MATLAB

Introduction

MATLAB is a high performance language for technical computing .It integrates computation
visualization and programming in an easy to use environment, Mat lab stands for matrix
laboratory. It was written originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by
LINPACK (linear system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
MATLAB is therefore built on a foundation of sophisticated matrix software in which the basic
element is matrix that does not require pre dimensioning

Typical uses of MATLAB
1. Math and computation
2. Algorithm development
3. Data acquisition
4. Data analysis ,exploration and visualization
5. Scientific and engineering graphics

The main features of MATLAB
1. Advance algorithm for high performance numerical computation ,especially in the
Field matrix algebra
2. A large collection of predefined mathematical functions and the ability to define ones own
functions.
3. Two-and three dimensional graphics for plotting and displaying data
4. A complete online help system
5. Powerful, matrix or vector oriented high level programming language for individual
applications.
6. Toolboxes available for solving advanced problems in several application areas

The MATLAB System

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:
Development Environment.
This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files. Many of
these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files, and the search path.

The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library.
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like
sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse,
matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The MATLAB Language.
This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming
in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the
large" to create large and complex application programs.

Graphics.
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as
annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It
also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as
well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications.

The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API).
This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

Features and capabilities of MATLAB




MATLAB
MATLAB
Programming language
User written / built in functions
Graphics
2-D graphics
3-D graphics
Color and lighting
Animation
Computation
Linear algebra
Signal processing
Quadrature
Etc

External interface
Interface with C and
FORTRAN
Programs
Tool boxes
1. Signal processing
2. Image processing
3. Control systems
4. Neural Networks
5. Communications
6. Robust control
7. Statistics
8. Embedded Targets
Starting MATLAB
On Windows platforms, start MATLAB by double-clicking the MATLAB shortcut icon on
your Windows desktop. On UNIX platforms, start MATLAB by typing mat lab at the operating
system prompt. You can customize MATLAB startup. For example, you can change the
directory in which MATLAB starts or automatically execute MATLAB statements in a script
file named startup.m
MATLAB Desktop
When you start MATLAB, the MATLAB desktop appears, containing tools (graphical user
interfaces) for managing files, variables, and applications associated with MATLAB. The
following illustration shows the default desktop. You can customize the arrangement of tools
and documents to suit your needs.


M-Files
You can create your own matrices using M-files, which are text files containing MATLAB code.
Use the MATLAB Editor or another text editor to create a file containing the same statements
you would type at the MATLAB command Line. Save the file under a name that ends in .m.

FileNewM-File
Write on your Program
Save the M-File
Evaluate the Compilation





































Experiment No.1
Object: Generation of continuous & discrete elementary signals(periodic & nonperiodic) using
mathematical expression.
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Signal
A signal is a codified message, that is, the sequence of states in a communication channel that
encodes a message.
Discrete-time and continuous-time signals:
If for a signal, the quantities are defined only on a discrete set of times, we call it a discrete-time
signal. In other words, a discrete-time real (or complex) signal can be seen as a function from the
set of integers to the set of real (or complex) numbers.
A continuous-time real (or complex) signal is any real-valued (or complex-valued) function
which is defined for all time t in an interval, most commonly an infinite interval.
Analog and digital signals
Less formally than the theoretical distinctions mentioned above, two main types of signals
encountered in practice are analog and digital. In short, the difference between them is that
digital signals are discrete and quantized, as defined below, while analog signals possess neither
property.
Periodic Function
A function f in domain X is called periodic, if there exists a number P, different from zero, such
that f(x + P) = f(x) for all values of x in the domain X. In this case, Number P is called the period
of the function f in the domain X.
In general, period P has no need to be real (it may be a complex number). For example the
exponential has period 2i.
Non-periodic function
An aperiodic function (non-periodic function) is one that has no such period P for which
f(x + P) = f(x) for some P.
Properties of periodic Signal
If a function f is periodic with period P, then for all x in the domain of f and all integers n,
f(x + nP) = f(x).

