APPLIED MECHANICS ASSIGNMENT ON FORCE MOMENT AND COUPLE

PREPARED BY:
CHIRAG JAIN DEEPANKER KUMERIA KAPIL GUPTA KSHITIJ GUPTA KUNAL SEKHRI 36/EC/10 38/EC/10 55/EC/10 58/EC/10 61/EC/10

CONTENTS
Mechanics Fundamental Principles Concurrent Coplanar Force Systems System Of Forces Law Of Parallelogram Of Forces Triangle Law Of Forces Polygon Law Of Forces Resolution And Composition Of Forces Law Of Action And Reaction Equilibrium Of Collinear Forces Equilibrium Of Concurrent Coplanar Forces Free-Body Diagrams Non-Concurrent Coplanar Force System Introduction Moment Of Force Varignons Theoram Couple Properties Of A Couple Resolution Of A Given Force Into A Force Acting At A Given Point And Couple Addition Of Couples Reaction At Supports Of Beams Types Of Supports Types Of Beams Types Of Loads Numericals

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who gave the possibility to complete this project. We want to thank the Department of mechanics of nsit, for giving us permission to commence this project in the first instance, to do the necessary research work and to use departmental data.We are deeply indebted to our supervisor Prof. Sanjay Gupta sir from the Technical University nsit whose help, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped us in all the time of research for and writing of this thesis.

Thank you.

MECHANICS
Mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. No one subject plays a greater role in the engineering analysis and application than mechanics. Modern research and advancements in the fields of stability, strength and design of structures and machines, vibration, robotics, rockets, missiles, aeroplane and spacecraft design, automobiles, automatic control, fluid flow, engine performance, electrical machines and apparatus, transmission towers, superstructures, heavy earth moving machines, locomotives, metro railways, super sonic aircrafts; molecular, atomic and subatomic behaviour, etc., are highly dependent on the basic principles of mechanics...A thorough and clear understanding of this subject is an essential requirement for work in these and many other subjects, not mentioned above. It is divided into three parts : Mechanics of Rigid bodies, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies and Mechanics of Fluids. Mechanics of rigid bodies is sub-divided into Statics and Dynamics. Statics deals with bodies at rest, while Dynamics deals with bodies in motion. In the study of mechanics bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid. Actual machines and structures are not absolutely rigid and deform under the given loads but these deformations are negligibly small and therefore do not affect their conditions of equilibrium or motion. The second division of mechanics is the Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, which is further subdivided into Strength of Materials, Theory of Elasticity, Theory of Plasticity. The third division of mechanics is the Mechanics of Fluid, which is further subdivided into Mechanics of Incompressible Fluids and Mechanics of Compressible Fluids.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The study of mechanics rests on six fundamental principles based on experimental evidence. They will be discussed at length in subsequent sections as they are required. These principles are stated below for reference only :

(1) The Parallelogram Law of Forces. It states that the resultant of two forces
is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as the sides representing these forces. The Three Laws of Newton. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was the first to satisfactorily formulate the fundamental principles of mechanics. Slightly reworded to use the modern terminology, these laws are :

(2) First Law of Motion. A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight
line with a uniform velocity if there is no unbalanced resultant force acting on it.

(3) Second Law of Motion. The acceleration is proportional to the resultant force
acting on a particle and is in the direction of this force. Expressed mathematically, it may be stated as : F=ma ...(1.1)

where F is the resultant force acting on the particle of mass m and a is the resulting acceleration.

(4) Third Law of Motion. The forces of action and reaction between the bodies
are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear.

(5) The Principle of Transmissibility. This states that the external effect of a
force on a rigid body is the same for all points of application of a force along its line of action, i.e., it is independent of its point of application. Its internal effect definitely change with the point of application of the force. Force F, in Fig. 1.3.1(a) will result the sliding of the block whether the force pulls the block at A or pushes at B. The local internal effects at A and B will, however, be quite different.

It should be noted that the principle of transmissibility applies to the external effect of a force on the same rigid body. Observe that since the supports at C and D have changed in Figs. (b) and (c) therefore the principle of transmissibility will not hold good although the force P acts along its line of action through points A and B. The support at D is changed from a hinge at (b) to a roller at (c), this change the external condition of equilibrium of the body.

