satisfaction:
Growth Achievement powers Job expertise etc.
It is assumed that high morale and high productivity go hand in hand There are some scales on which we can measure employees Morale: The supervisor/executives impressions The guided interview The unguided interview A combination of the guided and unguided interview An analysis of company records The listening-in process The questionnaire A combination of any of the foregoing methods.
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References
Jay (6 march 2009). MBACareerby MBABooksforMBAEducation. Morale and Motivation Theory of Management.Available on: http://mymbaclasses.blogspot.com/2009/03/morale-and-motivation-theory-of.html. Last Access Date: 13 October 2010. By Arun Kumar, Rachana Sharma. Principles of Business Management. Available: P505-511.
Recommended Reading
Anne Bruce. Building a High Morale Workplace. Available on: http://books.google.co.in/books?id=fcr1pkSXRfgC& printsec=frontcover&dq=morale+of+employees&hl=en&ei=QqvHTP_nAoSivQPN6PnTDw&sa=X&oi=book_r esult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=morale%20of%20employees&f=false. Last Access Date: 27 October 2010 Malcolm Carlaw, Peggy Carlaw, Vasudha K. Deming, Kurt Friedmann. Managing And Motivation Contact Center Employees: Tools And Techniques For Inspiring Outstanding Performance From Your Frontline Staff. Available on: http://books.google.co.in/books?id=a40FjvGcOB4C&pg=PA3&dq=morale+of+employees&hl= en&ei=QqvHTP_nAoSivQPN6PnTDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDUQ6AEwA Q#v=onepage&q=morale%20of%20employees&f=false.Last Access Date: 27 October 2010 Casey Fitts Hawley. Two Hundred one ways to turn any employee into a star performer. Available On: http:// books.google.co.in/books?id=64_sALufiUEC&pg=PA56&dq=morale+of+employees&hl=en&ei=QqvHT P_nAoSivQPN6PnTDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage &q=morale%20of%20employees&f=false.Last Access Date:27 October 2010
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Chapter XI Motivation
Aim
Aim of this chapter is to: enlighten the students with the concept of motivation evaluate different types of theories of motivation enrich the learners with the significance of motivation
Learning Objective
Learning objective of this chapter is to: understand the need of motivation for an employee understand the effect of motivation in an organization evaluate the theory of motivation
Learning Outcome
After learning this chapter students will be able to: understand the concept of motivation understand the importance of motivation in an organization
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11.1 Introduction
Management involves creation and maintenance of environment This environment is needed for performance of individuals working together in groups This group performs towards accomplishment of common objectives Hence the managers cannot perform their functions without knowing what motivates people
11.2 Concept of Motivation

Less skilled individuals are motivated to show good performance effectively unless which they may not achieve the level of performance that is desired from them Managerial people are always facing the problems of motivating their subordinates to release their potential most effectively It is necessary to motivate employees as this will assure that the goals of the organization are achieved Knowledge of the motivational process provides the basis for understanding what people do and why Motivation is positively correlated with concepts of level of aspiration Degree of Commitment Inclination towards action
Motivation is defined as, You can buy a mans time, you can buy a mans physical presence at a given place, but you cannot buy his enthusiasm, initiative and loyalty. Motivation aims at transforming the ability to do into the will to do Motivation has been defined as the act of stimulating someone to take a desired course of action-to push the right button to get a desired reaction Motivation includes a stimulus and desired results Motivation concerns itself with the will to work Motivation also seeks to know the motives for work and to find out ways and means, by which their realization can be helped and encouraged
11. 3 Definition of Motivation by Different Author

Sr.no 1. 2. 3. 4. Authors names Mr. Urwick Michael Jucius James Driver P.T.Young Definition The dynamic aspect of management Act of stimulating someone to get a desired course of action The phenomena involved in the operation of incentives and drives Of arousing or initiating behavior Of sustaining an activity in progress Of channeling of activity in the given course.
Table 11.1 Motivation by different author A mans performance on a specific task is a function of his skill and motivation Thus it can be said that p=f(S, M), Where, P=performance, S= skill and M=motivation.
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Skill does not guarantee that the individual will put forth his/her best effort There is another variable, namely motivation which finally determines the effort which can be expected from such employees In laboratory experiments it was found that other things being equal, performance level is higher if the motivation level is higher The key to understand motivation lies in the meaning and relationships between needs, drives and goals
11.4 The Motivation Cycle

The motivation cycle comprises of three terms needs, drives and goals. For better understanding refer the diagram given below:
NEEDS (Deprivation)
GOALS (Reduction of) Drives
DRIVES (Deprivation with) Direction
Fig. 11.1 Motivation cycle Needs: The one word definition of a need is efficiency In the domestic sense, needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance
For example, a need exists when a cell in the body is deprived of food and water or when the human personality is deprived of other persons who serve as friends or comparisons Drives: Drives are set up to alleviate needs A drive can be defined as deficiency with direction Drives are action-oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward goalac complishment The examples of the needs for food and water are translated into hunger and thirst drives, and need for friends becomes a drive for affiliation
Goals: At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the motivation cycle can be defined as anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive
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11. 5 Working Situation of Employees

Motivation may range from a threatening gesture to a tradition inspired activity The atmosphere of working situation The past history of human relations in a company Expectations about the future as well as a wage incentive plan are stimuli to action. It is believed that the full force of motivation lies in the person doing the motivation
11.6 Motivation Techniques

According to Michael Jucius, management may proceed to motivate employees. This activity may be divided into two parts: What is to be done How and why what is done
The former are steps in motivation and the latter are rules governing the steps. Both are performed simultaneously
11.7 Steps of Motivation

