TRADE UNIONISM

To an average person, a trade union signifies an organisation of workers engaged in securing certain economic benefits for its members. However, this is not the true view of a trade union. In the modern context, trade union's activities are not confined to mere "securing the economic benefits" The purview of its activities now includes even the political and welfare activities undertaken by it for the benefits of its members. It should be noted that we shall use the word 'employees' rather than "workers". This is because, the term "worker" prima facie excludes the clerical, technical and professional staff. Secondly, it should be noted that a trade union is an organisation formed on a continuous basis. It is not an ad-hoc arrangement. Finally, the trade union must work for the benefit of its members, whether getting a raise in the wage rate or setting up of a cafeteria or canteen for the employees. What is a Trade Union? A trade union may be defined as an organisation of employees formed on a continuous basis for the purpose of securing diverse range of benefits. Sec. 2(h) of the Indian Trade Unions Act, 1926 defines trade union as any combination, whether temporary or permanent, formed primarily for the purpose of regulating the relations between workmen and employers or between workmen and workmen, or between employers and employers, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, and includes any federation of two or more trade unions." This definition is very wide as it includes association of employers also. But ordinarily, a trade union is viewed as a continuous association of wage-earners or salaried employees for maintaining the conditions of their working lives and ensuring them a better and healthier status in the industry as well as in the society. According to Edwin B. Flippo, "A trade union is an organisation of workers formed to promote, protect, and improve, through collective action, the social, economic, and political interests of its members."1 In the words of Dale Yoder, "A union is a continuing, long-term association of employees formed and maintained for the specific purpose of

advancing and protecting the interests of members in their working relationships. V.V.Giri defined trade unions as voluntary organisations of workers formed to promote and protect their interests by collective action.! The definitions given above highlight the following features of trade unions : (a ) Trade unions are voluntary association of workers in one or more occupations. (b) Trade unions are formed for the pursuit of common interests of members. They protect the economic interests of members and also promote their welfare, (c) Trade unions always act collectively i.e., through united action of members. (d) Trade unions are concerned with economic, cultural, political and social life of their members.

Objectives of Trade Unions

Trade unions are essentially organisations for the protection and promotion of the interests of their members in particular and workers in general. The primary functions of trade unions are to protect the workers against the excesses committed by employers and to satisfy the needs of the workers. To be specific, however, the trade unions generally pursue the following broad objectives : 1. Steady employment. Steady employment is something which the employer by himself may not be able to guarantee to the workers. His ability to provide it is limited by the state of the market, which in large part is beyond his control. Achievement of this aspiration may thus involve workers in political action, through their unions, for the maintenance of full employment. Thus, this objective stands for enough jobs with good pay. 2.Rationalisation of personnel policies. The economic security of an employee is determined not only by the level of wages and duration of his employment, but also by the management's personnel policiesin its selection of employees for lay off, retrenchment, transfer and promotion, the assignment of employees to jobs, and in the disciplining of employees. If the decisions of this type are the result of subjective evaluation and capriciousness, there is no security for the workers. If such decisions are, however, governed by statutory rules and rational policies, there is greater assurance of fair treatment and equal justice.

3.Voice in decisions affecting workers. The workers may successfully pressurise for higher wages. They may achieve a satisfactory rationalisation of personnel policies. But if the vital decisions as to the scale and schedule of production, introduction of labour saving devices, the closing or relocation of plant etc. remain outside the effective influence of workers, there is no real security for them. Each worker wants to know if the new machinery would reduce him from a skilled operative to a machine attendant or a member of custodial force. He wants to know what his chances are for continued attachment to the company. What is "the success of the company" to him if in transferring the plant, say, from Delhi to Ghaziabad he is laid off ? The intervention of the trade union in such decisions of management is the only method by which the worker is able to achieve any degree of control over the affairs that concern him. 4.Recognition and participation. Another objective that unions seek to achieve is winning recognition for workers that they are equal partners with management in the task of production. This equality is something more than the equality at the bargaining table. It is an intellectual quality. That is, the intellectual faculties of workers are no inferior to those of management. 5. Gaining legislative enactments. To provide legal sanctions to its demands, the unions attempt to get these framed in the form of Acts so that they become permanent features of the contract between the employers and the workers. For this purpose, unions may take recourse to political action in terms of supporting some political party or forming their own political party 6. Miscellaneous services. Modern trade unions also engage in providing educational, medical, recreational and other facilities for the development and welfare of their members, if they have sufficient funds at their disposal.