(6) Newton's Law of Gravitation. This law states that the two masses M and m
situated at a distance r are mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces (Fig. 1.3.2) and F' of magnitude F given by the formula :

The mutual forces F obey the law of action and reaction since they are equal and opposite and are directed along the line joining the centres of the particles M and m as shown in Fig. 1.3.2. The gravitational attraction of the earth on a given body is called the weight of the body. This force exits whether the body is at rest or in motion. In SI units the unit of weight is Newton (N). For a body of mass m near the surface of earth, the gravitational attraction on the body may be calculated by equation (1.1). If the gravitational force or weight has a magnitude W, then since the body falls with an acceleration g, eqn. (1.2) gives W = mg ...(1.3) The weight is in newtons (N) and mass in kilograms (kg) and g in m/s2. The standard value of g = 9.81 m/s2 is generally used. In eqn. (1.2), let M. = mass of earth in kg and r a radius of earth in metres (m), we get

CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

SYSTEMS OF FORCES
In the study of mechanics various systems of forces are encountered. When all forces meet at one point, they are known as concurrent forces. When all concurrent forces are lying in one plane they belong to coplanar concurrent force system. This force system is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.2 (b), in which all forces are situated in the XY plane and meet at a point A. If the concurrent forces are situated in different planes in space, they belong to concurrent spatial forces. In Fig. 1.5.2(e) forces F1 and F3 are situated in XZ plane ; forces F1 and F. are situated in YZ plane ; forces F2 and F. do not lie in any plane. All these forces meet at the corner C of the cube. If all forces acting at a point lying in any plane are acting along the same straight line they form coplanar collinear force system, as shown in Fig. 1.5.2(a).

Fig. 1.5.1 gives classification of different systems of forces. Various force systems are divided into (a) coplanar force systems, and (b) spatial force systems. Each system of forces is further subdivided into concurrent force systems ; parallel force systems and non-concurrent (non-parallel) force systems. In Fig. 1.5.2 (c) all forces are parallel to each other and are situated in the xy plane and hence are known as coplanar parallel force system. In Fig. 1.5.2 (F) all forces are parallel to each other but they are lying in different planes. Forces F1, F2 and F6 are lying in yz plane ; forces F4 and F5 are situated in xy plane and force F3 acting along they-axis is situated in both xy and yz planes. The force system shown in Fig. 1.5.2 (F) is known as spatial parallel force system. Coplanar non-concurrent force system is shown in Fig. 1.5.2 (d) in which forces are situated in xy plane, but they do not act through the same point. Spatial non-concurrent force system is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.2 (g). Here all forces are situated in plane and also act through different points.

LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES

This law is used to determine the resultant of two coplanar forces acting on a point. It states that, if two forces acting on a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point. This law is based on the experimental results. It cannot be proved analytically but can be verified experimentally. The law of parallelogram of forces is represented in Fig. 1.6 (a), where the resultant (R) of force F1 and F2 inclined at an angle a and acting at 0 is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through 0. The resultant R is inclined at an angle 0 with the force F1.

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

This law states that, "If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle, taken in order, then the third side represents their resultant in magnitude and direction".

In Fig. 1.7.1, the side OA of the OAB represents force F1 and the side AB represents the force F2. Then, the side OB will represent the resultant in direction and magnitude. Here the two forces F1 and F2 are represented by the sides OA and AB of the OAB.

Converse of the triangle law of forces : If three concurrent forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of the triangle taken in order, they will be equilibrium. Thus, in general, if the three sides of a triangle are A, B and C as shown in Fig. 1.7.2. Then, the following formulae can be applied :

POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

It states that if a number of concurrent forces acting on a particle are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite order. In Fig. 1.8 (a) a system of concurrent coplanar forces acting on a particle are shown.

RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION OF FORCES

This is an analytical method of finding the resultant of a given system of many coplanar forces acting at a point. In this method we first resolve all forces in two mutually directions, say horizontal and vertical directions ; or in the x- and y-directions. Then we find the algebraic sum of these components and find the required resultant, as explained below.

Conclusion. The following definitions for composition and resolution of forces should
be remembered.

(1) Composition of forces. The reduction of a given system of forces to the simplest
system that will be equivalent to the given system of forces is called the problem of composition of forces.