Size up situation requiring motivation: The first stage of motivation is to make sure of motivational needs Every employee needs motivation However, all people do not react in exactly the same way to the same stimuli Keeping this in mind the executive shall size up how much and what kind of motivation is needed and when and by which individuals
Prepare a set of motivating tools: Having determined the motivational needs of a particular person or group an executive must have a list from which (s)he should select and apply specific tools of motivation An executive from his personal experience should prepare a list of what devices are likely to work with what type of people and under what circumstances
Selecting and applying the appropriate motivator: Proper application of motivational plan is very important This involves selection of following things: The appropriate technique The method of application The timing and location of applications
Having selected appropriate techniques, thought must be given to its application
Follow-up the results of the application: The last stage of motivation is to follow-up the results of the application of the plan The primary objective is to determine whether an employee has been motivated or not If not, some other technique should be tried A secondary purpose of follow-up is to evaluate motivation plans for future guidance
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Rules of Motivating: In following the steps of motivation a manager should be guided by some fundamental rules which should be based upon the following principles: Self-interest and Motivation: Undoubtedly, motivation is mainly built on selfishness To seek some other basis of motivation would be to ignore the real nature of man The aim should be to learn more about selfishness
Attainability: Motivation must establish attainable goals What is prescribed for a particular person must be attainable by him This does not mean that the goal is realized at once Such goals as promotion or desirable transfer may take years to attain. But it must be within reach
Eight Ways to Motivate Employees: Based on a fact-finding study conducted at several manufacturing plants of the General Electric Company, Sorcher and Meyer have made the following recommendations for improving the motivation of employees in routine jobs: Provide assembly line employees with more than minimum training. Providing some sort of formal training for a factory employee beyond the minimum requirement should result in greater personal involvement in the job Create sub-goals to measure accomplishment. A sense of competition is important for motivation. When people work towards clearly defined goals they perform better. Moreover, they are likely to be more interested in the work which will reduce monotony and mental fatigue Provide regular feedback on performance. Psychological studies show that people perform better when they receive positive as well as negative feedback about their performance on a regular basis Maintain a neat and orderly work area. If the foreman does not care about neatness, employees may feel that they need not care about it and this attitude may also affect the quality of their work Arrange work situations so that conversation between employees is either easy or impossible Experienced workers can do routine jobs with little attention to the task Conversation while working may reduce monotony and fatigue and thus have a favorable effect on output If possible, increase the number of operations performed by one employee This can be done by the simplification of manual operations. It offers several advantages, viz. i. The risk of errors is reduced ii. Training costs are minimized iii. Management can hire employees at lower wages iv. Structure jobs, so that workers can, at least occasionally move about the work area v. Besides job rotation, there are other ways to provide for physical movement such as setting employees secure their own tools or by adding operations which require some physical activities vi. Explore ways to assign greater personal responsibility vii. Increased responsibility means greater self-esteem and greater job meaningfulness viii. One way to enlarge responsibility is to let an employee inspect his/her own work
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11.8 Theories of Motivation

As a leader, one need to interact with their followers, peers, seniors, and others whose support they need in order to accomplish their goals To gain their support, one must be able to understand and motivate them To understand and motivate people, you must know human nature Human nature is the common qualities of all human beings People behave according to certain principles of human nature Human needs are an important part of human nature Values beliefs and customs differ from country to country and even within group to group, but in general, all people have a few basic needs As a leader you must understand these needs because they can be powerful motivators
11. 9 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Unlike others researchers in the earlier days of psychology, Abraham Maslow based his theory of human needs on creative people who used all their talents, potential, and capabilities (Bootzin, Loftus, Zajonc, Hall, 1983) His methodology differed from most other psychological researchers at that time in which these researchers mainly observed mentally unhealthy people Maslow (1970) felt that human needs were arranged in a hierarchical order that could be divided into two major groups: Basic needs Meta needs (higher order needs)
1. Basic Needs: The Basic needs are physiological, such as food, water, and sleep; and psychological, such as affection, security and self-esteem These basic needs are also called deficiency needs because if they are not met by an individual, then that person will strive to make up the deficiency
2. Meta needs: Meta needs or being needs (growth needs) These include justice, goodness, beauty, order, unity etc.
Basic needs normally take priority over these Meta needs For example, a person who lacks food or water will not normally attend to justice or beauty needs
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These needs are normally listed in a hierarchical and it as follows: Diagram of Maslows hierarchy of need:
Self-Actualization
Esteem Belongingness and love Safety Physiological
Fig-11.2 Maslows hierarchy of need
Level 5 level
th
Title Self-actualization
Description It knows exactly who you are, where you are going, and what you want to accomplish It is a state of well-being Feeling of moving up in world, recognition, few doubts about self
Belong to a group, close friends to confide with Feels free from immediate danger
4 level
th
Esteem Belongingness and love Safety Physiological
3rd level 2nd level 1st level
Food, water, shelter.
Table: 11.1 Maslow hierarchy of need It should be noted that almost no one stays in one particular hierarchy for an extended period We constantly strive to move up, while at the same time various forces outside our control try to push us down Those on top get pushed down for short time periods, i.e. death of a loved-one or an idea that does not work, while those on the bottom get pushed up, i.e., come across a small prize Our goal as leaders therefore is to help people obtain the skills and knowledge that will push them up the hierarchy on a more permanent basis People who have their basic needs met become much better workers As now these workers are able to concentrate on fulfilling the visions put forth to them Moreover, they will not have to consistently keep struggling to meet their goals
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11.10 McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

The character of an enterprise depends on the assumptions of the management in controlling its human resources Douglas McGregor (1957) developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory Y These two theories represent the extreme ranges of assumption; there are a number of possible combinations on the continuum The managerial attitudes and supervisory practices resulting from such assumption have an important bearing on employees behavior
11.10.1 Theory X People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible People must be forced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them to achieve the organisational objectives People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition People seek security above all else In an organization with Theory X assumptions, managements role is to coerce and control employees Theory X is the view that traditional management has taken towards the workforce
11.10.2 Theory Y Natural of work is like play and rest People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are NOT lazy) Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement People learn to accept and seek responsibility Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population People are capable of using these abilities to solve an organisational problem
People have potential. in an organization with Theory Y assumptions, managements role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals Most organisations are now taking the enlightened view of theory Y (even though they might not be very good at it). A boss can be viewed as taking the theory X approach, while a leader takes the theory Y approach. 11.10.3 Theory Z Prof. William G.Ouchi has developed theory Z This theory is based on the comparative study of Japanese and American management practices Theory Z describes how Japanese management practices can be adopted to the environment of the other countries especially in the United States This theory focuses attention on the organisational behavior side of management Theory Z can be treated as a model for motivation This theory believes in the philosophy of management Both major and minor decisions are taken through consensus in the truly democratic and dynamic management Besides, family relationship prevails between the employer and employees In other words, close, Co-operative and trust-worthy relationship prevails among workers, managers and other groups
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11.10.4 Some Important Points Both theories X and Y make certain not-so-valid judgments They may not reflect mans inherent nature; rather such behavior in man is in part of management philosophy and practices Theory Y particularly emphasizes self-actualization and freedom, implying that all people seek freedom, while there are definite indications that all people may not feel comfortable with freedom because freedom entails responsibility and independent decision-making which people may not subscribe to In an organization, depending on a situation, either the theory X or theory Y could be effectively applied However, in choosing one or the other managers have to bear the implications in mind so that problem such as interpersonal or interdepartmental conflict can be avoided
11. 11 Herzbergs Hygiene & Motivational Factors

