Title:

DESIGN OF GRANULAR PAVEMENT LAYERS CONSIDERING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Sabine Werkmeister, Dresden University of Technology Professur fr Straenbau, Technische Universitt Dresden, Mommsenstrae 13, 01069 Dresden, Germany E-mail: Sabine.Werkmeister@maibox.tu-dresden.de Tel +49 351 4633 5334 Fax +49 351 4633 7705 Ralf Numrich, Dresden University of Technology Professur fr Straenbau, Technische Universitt Dresden, Mommsenstrae 13, 01069 Dresden, Germany E-mail: Ralf.Numrich@mailbox.tu-dresden.de Tel +49 351 4633 5334 Fax +49 351 4633 7705 Andrew R Dawson, University of Nottingham Nottingham Centre of Pavement Engineering, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK E-mail: andrew.dawson@nottingham.ac.uk Tel +44 115 951 3902 Fax +44 115 951 3898 Frohmut Wellner, Dresden University of Technology Professur fr Straenbau, Technische Universitt Dresden, Mommsenstrae 13, 01069 Dresden, Germany E-mail: : Frohmut.Wellner@mailbox.tu-dresden.de Tel +49 351 4633 2817 Fax +49 351 4633 7705

Authors:

Transportation Research Board, 82th Annual Meeting January 12-16, 2003 Washington D.C.

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DESIGN OF GRANULAR PAVEMENT LAYERS CONSIDERING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Werkmeister S1, Numrich R1 Dawson A R2 and Wellner F1 Abstract. A new simple design approach will be described that utilizes test results from the Repeated Load Triaxial Apparatus to establish the risk level of permanent deformations in the unbound granular layers (UGL) in pavement constructions under consideration of the seasonal effects. From this data a serviceability limit line (plastic shakedown limit) stress boundary for the unbound granular materials (UGM) was defined for different moisture contents. Below this line the material will have stable behavior. The serviceability limit line was applied in a finiteelement (FE)-program FENLAP to predict whether or not stable behavior occurs in the UGM. To calculate the stress in the UGL, a nonlinear elastic model (Dresden Model), which is described in the paper, was implemented into the FE-program. The effects of changing moisture content during Spring-thaw period and asphalt temperature on pavement structural response were investigated. Additionally, permanent deformation calculations for the UGL were performed taking the stress history into consideration. The results clearly demonstrate that, for pavement constructions with thick asphalt layers, there is no risk of rutting in the granular base, even at high number of load repetitions. The study showed that the proposed design approach is a very satisfactory simple method to assess the risk against rutting in the UGL, even without the calculation of the exact permanent deformation of the pavement construction.