Program 1
%AIET/ECE/001
% Generation of continuous periodic elementary signal
x=[0:0.1:30];
y=sin(x);
plot(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Periodic Signal A Exponential Waveform');

Output:


Fig. No. AIET/ECE/001



Program 2
% AIET/ECE/002
% Generation of Discrete periodic elementary signal
x=[0:0.1:30];
y=sin(x);
stem(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Discrete Periodic Signal A sinusoidal Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/002



Program 3
% AIET/ECE/003
% Generation of continuous aperiodic elementary signal
x=[0:0.1:30];
y=exp(x);
plot(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Periodic Signal A Exponential Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/003


Program 4
% AIET/ECE/004
% Generation of Discrete Aperiodic elementary signal
x=[0:1:20];
y=exp(x);
stem(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Discrete APeriodic Signal Exponential Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/004

Experiment No. 2
Object: Generation of Continuous and Discrete Unit Step Signal.
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Continuous Unit step Function
It has constant amplitude of unity for the zero or positive value of time t, whereas it has a
zero where for a negative value of t.
The unit step signal mathematically represented as
Continuous Unit Step Signal:
u (t) = _
1 ur t
ur t < u


Discrete Unit Step Function
A discrete time unit step function is denoted by u(n). The value is unity for all positive
values of the discrete values of n. It means that it unity for n0 while for other values of it is
Zero.
Discrete Unit Step Function
u (n) = _
1 ur n
ur n < u

In the form of discrete sequence it can be written as
u(n)= ]
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
l






Program 1
%AIET/ECE/005
%Generation of Continuous Unit Step Signal.
n=input('Enter the Length of Sequence N=');
t=0:1:n-1;
step=ones(1,n);
plot(t,step);
xlabel('Sequence');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Continuous Unit Step Function');
Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/005

Program 2

%AIET/ECE/006
%Generation of Discrete Unit Step Signal.
n=input('Enter the Length of Sequence N=');
t=0:1:n-1;
step=ones(1,n);
stem(t,step);
xlabel('Sequence');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Discrete Unit Step Function');
Output:

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/006

Experiment No.3
Object: Generation of exponential and Ramp signal in continuous and discrete domain.
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Exponential function:
The exponential function is a function in mathematics. The application of this function to a value
x is written as exp(x). Equivalently, this can be written in the form e
x
, where e is a mathematical
constant, the base of the natural logarithm, which equals approximately 2.718281828, and is also
known as Euler's number.
The complex exponential is one of the most fundamental and important signals in signal and
system analysis. Its importance comes from its functions as a basis for periodic signals as well
as being able to characterize linear, time-invariant signals. Before proceeding, you should be
familiar with the ideas and functions of complex numbers.
Types of exponential signal:
Continuous Signal: x(t) = Ac
bt

Discrete Signal: x(n)= Ac
bn

Growing exponential signal b>0, for Decaying exponential signal b<0

Ramp Function:
A continuous time unit ramp function is that type of function which starts at t=0 & increase
linearly with time t. It is denoted by r (t)
Mathematically: For (continuous time unit ramp function)
i (t) = ]
u foi t < u,
t foi t > u

A discrete time unit ramp function is that type of function which starts at n=0 &
increases with the each value of n increases linearly with discrete poins.
Mathematically: For (discrete time unit ramp function)
i (n) = ]
u foi n < u,
n foi n > u

Program 1
% AIET/ECE/007
% Generation of continuous Exponential elementry signal
x=[0:0.1:30];
y=exp(x);
stem(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('An Exponential Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/007

Program 2
% AIET/ECE/008
% Generation of Discrete Exponential elementry signal
x=[0:0.1:30];
y=exp(x);
stem(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('An Discrete Exponential Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/008


Program 3
% AIET/ECE/009
% Generation of Continuous Ramp signal
x=[0:1:30];
y=x;
plot(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Continuous Ramp signal Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/009


Program 4
% AIET/ECE/010
% Generation of Discrete Ramp signal
x=[0:1:30];
y=x;
stem(x,y);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('Amplitude of Signal');
title('Discrete Ramp signal Waveform');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/010