Hygiene or Dissatisfying factors must be present in the job before motivators can be used to stimulate a person i.e. one cannot use motivators until all the hygiene factors are met Herzbergs needs are specifically job related and reflect some of the distinct things that people want from their work as opposed to Maslows Hierarchy of Needs which reflect all the needs in a persons life
Dissatisfiers
Working Conditions Policies and administration ve practices Salary and Benifits Supervision Status Job Security Co-workers Personal Life
Motivators
Recognition Achievement Advancement Growth Responsibility Job Challenge
Fig.11.3 Herzbergs hygiene and motivational factors
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11.11.1 Hygiene or Dissatisfiers: Working conditions Policies and administrative practices Salary and Benefits Supervision Status Job security Co-workers Personal life
11.11.2 Motivators or Satisfiers: Recognition Achievement Advancement Growth Responsibility Job challenge
11.12 Analysis of Maslow, Herzberg, and McGregors Theories

Herzbergs theory is a micro version of Maslows theory that is focused in the work environment McGregors Theory X is based on workers caught in the lower levels (1 to 3) of Maslows theory due to bad management practices, while his Theory Y is for workers who have gone above level 3 with the help of management McGregors Theory X is also based on workers caught in Herzbergs Hygiene Dissatisfies, while Theory Y is based on workers who are in the Motivators or Satisfiers section
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Summary
Motivation is defined as, You can buy a mans time, you can buy a mans physical presence at a given place, but you cannot buy his enthusiasm, initiative and loyalty. Less skilled individuals are motivated to show good performance effectively unless which they may not achieve the level of performance that is desired from them The motivation cycle comprises of three terms needs, drives and goals. The one word definition of a need is efficiency A drive can be defined as deficiency with direction A goal in the motivation cycle can be defined as anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive Good organization morale is a condition in which individuals and groups voluntarily make a reasonable subordinate of their personal object of their organization The building of morale is a not a mechanical problem that could be solved by either rewards or punishment The study of human motivation is of great importance in any theory of management Employees must be motivated time to time, so that they will be able to achieve the desired target Motivation aims at transforming the ability to do into the will to do There are three type motivation theories and they are as follows: a. Maslows need hierarchy theory b. McGregors theory X and theory Y c. Herzberg Hygiene theory Maslow View an individuals motivation as a pre-determined order of needs which he strives to satisfy. The Basic needs are physiological, such as food, water, and sleep; and psychological, such as affection, security and self-esteem Douglas McGregor (1957) developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory Y. These two theories represent the extreme ranges of assumption; there are a number of possible combinations on the continuum Theory X is the view that traditional management has taken towards the workforce Theory Y assumptions, managements role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals Theory Z can be treated as a model for motivation. This theory believes in the philosophy of management Herzbergs needs are specifically job related and reflect some of the distinct things that people want from their work as opposed to Maslows Hierarchy of Needs which reflect all the needs in a persons life
Reference
P. Subba Rao. Essentials of Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations (2010). Himalaya Publishing House.p373-p401. Shahid KV, Chavakkad. A Project on Employee Motivation. Available on: http://fliiby.com/file/578319/36oqzc7td6. html . Last Access Date: 26 October 2010. Kondalkar. Organization Effectiveness and change Management. Available on: http://books.google.co.in/bo oks?id=QBHtaadF3DIC&pg=PA246&dq=pdf+of+Motivation+of+an+employee+in+an+organization&hl=en &ei=rq3GTPmJMI-KvQOioa2hDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ# v=onepage&q=pdf%20of%20Motivation%20of%20an%20employee%20in%20an%20organization&f=false . Last Access Date: 26 October 2010.
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Recommended Reading
Lloyd F.Novick. Public Health Administration: Principles For Population-Based Management. Available On: http://books.google.co.in/books?id=E9EQoIxqR6wC&pg=PA270&dq=pdf+of+Motivation+of+an+employee +in+an+organization&hl=en&ei=rq3GTPmJMI-KvQOioa2hDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum =3&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=pdf%20of%20Motivation%20of%20an%20employee%20in%20 an%20organization&f=false. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010. M o t i v a t i o n a n d i t s T h e o r i e s . Av a i l a b l e O n : h t t p : / / m a n a g e m e n t c o n s u l t i n g c o u r s e s . c o m / Lesson20Motivation&ItsTheories.pdf. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010.
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Chapter XII Grievance and Discipline Procedure

Aim
Aim of this chapter is to: enable the students to understand the concept of grievances and discipline procedure identify general practices that organisations use for grievances and discipline
Learning Objective
Learning objective of this chapter is to: understand the concept of grievances and discipline at workplace explain the meaning of grievances and reason as to why they arise bring out the importance of grievances handling describe the procedure of grievances and discipline
Learning Outcome
After learning this chapter learners will be able to: understand the critical role of management in maintaining discipline and dealing with grievances identify appropriate procedure for grievance and discipline
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12.1 Introduction
Definition of Grievances: Definition of grievances changes form company to company and from author to author. Please refer the table below for definition made by different authors Grievance is nothing but an indication of dissatisfaction of employees in an organization Sr.no 1. 2. Name of author Dale Yoder Prof. Jucious
Definition
A written complaint filled by an employee and claiming unfair treatment. Any discontent or dissatisfaction, whether expressed or not and whether valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company that an employee thinks, believes or even feels unfair, unjust or inequitable.
Dissatisfaction of an employees is anything that disturbs the employee, whether expressed or not. Table -12.1 Definition of grievances
3.
Prof Pigors and Meyers
International Labor Organization classifies the grievances as a complaint of one or more workers with respect to: Wages and allowances Condition of work Interpretation of services stipulations Covering such areas overtime, leaves, transfer, promotion, seniority, job assignment and termination of service
National Commission of labor states that complaints affecting one or more individual workers in respect of their: Wage payments Overtime Leave Transfer Promotion Seniority Work assignment Discharge
All above mentioned points would contribute grievances.
12.2 Causes of Grievance Arise:

A grievance is always a symbol of some malfunctioning or maladjustment Due to this a talented and skillful manager can always find out the real or submerged reasons for a grievance Causes of grievances: Promotion
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Amenities Continuity of services Compensation Disciplinary action
Fines Increments Wages Acting promotion Recovery of dues Safety appliance Superannuation Supersession Transfer Victimization Condition of work
12.3 Pre-requisites of a Grievance Procedure

The efficiency of a grievance procedure depends upon the fulfillment of certain pre-requisites. These are as follows: a. Conformity with prevailing legislation: While designing the grievances procedure due consideration must be given to the existing statutory provisions. b. Clarity: There should be clarity regarding each and every aspect of the grievances procedure An aggrieved employee must be informed about: The person to whom a representation can be made The form of submission in written or oral about the aggrieved employee The time limit for the redressal of grievance
Similarly, the redressing authority should be very clear about what is expected from them, what measures they can take, and the limit within which they should resort to an action.
c. Simplicity: The grievances method should be simple Every employee must understand different stages of the procedure
d. Promptness: The promptness with which a grievance is processed adds further to the success of the grievance procedure Since justice delayed is justice denied the procedure should aim at rapid disposal of the grievances
e. Training: The success of the procedure also depends upon imparting training to the supervisors and union representative in handling grievances
f. Follow-up: The successful working of a grievance procedure depends upon a proper follow-up by the personnel department The department should periodically review the procedure and introduce the essential structural changes making it more effective
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12.4 Grievance Handling Procedure

A grievance should be dealt within the limits of the first line supervisor The appellate authority should be made clear to the employee so that if an individual cannot get satisfaction from his/her immediate supervisor, (s)he should know the next step The grievance should be dealt speedily If the grievance is against an instruction given by a superior in the interest of order and discipline, the instruction must be carried out first and then only employee can register his/her protest
12.5 Benefits of the Grievance Handling

It encourages employees to raise concerns without fear of reprisal It provides a fair and speedy means of dealing with complaints It prevents minor disagreements developing into serious disputes It saves employers time and money as solutions are found for workplace problems It helps to build an organisational climate, based on openness and trust
12.6 Grievance Handling

To understand the Grievance handling procedure refer diagram given below:
ARBITRATION
TOP MANAGEMENT
TOP UNION LEADERSHIP
MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
COMPANY UNION GRIEVANCE COMMITTEE
SUPERVISOR
UNION STEWARD
AGGRIEVED EMPLOYEE
Fig. 12.1 Grievance handling procedure
12.6.1 Initial Step 1. The greatest opportunity for the settlement of a complaint or grievance lies in the initial step of the procedure 2. If there is no formal procedure and the firm announces an open-door policy then it is possible that the supervisors may get by passed by the workers who would take grievance directly to the higher level of management 3. Such bypassing not only undermines the supervisors authority but also creates an atmosphere of win-or-loose in which both the workers and supervisors will try to prove the other wrong
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12.6.2 Intermediate Step As shown in diagram (above), the next step on the management side of the procedure is to submit the dispute to middle management. Involving the supervisors middle and senior-line managers in the grievance process helps in two ways Initially, social barrier between various categories are broken by personal contact and mutual understanding Various problem-solving methods are carried by the organization to overcome the problem Some decision-making committees are appointed by the organization At the union side higher personnel in the union hierarchy take charge of the union. Business agent, a full-time negotiations specialist of the union, takes over the intermediate or sometimes the final steps. Business agent also gives best remedies over the problem. The line manger often considers grievance processing a minor, incidental, and distasteful duty.
12.6.3 Final Company-Union Step Usually, the final step to be undertaken by the company and union is a discussion of the grievance between representative of top management and top union officials.
12.7 Arbitration
In case, the grievance has not been settled by top management and top union leadership, three possibilities remain: a. The union can temporarily or permanently drop the issues b. The union can call a strike if the contract permits c. The case may be submitted to impartial arbitrator Arbitration is usually handled by either a single individual or a panel of three (S) He can make decision of the dispute brought to them by the union Generally, the person may be acceptable by both union and management It is important that no undue influence should have a bearing on his/her deliberations
12.8 Concept of the Discipline

During the last decade, the growth of industries has been hampered by indiscipline Maintenances of discipline in an organization are of paramount importance for its smooth running and survival During the early stages of industrialization, labor was exploited i.e. Child employment Longer working hours Inhuman and unhealthy working conditions Low wages Absences of safety Welfare measures were quite common
The labor, majority being illiterate had to seek outside help to solve their problem The trade unions, instead of helping in some cases, tried to fulfill their own needs This led to unlawful activities (strikes, gheraos) and indiscipline in industries
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Further with the emergence of union, inter-union rivalry is prevalent in most of the public and private sector industries These factors lead to indiscipline among workmen The rapid industrial growth in the country results in many problem. They are as follows: Arising out of social changes Displacement from familiar environment Lack of adjustment to industrial atmosphere Changes in living condition New stresses and strains of industries disputes Indiscipline and violence, etc
12.9 Principles for Maintenance of Discipline

The discipline unit deals with the principles of maintenance of discipline and basic ingredients or guidelines of a disciplinary action.
12.10 Meaning and Objective of Discipline