1 2

Dresden University of Technology, Germany University of Nottingham, UK

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INTRODUCTION In order to determine the most economical combination of layer thickness and material types for a pavement, it is necessary to develop analytical pavement design methods on the basis of finite-element (FE)-calculations as opposed to empirical design methods. Furthermore analytical design methods would need to take into account the properties of the soil foundation and the traffic to be carried during the service life of the road. A pre-requisite for any successful analytical design methodology is the acquisition of reliable measurements from representative experimental investigations followed by appropriate mathematical characterization of the deformation behavior of both the bound and unbound materials used in pavement construction. When collecting the data, it is necessary to take into account climatic conditions. In particular, the climatic conditions should include variations in the moisture content of the Unbound Granular Layers (UGL) and asphalt temperatures throughout the year. Using the principle of superposition, it is also possible to combine the various axle loads into a cumulative design traffic loading. RESEARCH PROJECT AND TESTING PROCEDURE This paper reports on two research projects at the chair of pavement engineering, Dresden University of Technology, which are aimed at developing a model to describe the resilient and permanent deformation behavior of Unbound Granular Materials (UGM) in pavement constructions. A serviceability based design method (analytical approach) will be described that utilizes test results from the Repeated Load Triaxial (RLT) apparatus to establish the risk level of permanent deformations in the UGL. This research on the deformation behavior of UGM is a prerequisite for an analytical design program for flexible pavements, which is under development at the Dresden University of Technology. The RLT apparatus used in the project has been developed at the University of Nottingham, and can simulate dynamic pavement loadings. A Granodiorite with a maximum grain size of 32mm was tested (1). The tests were conducted at 4% moisture content (assumed natural water content) and 5% moisture content (assumed water content during the Spring-thaw period). For these tests the constant confining pressure levels were set at 40, 70, 140 and 210kPa. For each test, once the confining pressure was achieved, an additional dynamic vertical stress (deviator stress) was applied at a frequency of 5 Hz. The triaxial tests were carried out using dynamic axial stresses with stress ratios (D/3) in the range 0.5 to 11. MODELING OF THE DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR Shakedown Analysis of Pavement Constructions The essence of a shakedown analysis is to determine the critical shakedown load for a given pavement. Pavements operating above the critical shakedown load are predicted to exhibit increased accumulation of permanent strains under long term repeated loading conditions that eventually lead to incremental collapse (e.g. rutting). Those pavements operating at load levels below this critical shakedown load may exhibit some distress, but should settle down and reach an equilibrium state in which no further mechanical deterioration occurs (1). Traditional pavement design methods (e.g. German pavement design guidelines, (12)) assume that the pavement deteriorates indefinitely. However, there is ample field evidence that this is not always true and that steadystate conditions are frequently achieved. Unbound Granular Layers The shakedown approach can be used to characterize the deformation behavior of UGM in pavement constructions. The application of the shakedown concept to UGM as used in pavement construction is possible, although adaptations have to be made to allow for the particular response of UGM to repeated loading. Behavior can be categorized into 3 possible Ranges A, B or C (Figure 1) (1). If the UGLs behave in a manner corresponding to Range A, the pavement will shake down. After post-compaction deformations, no further permanent strains develop and the material subsequently responds elastically. Thus Range A is permitted in a pavement, provided that the accumulated strain before the development of fully resilient behavior is sufficiently small. The material in Range B does not shake down, rather it will achieve failure at a very high number of load repetitions. In that case the resilient strains are no longer constant and will increase slowly (decrease of stiffness). Range C behavior incremental collapse or failure - should not be allowed to occur in a pavement (2). Shakedown limit calculations (critical shakedown load) can be used to predict whether or not stable behavior occurs in the UGL of the pavement

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construction (1). The shakedown analysis of Repeated Load Triaxial Test (RLTT) results can be used for ranking materials as a performance specification method to determine the resistance against rutting of UGMs (15). Of course the shakedown limits of the UGL are also strongly dependent on seasonal effects (mainly moisture content). The moisture content has been identified as the factor having the largest influence on the mechanical properties of UGM (e.g. (15)) and this aspect is particularly addressed in this paper. Analysis of the results from many permanent deformation RLT tests revealed an exponential relationship (Equation 1) between the applied stresses (1max/3) and the boundaries of the various deformation responses (i.e. between Ranges A, B and C as shown in Figure 1)

(1) 1 = 1max 3 where: 1max [kPa] peak axial stress; [kPa] cell pressure; 3 [kPa] material parameter; [-] material parameter (3). With this equation it is possible to deduce the shakedown limit even at small stress ratios (Figure 2). As a practical method of defining the range boundaries (which define the stress conditions at which the type of permanent strain response changes) and, hence, the material parameters for Equation 1, RLT tests are performed on a series of specimens (or in a multi-stage test on one specimen) at increasing 1max/3 ratios. When the plastic axial strain accumulated from 3,000 to 5,000 load applications is 0.045 * 10-3 strain, the range A-B boundary (the Shakedown Limit) is reached. When this strain equals 0.3 * 10-3 strain, the range B-C boundary (the Plastic Creep Limit) is reached. As there is an associated change in resilient behavior for materials operating in the various ranges (20), it is recommended that the observed response Ranges A, B and C should form the basis for modeling permanent and resilient deformation behavior. Thus material laws have to be developed for each separate range. Range A is the most important range because stable behavior will be the predominant requirement for UGLs in high trafficked pavement constructions. Hence, in this paper, the permanent and resilient deformation behavior are modeled only for Range A.
Dresden Model (Resilient deformation behavior) Investigations of the non-linear elastic stress-strain-behavior of UGM have been carried out for the past 10 years at Dresden University of Technology. In this section only a short overview on the modeling of the UGM can be given. Further details are available elsewhere (4), (5), (7), (18), (19). Modified plate-bearings tests with cyclic loadings (5) were carried out on UGLs. Heaving was observed at a distance range of 4501200mm from the load axis (Figure 3). At all measured stress-levels the same behavior was observed. Linear elastic analysis did not predict this heaving and therefore RLTT on the same UGM as used for the plate-bearings tests were conducted to investigate the non-linear behavior. As a result of the data from the RLT testing a new material law the Dresden Model was developed (4). This non-linear elastic model is expressed in terms of modulus of elasticity E and Poissons ratio as follows:

E = Q + C I
= R

Q1

III + A + B I

Q2 III

+D

(2) (3)

(0 < < 0.5) where: I [kPa] minor principal stress (absolute value); [kPa] major principal stress (absolute value); III D [kPa] constant term of modulus of elasticity; model parameters, determined with RLT. Q, C, Q1, Q2, R, A, B The model includes a stress independent stiffness of 38kPa for crushed aggregates and 30kPa for sand and gravel (parameter D) consequent upon the residual confining stress in-situ. The residual stress has the effect of reducing the strains at small stress levels and could be assumed by examining modified plate-bearing test results carried out by

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Klemt (11). The parameter D is mainly influenced by macroscopic parameters like the degree of compaction of the UGM, content of fines, shape of the grains and water content. The RLT results do not allow determination of the parameter D because the residual stress needs some time to develop in a real pavement construction. To obtain the model parameters the RLT apparatus at the Nottingham University was used. To check the validity of the Dresden Model the surface deflection induced by plate bearing tests was predicted (Figure 3) using the FE-program FENLAP (7). A comparison was carried out to assess the accuracy of other material laws (e.g. Mayhew, Boyce and K- Model) by comparing the results of calculated deflections from all the models against the measured values. The best approximation is given by the Dresden-Model. The maximum deflection under the load agrees with the measured value. In addition heaving beneath the loading plate could be found with this model. In this research the resilient deformation behavior of a Granodiorite was investigated at moisture contents of 4, 5 , 6 and 7%. These seem to be small steps of moisture variation, but the RLT samples can be prepared with a very good accuracy ( 0.1%). For RLT results with a moisture content of 6 and 7% it was not possible to determine the material parameters. During RLT at 7% (= w opt) water was draining out of the sample during the test, which means there will be inhomogeneous conditions during testing. However, the RLT results at moisture contents of 4 and 5% were taken into account for modeling. Figure 4 clearly shows a high dependency of the resilient deformation behavior and, hence, the model parameters (Table 1) on the moisture content. Increasing the water content resulted in a significant reduction in the stiffness, a result also observed by others (20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27). Dresden Model (Permanent deformation behavior) The available models of permanent deformation behavior of UGM are much less developed than those of resilient deformation behavior. In modeling the long-term behavior of pavements, it is essential for the analysis to take into account the gradual accumulation of permanent strain with the number of load repetitions and the important role played by stresses. Hence the main objective of research into long term behavior should be to establish a constitutive model which predicts the amount of permanent strain at any number of load repetitions at a given stress level. Ideally it should take into consideration the different deformation behavior in the Ranges A, B and C. A material law for the permanent deformation behavior in Range A has been developed. The stress-dependent Huurman model serves as basis for the new model (8). The first part of the model describes the deformation behavior in Range A - a linear increase of p1 in log(p)-log(N) space, where A gives p1 at N = 1,000 and B gives the slope of p1 with log(N). Using the second part of the Huurman-Model we are able to describe the behavior also in Ranges B and C (collapse) with an exponential increase of p1 with N.
B D N N 1 (N ) = A + C e 1000 1 p 1000

(4)

where: p1 [10-3] vertical permanent strains; A, B, C, D [-] model coefficients; N [-] number of load repetitions. The model coefficients A, B are defined:

A = a 1 + a2 I 3 + a4 III
a

a5

(5) (6)