Social Responsibilities of a Trade Union

Trade unions are a part of society and so they must keep the well-being and progress of the community constantly before them in the midst of their endeavours to help the working class. Unions have a stake in the success of national plans for economic development, since these are formulated and implemented as much for maximising production as for distributing the benefits of development in an equitable manner.

Unions have to adapt themselves to changing social needs, and rise above divisive forces of caste, religion and language. It is only thus that they can progressively become instruments for social and economic development. In this context, some important social responsibilities of trade unions appear to be in the field of: (i) promotion of national integration; (ii) generally influencing the socio-economic policies of the community through active participation in their formulation at various levels, and (iii) instilling in their members a sense of responsibility towards industry and the community. Functions of Trade Unions For the achievement of the above mentioned objectives, the trade unions generally perform the following functions: (1) Collective bargaining with the management to settle terms and conditions of employment. (2) Advise the management on personnel policies and practices. (3) Taking up the individual and collective grievances of the workers with the management. (4) Work for achieving better say of workers in the management of affairs of the enterprise which influence the lives of the workers directly. (5) Organising demonstrations, strikes, etc. to press the demands of the workers. (6) Education of workers and their children. (7) Welfare and recreational activities for their members. (8) Representing of workers in various national and international forums. (9) Securing legislative protection for the workers from the Government. The functions performed by the trade unions may be broadly classified into three categories, viz., (a) militant functions, (b) fraternal functions and (c) political functions. Militant Functions. The chief purpose of the trade unions is to secure better conditions of work and employment. The unions also endeavour to secure some share in productivity gains and a greater share in the management or even control of industry. When the unions fail to accomplish these ends by the method of collective bargaining

and negotiations, they adopt agitational methods and put up a fight with the management in the form of strike, boycott, gherao, etc.a situation that often turns into fierce antagonism. Fraternal Functions. A trade union is also a fraternal association or a mutual-benefit organisation supporting the members out of their own funds during the period of workstoppage due to a strike or lockout. It also provides financial assistance to the members during the period when they are unfit for work because of illness or employment injury or when they are temporarily unemployed. Political Functions. Many trade unions seek to improve the political status of the union, the union leader, and the union members. They contest political elections and try to capture the government. In many countries, some strong labour parties have grown up, e.g., in the United Kingdom, many times, labour party has been in power. In India, such activities of trade unions are not important, though sometimes they have been successful in influencing the labour policy of the government. Why do Workers Join Unions ? Workers or employees join trade unions for a variety of reasons though they may not be conscious of their motives of joining unions. These are as follows : (i) Economic benefits. Every employee wants to increase his income and to have better working conditions. But the individual employee has very little bargaining power in comparison with that of his employer. If he joins the union, the union will take care of his economic interests because the union has greater bargaining power to get its demands accepted by the management. (ii) Platform for self-expression. The desire for self-expression is a fundamental human drive for most people. The union provides a mechanism through which employees can make their voice heard by the top management. Union serves as a via media of communication between the employees and the top management. (iii) Check on arbitrary actions of management. The employees may join the union to ensure a just and fair dealing by management on the basis of a predetermined policy, and through collective strength restrain the management from taking any action which may be irrational, illogical, discriminatory or contrary to their general interests.

(iv) Security. The employees may join the union because of their belief that it is an effective way to secure adequate protection from various types of hazards and income insecurity such as accident injury, illness, unemployment, etc. The trade unions ensure compensation to the injured workers under the Workmen's Compensation Act and secure retirement benefits for the workers. They also compel the management to provide welfare services for the benefit of the workers and their families. (v) Employer-employee relations. Another reason of employees joining some union may be the broader realisation on their part that union can fulfill the important need for an adequate machinery for proper maintenance of employer-employee or labourmanagement relations. (vi) Sense of participation. The employees can participate in management of matters affecting their interests only if they join trade unions. They can influence the decisions which are taken as a result of collective bargaining between the union and the management. (vii) Sense of belongingness. Many employees join a union because their fellow workers are the members of the union. At times, an employee joins a union under group pressure ; if he does not, he often has a very difficult time at work. On the other hand, those who are members of a union feel that they gain respect in the eyes of their fellow workers. They can also discuss their problems with the trade union leaders. (viii) Background factors. Historical background factors also play a part in the disposition of employees to join a union. For those who have been raised in a working class neighbourhood where one's father and indeed all the working members in the community belong to the union, acceptance of the union as a normal part of the working life seems natural. Importance of Trade Unions In the modern industrial society, trade unions are a force in themselves. No managers of working organisations can ignore the influence of trade unions on the behaviour of their workforce and on the environment of management. As Yoder remarked "unions are real; they affect the system and process of management.6