Discipline is the observance of principles, rules or any other laid down procedure, practices, Witten or otherwise in the organization by the employees or group of employees, to whom these apply, for smooth and effective functioning of the organization Refer the table given below for definition of discipline: Sr.no Name of the Author Definition
Discipline is the force that prompts an individual or a group to observe the rules, regulations and procedures which are deemed to be necessary to the attainment of an objective; it is fear of force which restrains an individual or a group from doing things which are deemed to be destructive of group objectives. It is also the exercise of restraint or the enforcement of penalties for the violation of group regulations. Discipline in the board sense means orderliness-the opposite of confusion Discipline may be considered as a force that prompts individuals or groups to observe the rules, regulation and procedures which are deemed to be necessary for the effective functioning of an organization. Table 12.2 Definition of discipline
Dr.Spriegal
2 3
Bremblett, Earl R Calhoon. Richard.D
Websters dictionary gives the meaning of the word discipline as follows: It is the training that correct moulds, strengthens or perfects It is the control gained by enforcing Obedience It is punishment or chastisement.
12.11 The Aims and Objectives of Discipline are

To accept the rules, regulations and procedures of an organization, so that organisational goals may be attained To impact an element of certainty despite several differences in informal behavior patterns and other related changed in an organization To develop among the employees a spirit of tolerance and a desire to make adjustments To give and seek direction, and responsibility
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To create an atmosphere of respect for the human personality and human relations To increase the working efficiency and moral of the employees so that their productivity is stepped up and the cost of production brought down to improve the quality of production
12.12 Disciplinary Procedure

Disciplinary procedure in Indian industries comprise as follows: Issuing a letter of charge to the employee calling upon him/her for an explanation Consideration of the explanation by an employee Issuance of show cause notice to the employees Holding of a full-fledged enquiry by an organization Considering the enquiry proceedings and findings and making final order of punishment Follow-up will help an employee to avoid the mistake made by him/her previously
12.13 Basic Ingredients or Guidelines of a Disciplinary Action

The principal ingredients of a sound disciplinary system are: Location of responsibility: The responsibility for maintaining disciplines should be entrusted to a responsible person for e.g. line executive The line executive should issue only verbal and written warnings
In serious cases like suspension only the industrial relation officer should be consulted Proper formulation and communication of rules Rules and regulation should be reasonable Equal treatment to all the employees even defaulters should be treated alike Disciplinary action should be taken in private Importance of promptness in taking disciplinary action An individual is assume to be innocent until and unless (s)he is proved guilty Before taking any disciplinary action, it should be made sure to get and keep adequate records of offences and warnings Action should be taken in cool atmosphere Natural justice is accepted After a disciplinary action has been taken by the supervisor, (s)he should treat subordinates in a manner Negative motivation should be handled in a positive manner
12.14 Disciplinary- Action Penalties

There are varying penalties for first, second and third offenses of the same rule. Among the penalties available in business are: Oral reprimand Written reprimand Loss of privileges Fines Lay off Demotion Discharge
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12.15 Procedure for Disciplinary

Though there is no specific rules to be followed, the following rules are taken into consideration: An accurate statement of the disciplinary problem Collection of data or fact bearing on the case Selection of tentative penalties to be imposed Choice of the penalty Application of the penalty Follow-up on the disciplinary action
12.15.1 An Accurate Statement of the Disciplinary Problem The first step is to ascertain the problem by seeking answer to the following questions: Does this case call for a disciplinary action? What exactly is the nature of the violation or offence? Under what-condition did it occur? Which individual/s was/were involved in it? When, or how often, did the violation occur?
12.15.2 Collection of Data or Fact Bearing on the Case Before any action taken in a case, it is essential to gather all the fact about it A through examination of the case should be made within the stipulated time limit
12.15.3 Selection of Tentative Penalty The kind of the penalty to be imposed for an offence should be determine before hand should it be simple reprimand, a financial or non-financial penalty Or should it be a demotion, temporary lay-off or outright discharge.
12.15.4 Choice of Penalty When a decision has been taken to impose a penalty, the punishment to be awarded should be such as would prevent a. Application of Penalty: The application of penalty involves a positive and assured attitude on the part of the management. b. Follow-up on Disciplinary Action: The ultimate purpose of a disciplinary action is to maintain discipline, to ensure productivity, and avoid a repetition of the offense.
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Summary
A grievance is always a symbol of some malfunctioning or maladjustment Due to this a talented and skillful manager can always find out the real or submerged reasons for a grievance Good discipline might be described as orderly conducts based on definite standards catalyzed by effective leadership As far as possible, all the rules should be framed in co-operation and collaboration with the representatives of employees Rules should be uniformly enforced if they are to be effective If the penalty is imposed long after a violation of rules has been committed, it loses its positive and corrective influence Grievance is nothing but an indication of dissatisfaction of employees in an organization. Causes of grievances: Promotion Amenities Continuity of services Compensation Disciplinary action Fines Increments Wages Acting promotion Recovery of dues Safety appliance Superannuation Supersession Transfer Victimization Condition of work
Pre-requisites of a Grievance Procedure is efficiency of a grievance procedure depends upon the fulfillment of certain pre-requisites Conformity with prevailing legislation Clarity Simplicity Promptness Training Follow-up
Maintenances of discipline in an organization are of paramount importance for its smooth running and survival To accept the rules, regulations and procedures of an organization, so that organisational goals may be attained Procedure for disciplinary is as follows: An accurate statement of the disciplinary problem Collection of data or fact bearing on the case
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Selection of tentative penalties to be imposed Choice of the penalty Application of the penalty Follow-up on the disciplinary action
References
P. Subba Rao. Essentials of Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations (2010). Himalaya Publishing House.p442-p457. T.Namratha. Grievance Procedure. Available on: http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/gudipramod292746-grievance-procedure-entertainment-ppt-powerpoint/. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010.
Recommended Reading
Code Practice 1. Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures. Available on: http://www.acas.org.uk/media/pdf/9/5/ CP01_1.pdf Last Access Date: 26 October 2010 Belchoir Mira (December 2003).Available on: http://web1.dhrm.state.va.us/itech/conferences/HRsimp2003/ DHRMLookingForIinIT200312.pdf. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010. Kate William. Introducing management: A Development Guide. Available On: http://books.google.co.in/ books?id=xRpQvJ7H_a8C&pg=PA157&dq=pdf+Grievance+and+Disciplinary+procedure&hl=en&ei=3pfG TNbEOZCcvgO1l_2jDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag e&q=pdf%20Grievance%20and%20Disciplinary%20procedure&f=false. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010.
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Chapter XIII Group and Leadership