(2) Resolution of a force. The replacement of a single force by several components

which will be equivalent in action to the given force is called the problem of resolution of a force.

LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION

Any pressure or force on a support causes an equal and opposite pressure or force from the support so that action and reaction are two equal and opposite forces. This principle of statics is nothing but is reworded Newton's third law of motion. This helps in the analysis of various problems of statics subjected to any system of forces-collinear, coplanar or spatial.

EQUILIBRIUM OF COLLINEAR FORCES

From the principle of parallelogram of forces, it follows that the two forces applied at a point can always be replaced by their resultant which is equivalent to the applied forces. Thus, we conclude that two concurrent forces can be in equilibrium only if their resultant is zero. This is the case if we have two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite direction along the same line. Equilibrium Law. Two forces acting at a point can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear in action.

EQUILIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCES

The law of equilibrium of section 1.12 can be applied to the two concurrent non-collinear forces acting at a point. Thus, we conclude that we can hold the two forces in equilibrium by applying at a point A. Fig. 1.13, a force equal and opposite to their resultant. This force is called the equilibriant of the two given force.

In Fig. 1.13(a), two forces Fl and F2 acting at A have their resultant R , given as the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn on sides Fl and F2 . In Fig. 1.13 (b) vector oa represents force F, and the vector
ob

represents the force F2. Their resultant R is given by vector ob.

Thus, the two forces Fl and F2 acting at point A can be replaced by their resultant K. Thus, under the action of the two forces Fl and F2 or their resultant R, the particle at A has tendency to move in the direction of ob or in the direction of K. Hence, in order to present particle to move, a force E equal and opposite to R should be applied at particle A. This force is known as the equilibrium and is directed from b to o or its direction is opposite to the direction of the resultant A, as shown in Fig. 1.13 (c).

FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS To study the equilibrium of a constrained body . We shall imagine that we remove the
supports and replace them by the reactions which they exert on the body. Consider the ball resting on a horizontal surface, shown in Fig. 1.14.1 (a). Horizontal support below the ball does not allow the ball to move downward. Thus, the downward motion of the ball is constrained. The horizontal support, through point of contact A, offers a vertical reaction V. perpendicular to the support surface. This reaction V. is equal and opposite to the weight W of the ball. Thus, when the support below the ball is removed we show the support reaction Va and the weight W of the ball, as shown in Fig. 1.14.1(b). Fig. 1.14.1(b) is called the free body diagram of the ball.

In the case of the ball in Fig. 1.14.2 (a), we again remove the supports and isolate it as a free-body as shown in Fig. 1.14.2 (b). Then, apart from the weight W of the ball acting at its centre C, we have two reactive forces to apply, one replacing the wall at A and another replacing the cord. Since the cord is attached to the ball at C and since a cord can pull only along its length, we have the reactive force T applied at C and parallel to BC. Its magnitude is unknown. If the surface of the wall is smooth the reaction of wall at A will be normal to wall. Here the reaction at A is horizontal and hence it is represented by HA - its magnitude remains unknown. Here, we shall not discuss the method of finding the magnitudes of T and HA. But it is necessary to so proportion them that their resultant is equal and opposite to the vertical forces W. It is important to note that, we shall always obtain two kinds of forces acting on the body : the given forces, called active forces, such as the weight W, and reactive forces replacing the supports and its connections to other adjoining bodies such as HA and the tension T in the cord BC in Fig. 1.14.2. To have equilibrium of a body, it is necessary that the active forces and the reactive forces together form a system of forces which keep the body in equilibrium. Thus, by the freebody diagram we define the system of forces with which we investigate the conditions of equilibrium of any constrained body.

NON-CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The non-concurrent coplanar forces are confined in one plane and they do not meet at a single point. Some examples of the non-concurrent coplanar force system are shown in Fig. 1.18. In Fig. 1.18 (a), the loads P1 and P2 are inclined and therefore reaction at A will also be inclined. All active forces (P1 and P2) and reactive forces (RA and RB) act through different points. In Fig. 1.18 (b) all forces are parallel to each other. In Fig. 1.18 (c) all forces act through different points and do not meet at any single point.