(such that for 3 = 0, A = B = 0) where: [-] model parameters, determined by the RLT. a1-5, b1-5 However, it is necessary to determine different parameters for the different ranges. The parameters given in Table 1 for Equation 5 and 6 are only valid for Range A. Further study is necessary to define parameters C and D. Asphalt layer (Resilient deformation behavior) The asphalt layers were assumed to be linear elastic ( = 0.35). The asphalt stiffness is mainly influenced by the asphalt mixture composition, the frequency of loading and the climatic conditions (temperature). The moduli of elasticity of the asphalt layers were calculated using the method of Franken and Verstraeten (9) which was applied to a typical German mix composition:

B = b1 + b2 III I

+ b4 I b5

b3

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E = R E
Vg E = 1.436 10 4 V b
where:

(7)

0.55

e 0.0458 Va

(8)

modulus of elasticity glass modulus R parameter dependent on frequency, softening point ring and ball temperature, needle penetration - Table 3 (nomogram in (9)); Vg [Vol.-%] void content in the asphalt mixture; [Vol.-%] binder volume in the asphalt mixture; Vb Va [Vol.-%] volume of the mineral aggregate in the asphalt mixture. The average climatic conditions for Germany were analyzed to estimate the different asphalt surface temperatures during the year (Figure 5). The temperature gradient was determined for each of these temperatures (FIGURE 6) and twelve temperature ranges defined. Each asphalt layer was separated into two centimeter thick sub-layer and allotted one of these temperatures (10). DESIGN PROCESS Granular base and asphalt rutting are a common form of flexible pavement distress. In a flexible pavement, asphalt rutting can be controlled by proper material selection and mix design. Granular base rutting can be controlled by using a better granular material for the UGL. Also, increasing the thickness of the asphalt pavement reduces the stresses in the UGL and, hence, reduces rutting in the granular base (Equations 1, 4, 5 and 6). In fact, granular base rutting can be avoided by limiting stress in the UGL. For this reason a critical stress level (shakedown analysis) needs to be defined for the UGL to Range A behavior (Figure 1). This critical stress level can be used as a simple design method to avoid granular base rutting in pavement constructions (1). The design process proposed is a check as to whether or not stabilizing behavior will occur in the UGL under consideration of different climatic conditions. The following shows that the Springthaw period is the critical period each year, through which the pavement must survive without incurring excessive surface rutting or other distress. As already shown, the moisture effects and the influence of the asphalt temperature must be taken into consideration in the design process. Should the plastic shakedown limit be exceeded, then a risk of high permanent deformation in the UGL exists. Nevertheless, it may be possible to accept Range B behavior in the UGL for Low Volume Roads. FINITE ELEMENT CALCULATIONS Estimation of the risk against rutting in the UGL All the results described in the previous sections were used to analyze the behavior of a number of pavement types as provided in the empirical German pavement design guideline RStO 01 (12). For different constructions there are seven different categories available, depending on the number of equivalent 10 t-axle load cycles. Several design checks for structures with several asphalt pavements were examined in this paper (Table 2) using the FE-program FENLAP (13). Relations were also developed relating the thickness of the asphalt layer to the tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt layer and the maximum stresses at the top of the UGL respectively. The subgrade was modeled as linearly elastic ( E = 45MPa, = 0.49), which is acceptable as stresses in the subgrade are much more the result of dead weight stresses than of traffic loading. A circular load with a constant tire pressure of 0.81 N/mm (corresponding to an axle load of 11.5 tonnes) was assumed. To take into consideration the effect of Spring-thaw on pavement response, the thaw period was assumed to last for 3 weeks at a moisture content of 5% compared to 4% moisture content during the rest of the year Figure 5. The tensile stress at the bottom of the asphalt layer was calculated for different temperatures and moisture contents and used as input with an asphalt fatigue relation to predict the fatigue lives of the pavement layer (14). The stress ratios 1max/3 were calculated using the vertical and horizontal stress at the top of the UGL, the different temperatures (FIGURE 6) and moisture contents.. The stresses were used as input for the shakedown analysis (Figure 8) to predict the risk of rutting in the UGL. FIGURE 7 shows a comparison of the stresses imposed and the plastic shakedown limits of a Granodiorite. The stresses developed at different pavement surface temperatures were