Aim
Aim of this chapter is to: enlighten the students with concept of group and leadership evaluate the types and theories of group and leadership enlighten the students with the effect of group and leadership on organisation and on employees enrich the students with the rules and regulations followed by an organisation for groups and leaders
Learning Objective
Learning objective this chapter is to: enlighten the learners with the concept of groups and leadership enrich the student with the type of group and leadership make them understand the need of group and leaders enlighten them with the activities of group and leadership
Learning Outcome
After finishing the chapter students will be able to: understand the role of Groups and leaders in an organisation realise the job responsibility of leaders and groups appreciate the need of leaders and groups in an organisation
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13.1 Concept of Group

A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose A mere collection of individuals assembled in a place like on the street, at a bus stand, or in railway station, waiting room, etc. are not called a group as they are physically gathered together These groups do not jointly pursue a common objective or share a common feeling
13.1.1 Definition of Group

Table No 13.1 Definition of group Sr.no 1. 2. 3. Author Name Kimball Young T.M.Newcomb W.J.H. Sprott Definition Two or more persons in a state of social interaction A group consists of two or more persons who share norms about certain things with one another and whose social roles are closely interlocking A group is plurality of persons who interact with anyone else.
13.2 Characteristic of a Group

1. 2. 3. 4. The necessary characteristic of a group are as follows: Two or more people Who interact with one another Share some common ideology See themselves as a group The second characteristic means, the members of a group occasionally meet, talk, and do things together Third characteristic means, the members of a group have something in common like common goals, common threat, security concern, etc Fourth characteristic means, people who interact with each other and who share a common ideology are attracted to one another
13.3 Group Fulfills the Following Needs of its Members

Affinitive needs of an individual are fulfilled by the group through friendship between individuals A group also fulfills egoistic needs of an individual by developing self-esteem and status A group fulfills functional needs of its members by helping individuals in their daily activities, adjusting work routines and avoiding boredom Cognitive needs may be satisfied by motivation
13.4 Group Serves the Following Purposes

Group is a means for affiliation needs like needs for friendship, love and support A group is a means of developing a sense of identity and maintaining self-esteem It is a means of establishing and testing reality through developing consensus among group members It is a means of increasing security and power to handle a common enemy or threat
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13.5 Types of Groups

Groups may be classified on the basis of the following criteria: Purpose or goal Extent of structuring Legal organisation or setting
Groups may be formal or informal All groups have the following common characteristics Have leaders Have followers Try to achieve some goal or goals Have ideas about how to achieve the goals Communicate expectations to members Satisfy some needs of its members
13. 6 Formal Work Groups

Organizing means arranging people in such a pattern that they can perform the required activities The purpose of managers organizing responsibility is to create formal workgroups that are necessary to achieve the goals of the organisation The characteristics of formal workgroups are: They are approved by some authority There is a fixed division of labor Individuals are assigned specific responsibilities There are personal interactions between the group members
13.7 Informal Work Groups

Informal groups are not very well organised groups They exist because the formal groups in an organisation do not satisfy human needs sufficiently Informal workgroups provide a means of satisfaction for security needs, social needs and esteem needs
13.7.1 Informal Work Groups and Security Needs Informal groups support their members and protect them from outside pressure and authority The group protects an individual from unfriendly work environment New employees try to find an existing group and join it for helping the orientation process
13.7.2 Informal Work Groups and Social Needs Many jobs do not allow communication and interaction between workers In this situation, people cannot make friends and are unable to satisfy their need for companionship People want to belong to a small social group in which relationships are based on common interests and values Social groups occur in most of the companies Members of a social group enjoy each others company
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13.7.3 Informal Work Groups and Esteem Needs Informal groups are also a means of status or prestige for its members. This is especially true if: The group is well known in the organisation Outsiders want to join the group It is difficult to achieve acceptance into the group The informal group is a source of egoistic need satisfaction The need to achieve can be partially satisfied by the informal group
13.7.4 Informal Work Groups and Esteem Needs Informal groups are also a means of status or prestige for its members. This is especially true if: The group is well known in the organisation Outsiders want to join the group It is difficult to achieve acceptance into the group The informal group is a source of egoistic need satisfaction The need to achieve can be partially satisfied by the informal group
13.7.5 Advantages of Informal Groups Informal groups increase the employees sense of security and help them to do the work more effectively Informal groups can help managers maintaining discipline Informal groups help to maintain no time clock policy because the employees are highly motivated and also there is peer pressure So any individual cannot take undue advantage of this policy
13.7.6 Disadvantages of Informal Groups The disadvantages of informal groups arise when the goals of the group do not match with the organisational goals This problem occurs when a planned change is implemented The protection and social relationships provided by informal groups are in danger due to new plans that disturb order and stability creating new procedures of standard and production moreover disturb the pattern of personal interactions on the job
13.7.7 Elements of Group Behavior Membership in the Group: It is a process in which membership is provided to individuals on the basis of common interests and readiness to be cooperative and follow group norms. Emergent Leadership The informal leader performs two functions: Starts action and provides direction Tries to eliminate the differences of opinion within the group and makes effort so that the group achieves its goals Communicates the groups beliefs, policies, job, organisation, supervision and other matter to non-members
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Formal Hierarchy: All groups have some formal arrangement The sub-leaders communicate the message to the members of the group The individuals performing leadership role possess prestige because of their role
Group Has Some Activity or Task to Perform: A group does something which may be related to its job or not related to it
Interaction: All people interact with one another During interaction one person responds to another According to Berne, people interact with each other in terms of three psychological positions or behavioral patterns known as ego status These ego states are parent, adult and child Persons interacting with a parent ego are protective (caring), dogmatic (strict), evaluative and righteous (honest and respectable) They prefer laws, rules and standards People with adult ego state are based on reasons, looking for information and processing it and on factual discussions It views people as equal, worthy and reasonable human beings The child ego state shows the conditions and experiences of childhood It is dependent, rebellious (disobedient), selfish and sometimes creative
Group Norms Every group has some rules, norms, beliefs, traditions and attitudes that the group members must follow: Norms are the ought tos of behavior. They are prescriptions for acceptable behavior determined by a group, institution or society.----Luthens Group norms are rules or guidelines of accepted behavior which are established by a group and used to monitor the behavior of its members.----Argyle Group cohesiveness It is the degree of attraction that the group has for its members Cohesiveness is shown by attitudes like loyalty to the group, a feeling of responsibility for group efforts, friendliness
Member satisfaction: The end result of group membership is satisfaction of members In a survey of 37 studies, Heslin and Dumply have shown specific relationship between satisfactions of members of work group Perceived freedom to participate Perceived goal attainment Status consensus
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Perceived Freedom to Participate: A members opinion of freedom to participate affects need satisfaction Individuals who feel that they are active participators are more satisfied while those who feel that their freedom to participate not important were less satisfied
Perceived Goal Attainment: A group members opinion of progress towards achievement of desired goals is related to member satisfaction Members of the groups which progressed towards goal achievement showed higher satisfaction while members of the groups which are not progressing towards the achievement of goals showed lower satisfaction
Status Consensus It is an agreement about the relative status of all group members When the degree of status consensus within the group is low, members satisfaction is low Status consensus is achieved in groups where the members consider group task specialist as competent A leader plays an important role A leadership role is performed by an individual who focuses on coordinating and maintaining the activities of the group
13.8 Group Decision Making