Existence of strong trade unions is a precondition for industrial peace and stability of the industrial economy. Decisions taken through the process of collective bargaining and negotiation between the employers and trade unions are bound to be respected by both employers and workers. By insisting upon payment of standard rates of wages for their members, trade unions ensure efficient functioning of the industrial units. By organising fraternal functions, they improve the efficiency of workers. Effective trade unions are helpful in avoiding inarticulate unrest of workers involving extensive absenteeism, frequent job changes, fighting; wandering from one plant or locality to another. Trade unions can play an important role in the planned economic development of a nation. They can help in the accelerated pace of economic development in many ways, more important of which are as under : 1. By helping in the recruitment and selection of workers. 2. By inculcating discipline among the work-force. 3. By enabling settlement of industrial disputes in a rational rather than erratic and chaotic manner. 4. By helping social adjustments. Workers have to adjust themselves with the new working conditions, the new rules and the new orders. Workers coming from the traditional society (agricultural economy) to the modern society (industrial economy) left to themselves may become personally disorganized, unsatisfied, and frustrated. Trade unions help them in such adjustment. 5. By creating a committed industrial work-force. Criticism of Trade Unions Trade unions have been subjected to severe criticism, particularly by the employers. At times, they even resist the formation of strong trade unions because of the following reasons : (i) Increased Potential for Strikes. Trade union leaders serve the threat of strike to the management quite frequently to get their demands accepted. When a trade union fails to get its demand accepted by the management through collective bargaining and negotiations, it may adopt militant methods including a strike or work stoppage. Thus, the potentiality for strikes is greater in a unionised firm.

(ii) Narrow Perspective. Lack of education makes the workers narrow-minded, and prevents them from taking long-term views. Thus, anything which does not result in an immediate reward becomes unattractive to them. This attitude has been responsible for many strikes and lockouts in industrial concerns. (iii) Resistance to Change. Trade unions do not welcome rationalisation and improved methods of production for the fear that some of the workers will be put out of work. They often show resistance to introduction to changes in work methods, procedures and working conditions. (iv) Fear of Increased Costs. All efforts of a trade union to gain concessions from management in the form of higher pay, better working conditions, better retirement benefits, etc. for its members imply higher costs to management Obviously higher costs, if not accompanied by increases in employees' productivity, are not desirable for the organisation as it will not be able to face competition in the market in the long-run. (v) Social Coats. When labour unions strike on flimsy grounds, incalculable losses occur to producers, community and the nation. Strikes are harmful to the workers also as they have to suffer loss of wages and other benefits. (vi) Lack of Employee Commitment. In a unionised firm, the employees' loyalty is often shifted from the organisation to the union. This can result in reduced employee commitment, lower morale, resistance to change, and sublimation of the organisation's goals to those of the trade union. (vii) Artificial Scarcity of Labour. It is alleged that the labour unions may create artificial scarcity of labour by demanding that only union members should be employed. In such a situation, an employer may prefer not to fill the vacancies because of fear of trouble by the union. As a result, employment gets restricted.

Areas of Union Policy

Among the most widely accepted general policies of trade unions, the following are worth-noting : 1. To bargain collectively and to expand and increase the scope of the collective bargaining system.

2. To maintain and expand the security and survival capacity of unions and their ability to withstand attacks, and to back up demands with solidarity. 3. To gain and maintain exclusive control of labour supplies in particular labour markets as a means of enforcing union demands for what are regarded as appropriate working conditions. 4. To improve the economic status and welfare of union members, increasing their earnings and relative share in national income and their influence, both in employment and in the larger societies in which they are members. 5. To develop and improve the union's programmes, practices, and techniques to be used in conflict and defence of the organisation and in expanding its power. 6. To represent members in the area of political action, identifying candidates and office holders who are friendly or unfriendly, lobbying and securing political concessions for unions and their members. 7. To maintain a strong organisation, democratically'controlled, but with enough internal discipline to implement such policies as have been described above. 8. To facilitate improved member understanding of union policies and programmes and increase skills and competence on the part of union officers by appropriate educational programs. These major policies lead unions into a complex assortment of- programmes and detailed practicesfrom preparing negotiating strategies to designing pressure tactics and to developing cooperative programmes with management. Wage Policy of Unions It is often remarked that the only wage policy of unions is their demand for more and more economic benefits. Of course, unions do seek more for their members, and wage increases are unquestionably the most common goal in negotiations. Nevertheless, such a generalisation can be misleading ; union policy in this regard is often much more complex. As a part of the general policy to improve the living conditions of workers, unions endorse a policy proposing rising real wages and living scales so that wage rates and earnings advance more rapidly than costs of living. They may propose to relate wages