E E

[MN/m2] [MN/m2] [-]

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highly dependent on the stiffness of the asphalt layer. As the illustration reveals, the stress ratios calculated by FENLAP (13) for the constructions with 220mm or more asphalt cover were found to be within Range A (stable behavior). Thus there is no danger of large permanent deformations in the UGL. At 5% UGL moisture content (Spring-thaw), higher stresses were observed (but the increase was insignificant) and the range A/B boundary reduces significantly. Fortunately, only pavements experiencing high temperatures during Spring-thaw - a rare combination - have UGL rutting problems indicated. This design chart allows an assessment of the risk of rutting in the UGL to be carried out even without calculation of permanent deformations. Determination of the Permanent Deformations of the UGL However, to calculate the exact permanent deformations of the UGL, equations 4, 5 and 6 can be used. Furthermore the climatic conditions and the effect of stress history need to be taken into account. To obtain information about the effect of stress history, multi-stage triaxial tests were conducted and compared with current permanent deformation tests (3). Figure 9 shows that the permanent strain rate depends on the accumulated permanent strain 1p. In fact, the post compaction period at each stress level should not be considered during calculation of the accumulated permanent strains 1p. The calculation starts with the lowest stress level at zero strains. The next step is to determine the permanent strains 1p at the higher stress level after consideration of the accumulated permanent strains from the lower stress level 1p (Figure 10). A pavement construction with an asphalt pavement of 340mm (UGL: Granodiorite at 4% water content) was investigated. This pavement construction is recommended in the German pavement design guidelines (12) for highways with a service live of 30 years and more than 32,000,000 10t-axle load cycles. On the basis of the 1 and 3 obtained from the earlier analysis (Figure 8), the permanent strains under traffic loading based on the appropriate 1p-model were calculated for each year of the service life of the road and for all temperature ranges FIGURE 6. Figure 11 shows the development of the permanent strains under traffic loading of the UGL as a function of the service life of the road. The figure shows clearly the decrease of permanent strains with increasing depth. Furthermore the annual increment of the permanent strains is decreasing. Figure 12 shows the rut depth at the surface of the UGL as a function of N. It can be seen that even at a high number of load repetitions the permanent deformations were very small (rut depth = 0.18mm after 100,000,000 cycles of 11.5t-axle loads). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The objective of this study was to take into account the influence of climatic conditions and thickness of the asphalt pavement on the stress distribution within the UGL in pavement constructions. A general procedure was proposed to evaluate the risk against rutting in the UGL. Two different pavement constructions (340mm and 220mm asphalt layer thicknesses) were investigated. The moisture effect (increase of moisture content in the UGLs in the Spring-thaw period) and the influence of the asphalt temperature was taken into consideration in the design process. The Springthaw period is often the critical period each year, which the pavement must survive without incurring excessive surface rutting or other distress if the moisture content in the UGL is high, because the stiffness of UGM is strongly affected by changes in moisture conditions. The calculated stresses distribution by FENLAP showed that almost all the stresses were below the critical stress level no risk of rutting in the UGL (Figure 2), but at 47.5C the stresses at the top of the UGL with a 220mm asphalt pavement were close to the plastic shakedown limit at normal UGM moisture levels. It seems that a 220mm asphalt pavement provides little margin against rutting failure for high trafficked roads. This thickness of asphalt pavements is currently recommended for high trafficked roads in the German design guidelines (3,000,000 10 t-axle load cycles). The influence of a small change in moisture content (1%) on the deformation behavior of the unbound granular materials and the shakedown limits is significant. The increase of stresses with increasing moisture content from 4 to 5% is insignificant, but the shakedown limits decrease considerably. Perhaps higher moisture contents than 5% will occur during the Spring-thaw period, so future research should be focused on collecting field data of moisture contents in the UGL throughout the year. RLT testing should be carried out on UGM with moisture contents occurring in the field. However, at higher water contents, it is probable that the plastic shakedown limit and the stiffness may decrease further, which means at a high moisture content there can be a high risk of rutting in the UGL (17). For this reason, the UGM used in pavement construction should be not very sensitive to water, a good drainage system is indicated and adequate water permeability of the UGL is important.