Important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Generally, group decision making is better than individual decision making
13.9 Advantages of Group Decision Making

Groups perform better than individuals in decision making because: A wide range of alternatives and solutions are considered Decisions taken in a group are well accepted and the level of commitment is also high People accept a decision when they have contributed to decision making
13.10 Potential Problems with Group Decisions

Group decisions take longer time than individual decisions Sometimes, group decision may be a compromise which gives no positive results A dominant person in a group may dominate over other members and affect decision making This is more common when group members are of unequal rank A person with high rank tries to dictate over members with low rank
13.11 Problems of Individual Dominance

Avoid announcing your preferred solution while the group is working on the problem. Listen carefully to suggestions from every member Encourage every group member to participate Try to achieve a good solution
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13.12 Group Dynamics

It is related to the interactions between group members in a social situation It is concerned with getting knowledge of groups, how they develop, and their effect on individual members and organisation Thomas Harrell defines Group dynamic as, Group dynamics is an expression that describes the situation in which people acting together in a group accomplish certain thing, either positively or negatively in a way that cannot be explained adequately in terms of individual acting separately. The word dynamics is derived from a Greek word which means force. Thus, group dynamics are the forces working in a group
Many factors in the work environment affect group behavior. The two broad aspects are: The physical environment, e.g. plant, equipment, layout The psycho-social environment, e.g., worker needs reward systems, work group structure, supervisory practices, work group norms, worker roles and attitudes
13.13 Principles of Group Dynamics

Principles of group dynamics (termed by Cartwright) are the norms that the group must follow to work effectively.
These principles are as follows There should be no barrier between the leaders and the followers The leader (who changes others) and the follower (who are changed) should have a strong sense of belongingness to the group The group should be attractive to its members It increases the groups influence on its members A group member with higher prestige has a greater influence on other members of the group Efforts to change individual members of a group will make them conform to the norms of the group Pressure for changes in a group can be established by creating the perception that there is a need for change Information related to the need for change, plans for change, and the results of change should be shared by all members of the group Changes in one part of the group may cause tension in other parts This tension can be reduced by removing the change or making some adjustments
Cattell proposed seven theorems which show characteristics of synergy within a group: Groups are formed to satisfy individual needs and stop to exist when this purpose is not solved The total synergy of a group is the result of the attitudes of all members towards the group Effective synergy may be aimed to achieve goals outside the group Individual group members may also use groups to achieve personal goals; group goals may be secondary to them Group memberships may overlap, but the total synergy in the group remains constant
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13.14 Definition Leadership

According to Koontz and o Donnell It is the art of including the subordinates to accomplish their assignments with zeal and confidence. Zeal reflects ardor, earnestness and intensity in execution of work; confidence reflects experience and technical ability.
13.15 Concept of Leadership

Managers are people who do things right, while leaders are people who do the right thing Leadership is all about courage to dream big Leadership is a complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective and directs the organisation in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent Leadership makes people want to achieve high goals and objectives, while, on the other hand, bosses tell people to accomplish a task or objective Leadership can be used for good or ill Leadership skills can be perverted to pursue bad end
13.16 Characteristics of Leadership

Co-existence with follower ship Responsibility Understanding nature Precedence Situation
13.17 Co-existence with Followership

A leader cannot exist without following: A leader exercises authority over the group, and it should be willingly group and it should be willingly accepted by his followers Leadership is not conferred or ordered but is one to be earned
13.18 Responsibility
A leader is expected to take full responsibility in all situations He must steer the group clear of all difficulties He has to assume responsibility for all actions of the group
13.19 Understanding Nature

Important feature of leadership is its nature to understand the feelings and problems of the group as a whole as well as the individuals Guide a leader is looked upon as a friend and a philosopher A leader should strive to satisfy the personal and social needs of his/her followers, which is very much expected by them
13.20 Situation
Leadership pattern changes according to the type of group and the situation in which the group is operating A leader should know on the role to be adopted on different situations
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13.21 Importance of Leadership

Initiates action: A leader communicates the policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts. Motivation: A leader motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the subordinates. Providing guidance : A leader guides by instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently. Creating confidence: Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. Building morale: A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals. Building work environment: Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. He should listen to his subordinates problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms. Co-ordination: Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with organisational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.
13.22 Impact of Leadership in an Organisation

Leadership and human behavior: Communication is very important because a leader coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. Leadership and Communication: Communication is very important because a leader coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. Leadership and motivation: A persons motivation is a combination of desire and energy directed at achieving a goal.
13.23 Leadership Theories