MOMENT OF FORCE
The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the point and the line of action of the force. In Fig. 1.19.1 the perpendicular distance d is known as the moment arm. The point 0 about which the moment of the force F is taken is known as the moment centre. The tendency of a force to make a (rigid) body rotate about an axis is measured by the moment of the force about that axis. The moment axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the force F and the moment arm d and passes through the moment centre. Here, y. axis through 0 is the moment axis. Thus, the moment of F about 0, is

In SI system of units, where distance is expressed in metres (m), and force in newtons (N), the moment will be expressed in newton metres (N-m). The moment of force has magnitude as well as the sense. The moment of a force will be either clockwise or counterclockwise. Thus, the moment of the force F about 0, in Fig. 1.19.1, is counter-clockwise, while its moment about point B (i.e., MSF) is clockwise. Generally, counterclockwise moment is considered positive, and the clockwise moment is considered negative. Moments can therefore be added algebraically

VARIGNON'S THEOREM
An important theorem of statics is due to the French mathematician Varignon (1654-1722). It states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of moments of its components about that point.

COUPLE
Two forces having the same magnitude parallel lines of action, oppositely directed and separated by a defined distance are said to form a couple. The sum of the forces forming a couple in any direction is zero. This means that there is no translatory effect of a couple. Two such forces F and F', of the same magnitude F, are shown acting in Fig. 1.21 (a). The sum of the x-components and of the y-components of F and F are zero. The sum of their moments about a point (or an axis through a point) A, however, is not zero. Thus, the two forces will not move the body away, they will tend to make it turn or rotate.

Let the perpendicular distances of F and F' from the point A be d1 and d2. Noting that the counterclock-wise moment is positive, we write the sum M of moments of the two forces about A : +M=Fd1-Fd2=F(d1-d2) d = (d1- d2), therefore we get Since, ...(1.40) M=Fd The sum M is called the moment of the couple. It is important to note that M does not depend upon the location of the point A ; M will have the same magnitude and the same sense regardless of the location of the point A.

This is illustrated in Fig. 1.21 (b and c). In Fig. 1.21(b):M=Fd2-Fd1=F(d2-d1)=Fd. In Fig. 1.21(c):M=Fd1+Fd2=F(d1+d2)=Fd.

Properties of a couple
Since the moment centre A and the position of the forces F and F' do not affect the couple, therefore they may be chosen arbitrarily. Thus (a) The couple is a free vector, it may be placed anywhere parallel to itself. (b) The sense of rotation of the couple is found by inspection. (c) The couple does not give a translatory motion to the body. It causes only the effect of rotation. (d) The couple is proportional to the magnitude of the two equal and opposite parallel forces and also on the perpendicular distance between the forces. The effect of the couple does not change if : (1) The couple is rotated through any angle in the plane of forces. (2) The couple is shifted to any other position in the plane of forces. (3) The couple is shifted to a parallel plane. (4) The couple is replaced by another pair of forces in its plane whose product Fd and sense of rotation is unchanged.

Important :
(1) Various couples of different sense and magnitude can be added algebraically to get their resultant. (2) The two couples having the same moment (same magnitude and same sense) are equivalent.

RESOLUTION OFA GIVEN FORCE INTO A FORCE ACTING AT A GIVEN POINT AND A COUPLE
Sometimes we have to shift a force F acting at a point A to another point B. The effect of this is studied as follows.

Fig. 1.22. Resolution of a given force into a force acting at a given point and a couple In Fig. 1.22 (a), a force F is given acting at a given point A. It is required to shift this force F to another point B. The distance between A and B is d. Apply two equal and opposite forces F and F1 of the same magnitude F to the point B, as shown in Fig. 1.22 W. The two forces F and F1 form couple M = Fd, clockwise in sense.

ADDITION OF COUPLES
Consider two couples of forces Fl. F1' and F2, F2' acting on the same rigid body, as shown in Fig. 1.25.1 (a). The forces F2 and F2' may be replaced by a couple of forces F3 and F3' which have respectively, the same line of action as Fl and F1', as shown in Fig. 1.25.1(b). The magnitude F3 of the new forces F3 and F3' must be such that

Adding forces along the same line of action, we get a single couple consisting of the forces F1 + F3 and F1' + F3', as shown in Fig. 1.25.1 (c). The moment of this couple is ...(1.42) M=(F1+F3)d1=F1d1+F3.d1=F1d1+F2d2 The moment M is therefore found to be the algebraic sum of the moments F1d1 and Fsd2 of the two original couples. It should be noted that, if the two couples are of opposite senses the moments will have opposite signs and we get the difference of the two couples, as shown in Fig. 1.25.2 (c).