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FE calculations have shown that even at a high number of load repetitions the permanent deformations of the UGL are negligible, provided the stresses in the UGL are sufficiently small. For this reason, an exact determination of the permanent deformation of the UGM is not necessary, if the stresses are within the stable range (A). The design process recommended, is a simple design method to assess the risk against rutting in the UGL, which does not require the determination of an exact permanent deformation of the UGL. This design method is suitable for high trafficked roads, where the stresses are within the stable range. In the UGL of Low Volume Roads much higher stresses will occur probably in the Range B because the thickness of the asphalt pavement is much lower compared to highly trafficked roads. For constructions with thin asphalt pavements there is a risk of rutting at high number of load repetitions (6). In this case, determination of the amount of permanent deformation is necessary to determine the number of load applications that the pavement can survive without incurring excessive surface rutting. Prerequisite is the development of elastic and plastic models to describe the deformation behavior of UGM in the Range B. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following organizations are gratefully acknowledged for financially supporting this research into deformation behavior of UGMs DFG, Central Public Funding Organization for Academic Research in Germany (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) and BASt, Federal Highway Research Institute of Germany. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the suggestions provided by Dr. Salah Zoorob of the University of Nottingham, UK. REFERENCES 1. Werkmeister, S., Dawson, A.R. & Wellner, F., Permanent Deformation Behaviour of Unbound Granular Materials and the Shakedown-Theory. In Transportation Research Record 1757, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2001, pp. 75-81. Werkmeister, S., Numrich, R. & Wellner, F., Modeling of Granular Layers in Pavement Constructions, Proceedings, 9th Int. Soc. Asphalt Pavements Conference, Copenhagen 2002. Werkmeister, S., Permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials. Ph D thesis, University of Technology Dresden, 2002 (unpublished). Gleitz T., Calculation of non linear behaviour of granular base materials in flexible pavements, Ph D thesis (in German), University of Technology Dresden, 1996. Wellner, F., Basics elements for design of flexible pavements with granular material. Professorial Dissertation (in German), University of Technology Dresden, 1994. van Niekerk, A.A., van Scheers, J., Muraya, P. & Kisimbi, A., The Effect of Compaction on the Mechanical Behaviour of Mix Granulate Base Course Materials and on Pavement Performance. In Unbound aggregates in road construction: Proceedings of the fifth international symposium on unbound aggregates in roads (UNBAR 5). Nottingham,, Balkema 2000, pp.125-136. Werkmeister, S., Numrich, R. & Wellner, F., Resilient and permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials. In Unbound aggregates in road construction: Proceedings of the fifth international symposium on unbound aggregates in roads (UNBAR 5) Nottingham , Balkema 2000, pp. 171-180. Huurman, M., Rut development in concrete block pavements due to permanent strain in the substructure. In Pave Israel 1996, pp. 293-304. Franken, L. & Verstraeten, J., Methods for predicting moduli and fatigue laws of bituminous road mixes under repeated bending. In Transportation Research Record 515, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1974, pp. 114-123. Numrich R., Non-linear-resilient deformation behavior of unbound granular materials, PhD thesis (in German), University of Technology Dresden, 2002 (unpublished). Klemt, R., The influence of the friction on the deformation behaviour of granular base materials. In Diploma thesis 494, University of Technology Dresden, 1990. RStO 01, German pavement design guideline. Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und Verkehrswesen (in german), Kln, 2001. Almeida, J. R., Program FENLAP users guide. Report No. PR 91010, University of Nottingham, 1991. Jhnig, J. & Kiehne, A., Design of Pavement Constructions, Research Report (in German) University of Technology Dresden, 2002. Arnold, G., Dawson, A.R., Hughes, D., Werkmeister, S. & Robinson, D., Serviceability Design of Granular Pavement Materials. In Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields Proceedings of the 6th international Symposium on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields (BCRA), Lisbon, Balkema 2002, pp. 957 966.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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16. Janssen, D., Effect of heavy axle loads on rutting of flexible pavement constructions. In Mitteilungen aus dem Institut fr Verkehrswirtschaft (in German). Straenwesen und Stdtebau, Fachgebiet Konstruktiver Straenbau der Universitt Hannover, Heft 3, 1985. 17. Gidel, G.,Breysse, D., Denis, A. & Hornych, P., Modeling Unbound Granular materials Response from Laboratory and field measurements. In Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields. Proceedings of the 6th international Symposium on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields (BCRA), Lisbon, Balkema 2002, pp. 1001-1012. 18. Wellner, F. & Gleitz, T., Stress-Strain Behaviour of Granular Materials. In Unbound Granular Materials. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Modeling and advanced Testing for Unbound Granular Materials, Lisbon, Balkema 1999, pp. 177-186. 19. Wellner, F., Influence of the stress dependent strain behaviour of unbound road bases on the stress of superposinited top layers. in Flexible Pavements, [Proceedings of the Euroflex Symposium, 1993, Lisbon], ed. A. Gomes Correia, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1996, pp. 311-318. 20. Dawson A.R., Paute, J.L. & Thom, N.H., Mechanical characteristics of unbound granular materials as a function of condition, in Flexible Pavements, [Proceedings of the Euroflex Symposium, 1993, Lisbon], ed. A. Gomes Correia, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1996, pp. 35-45. 21. Werkmeister, S., Dawson, A.R. & Wellner, F., Permanent deformation behavior of granular materials and the shakedown concept, Int. Jnl. Road Materials & Pavement Design (in press for 2003). 22. Barksdale, R.D. & Itani, S.Y., Influence of aggregate shape on base behaviour. Transp. Res. Rec. 1227, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1989, 173182. 23. Hicks, R.G. & Monismith, C.L., Factors influencing the resilient properties of granular materials. Hwy. Res. Rec. 345, 1971, pp. 1531. 24. Heydinger, A.G., Xie, Q.L., Randolph, B.W. & Gupta, J.D., Analysis of resilient modulus of dense and opengraded aggregates. Transp. Res. Rec. 1547, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 16. 25. Smith, W.S., and Nair, K., Development of procedures for characterization of untreated granular base coarse and asphalt-treated base course materials. Rep. No. FHWA-RD-74-61, Federal Highway Ad-ministration, Washington, D.C., 1973. 26. Raad, L., Minassian, G. & Gartin, S., Characterization of sat-urated granular bases under repeated loads. Transp. Res. Rec. 1369, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1992, pp.7382. 27. Vuong, B., Influence of density and moisture content on dynamic stress-strain behaviour of a low plasticity crushed rock. Rd. and Transp. Res., 1(2), 1992, pp. 88100. 28. Haynes, J.G. & Yoder, E.J., Effects of repeated loading on gravel and crushed stone base course materials used in the AASHO Road Test. Hwy. Res. Rec., 39, 1963.