1. Trait approach: Keith Davis has summarised four of the major traits which might have an impact on successful organisational leadership. They are as follows: Intelligence: Research has shown that generally a leader has higher intelligence than the average intelligence of the followers However the leader cannot be exceedingly much more intelligent than his/her followers
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Social maturity and breath: Leaders tend to be emotionally stable and mature and to have broad interests and activities They have an assured, interests and activities They have an assured, respectful self concept
Inner motivation and achievement drives: Leaders have relatively intense motivational drives of the achievement type Strive for drives of the intrinsic than extrinsic rewards
Human relations attitude: Successful leaders recognize the worth and dignity of their followers and are able to emphasize with them According to research studies leaders possess consideration and are employee centered rather than production centered
2. Behavior approach: Autocratic : An autocratic leader is one who commands and expects compliance (S)He is dogmatic and positive and leads by his/her ability to withhold or give rewards and punishment
Participative or supportive: The participative or supportive leadership behavior is based on the assumption that : People essentially want to participate, They want to accomplish and They will work well if general supervision is employed
Instrumental or instrumental supportive: Instrumental behavior of leadership emphasizes the leaders role as a manager in the rational aspects of management namely planning, organizing, controlling etc.
3. Situation approach: Stag Dill and his associates research findings revealed that leadership ability is heavily affected by situational factors like their : Job The organisational environment in which they operated history of the enterprise Community in which the organisation operates Psychological climate of the group and their characteristics Group member personalities and cultural influences and so on
13.24 Contingency Theories

The Fiedler Model: Fred E. Fiedler Argued that effectiveness depends on two interacting factor: Leadership style
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Degree to which the situation gives a leader to control and influence
There are three important tasks in leadership The relationship between the leaders and followers: If the leaders are liked and respected they are more likely to have the support of others.
The structure of the task: If the task is clearly spelled out as to goals, methods and standards of performance then it is more likely that leaders will be able to exert influence
Position Power: If an organisation or group confers powers on the leader for the purpose of getting the job done, then this may well increase the influence of the leader.
13.25 Situational Leadership Theory

It is a contingency theory that focuses on followers readiness Readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task There are four stages of readiness: Able and willing Able and unwilling Unable and willing Unable and unwilling
13.26 The Path-Goal Theory

Path-goal theory identifies four kinds of leadership behaviors. Directive leader behavior: Letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
Supportive leader behavior: Being friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinate welfare, and treating members as equals.
Participative leader behavior: Consulting subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.
Achievement-oriented behavior: Setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates and showing confidence in subordinates abilities.
13.27 Contemporary Theories

Transactional Leaders: Clarify the role and task requirements of subordinates Initiate structure Transactional Leaders Provide appropriate rewards
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Display consideration for subordinates Meet the social needs of subordinates
13.28 Charismatic Leaders

The ability to inspire Motivate people to do more than they would normally do Tend to be less predictable than transactional leaders Create an atmosphere of change May be obsessed by visionary ideas
13.29 Transformational Leader

Similar to charismatic leaders Distinguished by their special ability to bring about innovation and change by Recognizing followers needs and concerns Helping them look at old problems in new ways Encouraging them to question the status quo
13.30 Team Leader

Leadership is increasingly taking place within a team context The role of team leader is different from the traditional leadership role The challenge for most managers is learning how to become an effective team leader There are four basic team leadership roles: Team leaders are liaisons with external constituencies Troubleshooters Conflict managers Coaches
13.31 Classification of Leadership

According to the personnel research board of Ohio University leaders were classified as follows: The Bureaucrat: Who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors, avoid subordinates and he is contemptuous to them. The Autocrat: He is directive and expects obedience from followers (Do as I say-not, as I do). Hence, subordinate do not like him. The Diplomat: He is an opportunities who exploit subordinates. Hence, he is not trusted by his subordinates. The Expert: He is an over-specialized man. He is self-centered and interested in his owned narrow field. He treats his subordinate only as his fellow-workers without any feelings. He always finds himself along. The Quarter Back: He identifies himself with his subordinates even at the risk of incurring displeasure of his superiors and subordinates at times. However, he is generally liked by his followers.
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Summary
A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit purpose Kimball Young defines a group as two or more person in a state of social interaction The essential characteristics of a small group are: Two or more people Who interact with one another Share some common ideology and See themselves as a group
Group may be classified in many different ways: the basic for differentiation may be purpose or goal; extend of structuring; legal organisation or setting The end goal of the managers organizing responsibility is to create formal work groups that are necessary to achieve the organisations goals. Group dynamic is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members in a social situation. Group can be formal or informal Group have common characteristic: Have leaders Have followers Try to achieve some goal or goals Have ideas about how to achieve the goals Communicate expectations to members Satisfy some needs of its members
Informal groups support their members and protect them from outside pressure and authority The characteristics of formal workgroups are: They are approved by some authority There is a fixed division of labor Individuals are assigned specific responsibilities There are personal interactions between the group members
According to Koontz and o Donnell It is the art of including the subordinates to accomplish their assignments with zeal and confidence. Zeal reflects ardor, earnestness and intensity in execution of work; confidence reflects experience and technical ability. Characteristic of leadership is as follows: Co-existence with follower ship Responsibility Understanding nature Precedence Situation
Importance of leadership: Initiates action Motivation Providing guidance Creating confidence Building work environment
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Building morale Co-ordination
Leadership behavior changes from individual on the following parameter Philosophy Planning Goal setting Implementation Evaluation etc.
A leader is concerned both with task as well as the people with whom he is working.
Reference
P. Subba Rao. Essentials of Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations (2010). Himalaya Publishing House.p1-p10. Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A. And Dennison, P. A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks (2003) p-6-p28.
Recommended Reading
Carter McNamara. Overview of Leadership in Organisations. Available on: http://managementhelp.org/ldrship/ ldrship.htm: last access date: 26 October 2010. Smita Choudhary. Group and Group Dynamic. Available on: http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/ anoushka-316214-groups-group-dynamics-entertainment-ppt-powerpoint/.Last Access date: 26 October 2010. Dr. Shailesh Thaker. Type Of leadership styles. Available on: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6327744/Types-ofLeadership-Styles. Last Access Date: 26 October 2010.
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