Data communication:Digital communication: electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage and

processing by computers) Communication:-Communication is the process of transferring information from one enity to another. Components Simplex communication:Half Duplex A communications system that can transmit in only a single direction at a time. Half duplex is abbreviated HD Simplex communication refers to communication that occurs in one direction only.

Examples

Commercial radio broadcast (not walkie-talkies, etc.) T.V broadcast Internet multicast One-way communications from a launcher to a guided missile, where the launcher (airplane, ship, etc.) sends commands to the missile, but does not receive any information sent back.

Duplex communication:- duplex communication system is a system composed of two connected parties or devices that can communicate with one another in both directions. ... Duplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex

Half Duplex:- A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions,

but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously). Example

multipoint connection: A connection with more than two endpoints. Software standard is a standard in software, which is particularly essential in software interroperatibility .

International Standards Organizations

Broadly, an international standards organization develops international standards. (This does not necessarily restrict the use of other published standards internationally.) A standards organization, standards body, standards development organization or SDO is any entity whose primary activities are developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing, interpreting, or otherwise maintaining standards that address the interests of a wide base of users outside the standards development organization There are many international standards organizations. For example, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) have existed for more than 50 years (founded in 1947, 1906, and 1865, respectively) and they are all based in Geneva, Switzerland. They have established tens of thousands of standards covering almost every conceivable topic. Many of these are then adopted worldwide replacing various incompatible 'homegrown' standards. Many of these standards are naturally evolved from those designed in-house within an industry, or by a particular country, whilst others have been built from scratch by groups of experts who sit on various technical committees (TCs). ISO is composed of the National Standards Bodies (NSBs), one per member economy. The IEC is composed of "National Committees", one per member economy. In some cases, the National Committee to the IEC of an economy may be the ISO member from that country or economy. The World Standards Cooperation (WSC) is a cooperative effort between ISO, the IEC, and the ITU.

Physical Layer:The physical layer transfers a stream of bits (in the form of a signal) from the sender to the receiver. The transfer is node-to-node, from one node to the next. The physical layer of the two adjacent nodes provides a logical pipe through which the bits can travel. The logical pipe under the physical layer is transmission media (cable or air). Since a transmission medium can not carry bits, we need to represent the bits by a signal, electromagnetic energy that can propagate through a medium. Although the transmission medium determines the upper limit of the data rate, the physical layer is the controller. The design of the physical layer hardware and software determine the data rate. The timing of the bit transfer is crucial in data communications. The physical layer governs the synchronization of bits by providing clocking mechanisms that control both the sender and the receiver. The physical layer by using different techniques also provides multiplexing. Although the medium itself is not actually changed, the result is several

channels instead of one. Switching in data communications can be done in several layers. We have circuit switching, packet switching and message switching. Circuit switching, a method that allows two nodes to have a dedicated link, is mostly a function of the physical layer. Network Layer:The Network Layer is Layer 3 of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. The Network Layer is responsible for end-to-end (source to destination) packet delivery including routing through intermediate hosts, whereas the Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node (hop-to-hop) frame delivery on the same link.
.931: ISDN Network Layer Protocol for Signaling

Network Layer is specified by the ITU Q-series documents Q.930 through Q.939. Q.931, the layer 3 protocol, is used for the ISDN call establishment, maintenance, and termination of logical network connections between two devices. During the layer 3 call setup, three parties are involved, and are where messages sent and received; 1) the Caller, 2) the ISDN Switch, and 3) the Receiver. Following is an example of call setup steps:

Caller sends a SETUP to the Switch. If the SETUP is OK, the switch sends a CALL PROCeeding to the Caller, and then a SETUP to the Receiver. The Receiver gets the SETUP. If it is OK, then it rings the phone and sends an ALERTING message to the Switch. The Switch forwards the ALERTING message to the Caller. When the receiver answers the call, is sends a CONNECT message to the Switch The Switch forwards the CONNECT message to the Caller. The Caller sends a CONNECT ACKnowledge message to the Switch The Switch forwards the CONNECT ACK message to the Receiver. Done. The connection is now up. Transport Layer:-

The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. Session Layer:Presentation Layer:The Presentation Layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of information to the application layer for further processing or display. It relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation within the end-user systems. Note: An example of a presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file. Application Layer:Application Layer is a term used in categorizing protocols and methods in architectural models of computer networking. Both the OSI model and the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) contain an application layer.

Definition of Router
A Router is a device that connects two networks - frequently over large distances. It understands one or more network protocols, such as IP or IPX. A Router accepts packets on at least two network interfaces, and forwards packets from one interface to another. Router's may be programmed to filter out some packets, and to dynamically change the route by which packets are routed. Router's often use different media on each interface. For instance, a router might have one Ethernet port and one ISDN port.

Operating system:-

An operating system (OS) is an interface between hardware and user which is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer, that acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the resource allocation and access protection of the hardware. This relieves the application programmers from having to manage these details. Layer:In computer programming, layering is the organization of programming into separate functional components that interact in some sequential and hierarchical way, with each layer usually having an interface only to the layer above it and the layer below it.
Web definitions for internet:A computer network consisting of a worldwide network of computer networks that use the TCP/IP network protocols to facilitate data transmission ... Definition of Internet:The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANET. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to be able to "talk to" research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.

Frequency spectrum:The frequency spectrum of a time-domain signal is a representation of that signal in the frequency domain. The frequency spectrum can be generated via a Fourier transform of the signal, and the resulting values are usually presented as amplitude and phase, both plotted versus frequency. [1]

Bit interval:-

1.

The time required to send one signal bit.

Definition Encoding:In computers, encoding is the process of putting a sequence of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation, and certain symbols) into a specialized format for efficient transmission or storage. The process, or result of the process, of varying a characteristic of a carrier, in accordance with an information-bearing signal.