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List of Tables and Figures TABLE 1 Parameter for the elastic and plastic Dresden-Model, Range A - density = 2.26 g/cm3 (10) (3) TABLE 2 Investigated constructions index 1, line 1, RStO 01 (12) TABLE 3 Determination of the modulus of elasticity for the different asphalt layers (10)

FIGURE 1 Indicative permanent strain behavior (1) FIGURE 2 Stress ratio versus vertical stress, Granodiorite at 4% water content (3) FIGURE 3 Comparison of measured and calculated resilient surface deflections (7) FIGURE 4 Vertical resilient strain versus confining pressure at different moisture contents (1 max/3 = 2) (10) FIGURE 5 Averaged frequencys of the asphalt surface temperatures in Germany during the year (16) FIGURE 6 Temperature regime within the asphalt layer (10) FIGURE 7 Stresses at the top of the UGL on the load axis (3), (10) FIGURE 8 Stresses in the UGL for different asphalt surface temperatures on the load axis, 340mm asphalt pavement (10) FIGURE 9 Influence of the stress history on the permanent deformation FIGURE 10 Consideration of stress history on modeling permanent deformation FIGURE 11 Progress of the permanent vertical strains in the UGL for 340mm asphalt pavement during the service life of the road FIGURE 12 Rut depth at surface of the UGL as function of N (11.5t axle load), asphalt pavement 340mm