Thus we conclude : Given two coplanar couples may be replaced by a single couple of moment equal to the algebraic sum of moments of the given couples. The Principle of algebraic addition of two couples may be applied to many couples lying in the same plane.

REACTIONS AT SUPPORTS OF BEAMS

A beam is a structural member used to support loads applied at various points along its length. Its length is generally very large compared to its other dimensions like width, height or diameter. The loads being perpendicular to the axis of the beams will cause shear and bending of the beam. When the loads are not at right angle to the beam, they will also produce axial forces in the beam. Axial forces may usually be neglected in the design of beams, since the ability of the beam to resist shear and bending is more critical than its ability to resist axial forces produced duo to the externally applied forces on the beam.

Types of Supports.
(1) Simple Support. If one end of the beam rests an a fixed support, the support is
known as simple support. The reaction of the simple support is always perpendicular to the surface of support. The beam is free to slide and rotate at the simple support. See Fig. 1.29 (a).

(2) Roller Support. Here one end of the beam is supported on a roller. The only reaction of the
roller support is normal to the surface on which the roller rolls without friction. See Fig. 1.29 (b) in which four possible situations are illustrated. Examples of roller supports are wheels of a motorcycle, or a handcart, or an over-head crane, or of a car, etc.

(3) Hinged Support. At the hinged support (see Fig. 1.29 (c)) the beam does not move
either along or normal to its axis. The beam, however, may rotate at the hinged support. The total support reaction is R and its horizontal and vertical components are H and V, respectively. Since the beam is free to rotate at the hinged support, no resisting moment will exist. The hinged support behaves like the hinges provide to doors and windows.

(4) Fixed Support. At the fixed support, the beam is not free to rotate or slide along the
length of the beam or in the direction normal to the beam. Therefore, there are three reaction components, viz., vertical reaction component (V), horizontal reaction component (H) and the moment (M), as shown in Fig. 1.29 W. Fixed support is also known as built-in support.

TYPES OF BEAMS
Beams are classified on the manner they are supported. Several types of beams frequently used are shown in Figs. 1.30. The distance L between the two supports is called span. Since there are only three equations of equilibrium for the non-concurrent coplanar force systems, viz (a) Beam Supported on Rollers. There are rollers on both ends. (b) Simply Supported Beam. A beam supported on a hinged support at one end and on a roller support at the other end is called the simply supported beam.

(c) Over Hanging Beams. It is a beam longer than its span. Thus, some portion of the
beam is either on the left of its left support or on the right of its right support or both.

(d) Cantilever. When one end of the beam is free (i.e., unsupported) and the other end
is fixed or built-in then beam is known as a cantilever. (e) Continuous Beams. When a beam is supported on more than two supports it is known as a continuous beam.

TYPES OF LOADS
A beam may be subjected to various types of loads such as :

(a) concentrated load or point load (b) uniformly distributed load (udl) (c) uniformly varying load (uvl) (a) Concentrated Load. It is a load that acts on a point and therefore, it is also-known
as a point load. This may be vertical (i.e., perpendicular to the axis of the beam) or inclined to the axis of the beam. It is generally expressed in newtons (N), or kilonewton (kN).

(b) Uniformly Distributed Load (udl). This load is spread over certain length of the
beam and is expressed in newton per metre (N/m) or kilonewton per metre (Mm). In The uniformly distributed load is abbreviated as udl. A udl may be thought of as a rectangle of height w and length equal to its spread. The c.g. of a udl coincides with the centroid (c) of the rectangle.

(c) Uniformly Varying Load (uvl). The uniformly varying load (uvl) which is zero at
point A and at point B the rate of load is wo per unit run. The distance AB is called the spread of the load.

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REFERENCE
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=JM0OGXUyu0C&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=basic+forces+in+engineering+mechanics&s ource=bl&ots=2pgEABNjLf&sig=Dz381s40gUCj36tXTkiDf_vwfA&hl=en&ei=MK6lTYqhIIr3rQef7d36CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=re sult&resnum=2&ved=0CB0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=basic%20forces%20i n%20engineering%20mechanics&f=false http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mechanics