Experiment No.4
Object: Continuous and discrete time Convolution (using basic definition).
Apparatus: Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
The convolution theorem says, roughly, that convolving two sequences is the same as multiplying
their Fourier transforms. In order to make this precise, it is necessary to pad the two vectors
Thus,
If M = fft([x zeros(1,length(y)-1)])
And N = fft([y zeros(1,length(x)-1)])
Then conv(x,y) = ifft(M.*N)
With zeros and ignore round off error.
w = conv(u,v) convolves vectors u and v. Algebraically, convolution is the same operation as
multiplying the polynomials whose coefficients are the elements of u and v.
Let m = length (u) and n = length(v).
Then w is the vector of length m+n-1 whose kth element is
w|n] = u|k]v|n -k],

k=-

The sum is over all the values of j which lead to legal subscripts for
u(j) and v(k+1-j),
Specifically j = max(1,k+1-n): min(k,m).
When m = n, this gives
w(1) = u(1)*v(1)
w(2) = u(1)*v(2)+u(2)*v(1)
w(n) = u(1)*v(n)+u(2)*v(n-1)+ ... +u(n)*v(1)...
w(2*n-1) = u(n)*v(n)


Program 1
% AIET/ECE/011
% Generation of Convolution of two sequences
x=[0:1:30];
a=sin(x);
b=cos(x);
c=conv(a,b);
plot(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('convoluted output');
title('Convolution of two sequences');
Output:

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/011

Program 2
% AIET/ECE/012
% Generation of Convolution of two discrete sequences
x=[0:1:30];
y=[0 3 6 7 8 8 9];
c=conv(a,b);
stem(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('convoluted output');
title('Convolution of two sequences');
Output:

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/012

Experiment No.5
Object: Adding and subtracting two given signals. (Continuous as well as Discrete signals)
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
A signal is a codified message, that is, the sequence of states in a communication channel that
encodes a message.
Discrete-time and continuous-time signals:
If for a signal, the quantities are defined only on a discrete set of times, we call it a discrete-time
signal. In other words, a discrete-time real (or complex) signal can be seen as a function from the
set of integers to the set of real (or complex) numbers.A continuous-time real (or complex) signal
is any real-valued (or complex-valued) function which is defined for all time t in an interval,
most commonly an infinite interval..
Addition of two signals
Two signals can be added if they have similar properties in time or frequency domain.

f
1
(x)
+ y(x)= f
1
(x)+ f
2
(x)
+
f
2
(x)
Subtraction of two signals
Two signals can be subtracted if they have similar properties in frequency domain.

f
1
(x)
+ y(x)= f
1
(x) - f
2
(x)
_
f
2
(x)

f
1
(x) f
2
(x) y(x)
f
1
(x) f
2
(x) y(x)
Program 1
% AIET/ECE/013
% Addition of two signals
x=[0:1:30];
a=sin(x);
b=cos(x);
c=a+b;
plot(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('Addition Amplitude');
title('Addition of two sequences');
Output:

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/013


Program 2
% AIET/ECE/014
% Addition of two discrete sequences
x=[0 5 7 8 9 3];
y=[2 3 5 6 7 1];
c=x+y;
stem(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('Addition Amplitude');
title('Addition of two sequences');
Output


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/014


Program 3
% AIET/ECE/015
% Subtraction of two signals
x=[0:1:30];
a=sin(x);
b=cos(x);
c=a-b;
plot(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('Subtraction Amplitude');
title('Subtraction of two sequences');

Output

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/015

Program 4
% AIET/ECE/016
% Substraction of two sequences
x=[0 5 7 8 9 3];
y=[2 3 5 6 7 1];
c=x-y;
stem(c);
xlabel('input');
ylabel('Substraction Amplitude');
title('Substraction of two sequences');

Output

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/016


Experiment No.6
Object: To generate uniform random numbers between (0, 1).
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Random variable: A function which can take any value from the sample space and its range is set
of real number is called a random variable of the experiment.
The methods for generating random numbers from any distribution all start with uniform random
numbers. Once you have a uniform random number generator, you can produce random numbers
from other distributions either directly or by using inversion or rejection methods.
Direct methods flow from the definition of the distribution.
The inversion method works due to a fundamental theorem that relates the uniform distribution
to other continuous distributions.
The functional form of some distributions makes it difficult or time consuming to generate
random numbers using direct or inversion methods. Rejection methods can sometimes provide
an elegant solution in these cases.
rand :- rand command is used to generate Random variable in Mat lab.
To generate random numbers from a distribution with pdf given.
To use rejection methods you must first find another density, g, and a constant, c, so that the
inequality below holds
(x) c{g(x)]
for all x.
You then generate the random numbers you want using the following steps:
Generate a random number x from distribution G with density g.
Form the ratio. r = c
g(x)
](x)

Generate a uniform random number u.
If the product of u and r is less than one, return to x.