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10

TABLE 1 Parameter for the elastic and plastic Dresden-Model, Range A - density = 2.26 g/cm3 (10) (3)

Parameter Elastic Dresden-Model Q [kPa]1-Q2 C [kPa]1-Q1-Q2 Q1 [-] Q2 [-] R [-] A [kPa]-1 B [-] Plastic Dresden-Model a1 [-] a2 [-] a3 [-] a4 [-] a5 [-] b1 [-] b2 [-] b3 [-] b4 [-] b5 [-]

Moisture content 4% 5% 5,386.1 10772.2 2315.6 599.1 0.593 0.690 0.333 0.333 0.017 0.037 -0.0024 -0.0012 0.352 0.320 0.1929 E-02 -0.2228 E-15 7.8614 0.1116 E-04 1.9496 0.8914 -0.89658 -0.1319 0.3060 E-02 0.6757

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TABLE 2 Investigated constructions index 1, line 1, RStO 01 (12)

Category asphalt layer on granular base

SV

III

asphalt surface course asphalt intermediate course asphalt course granular base (UGL)

4 8 22 120

4 4 14

u 120 u
45

53

45

Equivalent 10 t-axle load > 32 cycles[mil.] thickness [cm]; Ev2 minimum value

> 0.8 3

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TABLE 3 Determination of the modulus of elasticity for the different asphalt layers (10)

Category asphalt surface course asphalt cement needle penetration softening point R&B bulk density maximum density density asphalt cement asphalt cement content asphalt cement needle penetration softening point R&B bulk density maximum density density asphalt cement asphalt cement content asphalt cement needle penetration softening point R&B bulk density maximum density density asphalt cement asphalt cement content [-] [ /10mm] [C] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [M.-%] [-] [1/10mm] [C] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [M.-%] [-] 1 [ /10mm] [C] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [g/cm3] [M.-%]
1

SV SMA 0/11 S PmB 45 35 65 2,33 2,43 1,02 6,8 0/16 S PmB 45 35 65 2,35 2,51 1,02 4,5 0/22 CS 50/70 50 56 2,38 2,55 1,02 4,2

III AC 0/11 70/100 70 49 2,35 2,41 1,02 6,6 0/16 50/70 50 56 2,38 2,5 1,02 4,7 0/22 CS 50/70 50 56 2,38 2,55 1,02 4,2

asphalt intermediate course

asphalt base

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permanent strain

Range C

Range B

Range A

Number of load cycles FIGURE 1 Indicative permanent strain behavior (1)

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FIGURE 2 Stress ratio versus peak axial stress, Granodiorite at 4% water content (3)

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FIGURE 3 Comparison of measured and calculated resilient surface deflections (7)

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FIGURE 4 Vertical resilient strain versus confining pressure at different moisture contents (1 max/3 = 2) (10)

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25 20 Frequency [%] 15 10 5 0 -12.5 -7.5 -2.5 2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 Temperature [C] 2.8 % Spring-thaw period
2.8 %

FIGURE 5 Averaged frequencys of the asphalt surface temperatures in Germany during the year (16)

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FIGURE 6 Temperature regime within the asphalt layer (10)

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FIGURE 7 Stresses at the top of the UGL on the load axis (3), (10)

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FIGURE 8 Stresses in the UGL for different asphalt surface temperatures on the load axis, 340mm asphalt pavement (10)

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FIGURE 9 Influence of the stress history on the permanent deformation behavior (Key G = Granodiorite, 3 _D (both in kPa) MSt multi stage tests) (3)

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Permanent strain

N2 p2 p p1

N1

Number of load cycles

FIGURE 10 Consideration of stress history on modeling permanent deformation behavior

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FIGURE 11 Progress of the permanent vertical strains in the UGL for 340mm asphalt pavement during the service life of the road

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FIGURE 12 Rut depth at surface of the UGL as function of N (11.5t axle load), asphalt pavement 340mm

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