Program 1
% AIET/ECE/017
% Generation of Random Numbers in between 0 & 1
x=input('Enter the length of Random Numbers to Generate N=');
r=rand(1,x) %Number of rows=1, Number of columns =x
stem(r);
title('Random Numbers in between 0 & 1');
xlabel('numbers');
ylabel('Amplitude');

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/017


Experiment No.7

Object: To plot Probability Density Function of Poisson distribution.

Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0

Theory:

Poisson distribution
The Poisson distribution is appropriate for applications that involve counting the number
of times a random event occurs in a given amount of time, distance, area, etc. Sample
applications that involve Poisson distributions include the number of Geiger counter clicks per
second, the number of people walking into a store in an hour, and the number of flaws per 1000
feet of video tape.
The Poisson distribution is a one parameter discrete distribution that takes nonnegative
integer values. The parameter, , is both the mean and the variance of the distribution. Thus, as
the size of the numbers in a particular sample of Poisson random numbers gets larger, so does
the variability of the numbers.
The Poisson and exponential distributions are related. If the number of counts follows the
Poisson distribution, then the interval between individual counts follows the exponential
distribution.

Probability Density Function of Poisson distribution

y = [
x
z
=
z
x
x!
c
-x
I
(0,1,2,3,..)
(x)

Binomial distribution

The binomial distribution models the total number of successes in repeated trials from an
infinite population under the following conditions: Only two outcomes are possible on each of n
trials. The probability of success for each trial is constant. All trials are independent of each
other.
y = [
x
n
, p = [
n
x
p
x
q
(1-x)
I
(0,1,2..n)
(x)
Where
[
n
x
=
n!
x! (n -x)!

And q = 1 p


Program 1
%AIET/ECE/019
% Generation of Probability Density Function of Poisson distribution
x=0:25;
y = poisspdf(x,5);
plot(x,y,'*');
xlabel('x');
ylabel('Probability Density Function');
title('Probability Density Function of Poisson distribution');
Output



Fig. No. AIET/ECE/019





Program 2
%AIET/ECE/020
% Generation of Probability Density Function of Binomial distribution
x=0:25;
y = binopdf(x,15,0.5);
plot(x,y,'*');
xlabel('x');
ylabel('Probability Density Function');
title('Probability Density Function of Binomial distribution');
Output



Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/020




Experiment No.8
Object: To generate random sequences with arbitrary distributions, means and variances for
following :
(a) Rayleigh distribution
(b) Normal distributions: N(0,1).
(c) Gaussion distributions: N (mx, x2)
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Rayleigh distribution
The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of the Weibull distribution. If A and B are the
parameters of the Weibull distribution, then the Rayleigh distribution with parameter b is
equivalent to the Weibull distribution with parameters
A=1/2b
2
and B=2.
If the component velocities of a particle in the x and y directions are two independent normal
random variables with zero means and equal variances, then the distance the particle travels per
unit time is distributed Rayleigh.
The normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution
The normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution, is an important family of
continuous probability distributions, applicable in many fields. Each member of the family may
be defined by two parameters, location and scale: the mean ("average", ) and variance (standard
deviation squared,
2
) respectively. The standard normal distribution is the normal distribution
with a mean of zero and a variance of one (the red curves in the plots to the right).
To indicate that a real-valued random variable X is normally distributed with mean and
variance 0, we write
Mean
Given a random sample x
1
, x
2
,..x
N ,
from an n-dimensional random variable X(i.e., realizations
of N independent random variables with the same distribution as X), the sample mean is

Variance
In probability theory and statistics, the variance of a random variable, probability distribution, or
sample is one measure of statistical dispersion, averaging the squared distance of its possible
values from the expected value (mean). Whereas the mean is a way to describe the location of a
distribution, the variance is a way to capture its scale or degree of being spread out. The unit of
variance is the square of the unit of the original variable. The positive square root of the
variance, called the standard deviation, has the same units as the original variable and can be
easier to interpret for this reason.
random variable X has expected value (mean) = E(X), then the variance Var(X) of X is given
by:

This definition encompasses random variables that are discrete, continuous, or neither. Of all the
points about which squared deviations could have been calculated, the mean produces the
minimum value for the averaged sum of squared deviations.
The variance of random variable X is typically designated as Var(X), , or simply
2
. If a
distribution does not have an expected value, as is the case for the Cauchy distribution, it does
not have a variance either. Many other distributions for which the expected value does exist do
not have a finite variance because the relevant integral diverges. An example is a Pareto
distribution whose Pareto index k satisfies 1 < k 2.
Continuous case
If the random variable X is continuous with probability density function p(x),
Ior(x) = _(x -p)
2
p(x)Jx
Where
p = ]xp(x)Jx and where the integrals are definite integrals taken for x ranging over the range
of X.
Discrete case
If the random variable X is discrete with probability mass function x
1
- p
1
... x
n
- p
n
,
p

(x

-p)
2 n
=1


Note: The variance is equal to the mean of the squares minus the square of the mean.
Program 1
% AIET/ECE/021
% To generate random sequences with means and variances for Normal & Gaussian Distribution
N=input('Enter the length of Random Numbers to Generate N=');
n=1:N;
disp('Output');
R = normrnd(n,1./n)% mean=MU, Standard Deviation=SIGMA
[m,v]=normstat(n'*n,n'*n)%m=mean, v=Variance

Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/021


Program 2
% AIET/ECE/022
% To generate random sequences with means and variances for Rayleigh Distribution
N=input('Enter the length of Random Numbers to Generate N=');
B=1:N;
disp('Output');
R = raylrnd(B)% mean=MU, Standard Deviation=SIGMA
[m,v]=raylstat(B)%m=mean, v=Variance
Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/022



Experiment No. 9
Object: To generate the probability density functions.
Apparatus: A system equipped with Mat lab 7.0
Theory:
Rayleigh distribution
In probability theory and statistics, the Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability
distribution. It can arise when a two-dimensional vector (e.g. wind velocity, which consists of a
speed value and a direction) has elements that are normally distributed, are uncorrelated, and
have equal variance. The vectors magnitude (e.g. wind speed) will then have a Rayleigh
distribution. The distribution can also arise in the case of random complex numbers whose real
and imaginary components are i.e. Gaussian. In that case, the absolute value of the complex
number is Rayleigh-distributed. The distribution was so named after Lord Rayleigh.
The Rayleigh probability density function is .
[
x
c
=
x cxp (
-x
2
2o
2
)
c
2
for x e |u, )
Normal distribution (Gaussian distribution)
The importance of the normal distribution as a model of quantitative phenomena in the natural
and behavioral sciences is due in part to the central limit theorem. Many measurements, ranging
from psychological to physical phenomena (in particular, thermal noise) can be approximated, to
varying degrees, by the normal distribution. The normal distribution is also important for its
relationship to least-squares estimation, one of the simplest and oldest methods of statistical
estimation.
The Normal Probability density function
The continuous probability density function of the normal distribution is the Gaussian function

,c
2(x) =
1
o2n
c
-
(x-)
2
2c
2
=
1
o
(
x -p
o
)
where > 0 is the standard deviation, the real parameter is the expected value, and
(x) =
0,1
(x) =
c
-x
2
2
2n
, x e R,

Program 1
AIET/ECE/023
% To generate random sequences with Probability Density Function for Normal (Gaussian)
Distribution
mu = [0:0.1:2];
[y i] = max(normpdf(1.5,mu,1))
disp('Output');
MLE = mu(i)
Output:


Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/023



Program 2
% AIET/ECE/024
% To generate random sequences with Probability Density Function for Rayleigh Distribution
X=1:0.2:3;
B=1;
disp('Output');
P=raylpdf(X,B)%Probability Density Function
plot(X,P);
title('Probability Density Function for Rayleigh Distribution');
xlabel('input X');
ylabel('Probability Density Function');
Output:

Output Fig. No. AIET/ECE/024