to productivity and hence to ensure employee participation in the increased profits. They seek to protect labour's share of income, to see that rents, interest, and proprietary and managerial shares are hot increased at the expense of workers. They may even propose that a larger overall share of income be distributed to workers, on the ground that such a changed distribution is necessary to maintain purchasing power of workers, prevent stagnation, and assure continued growth in the economy. In some cases, union policy has been concerned with an employer's ability to pay. In others, policy has proposed to ignore this consideration. Union policy has sometimes arguedas, for example, in the requirement of minimum wagesthat the economy will be better off without employers who are so inefficient that they cannot afford to pay. In the advanced countries, most union officials and probably a majority of members are keenly aware of the realities of competitive business and favour a policy that protects the goose that lays the golden egg. They seek to avoid wage rates that are likely to have adverse effects on members' employment. They understand the economic facts of life and recognise elasticities in demands for labour. Impact of a Union on Management The existence of a union affects the organisation and its management in many ways. For the personnel manager, the existence of a union means that all personnel decisions shall be subject to union's checks and controls. Apart from a union's effect on policy making, there are several other areas which are affected by the existence of unions. These are summarised below : 1. Union policy affects the structure of labour employed. Though this factor is related to management decision, yet it also affects the overall organisation. 2. The existence of a union does affect the level of wages and the terms of employment, A union may not tolerate unjust attitude of management with regard to payments of increments, overtime, 1975, pp. 49-50. promotion, paid vacations, leave, holidays, insurance plans, pension plans, medical reimbursement, etc. 3. A union's existence may affect the prices of the products manufactured by the organisation.

4. A union's policy in an organisation affects the position of an individual worker in the organisation. Generally, it has a positive effect on the worker. 5. It also affects industrial relations and industrial peace. 6. A union might also try to have control over scarce job opportunities. Generally, unions take the stand that a fixed proportion of new jobs should be given to the blood relation of the existing employees of the organisation. The mere presence of the union restricts management's freedom of action in many areas. In dealing with labour unions, it is important for the management to recognise that improved union-management relations play a vital role in the success of the organisation.

GROWTH OF TRADE UNIONISM

Before the Industrial Revolution which took place in Great Britain between 1760 and 1825 A.D. and brought revolutionary changes in economic and social life, the system of production was mainly handicraft. The worker was .owner of the means of production, manager of his business and manufacturing activities, and financier, and used to carry on activities either himself or with the help of his family members, friends or a few hired workers. The scale of his organisation was small, working conditions congenial and relations among all the working men cordial. There were no complex problems, either before management or labour. As a result of industrial revolution, modern factory system came into existence. It is characterised by mechanised operations, large scale production and employment, and separation of management from ownership. The trade union movement is an outcome of the modern factory system because the personal touch has been lost and the relations between the employers and the workers have become very complex. The workers are in weak bargaining position as compared to the employers. Hence the workers are unable to bargain effectively with the employers. The desire for higher profits on the part of the employers leads to the exploitation of the working class. It was, therefore, found by the workers early in the industrial advancement of the various countries that unless they improved their bargaining position through combined efforts, they were in danger of serious exploitation by the employers. Hence trade unions came into existence.

Trade Unionism in India Trade unionism in India developed quite slowly as compared to the western nations. The main reason for the delayed start of the labour movement is the difference in her economic set up from the United kingdom and the U.S.A. Though the foreign trading companies helped in the spread of trade and commerce in the country during the eighteenth and the first half the nineteenth centuries, they were also instrumental in destroying indigenous industries. They were more interested in selling goods obtained from their own country and not in setting up production centres in India. It was only during the 19th century, and especially during its second half, that a number of factories were set up in Calcutta and Bombayjute mills in Calcutta and cotton textile mills in Bombay. The Beginning of Trade Union Movement (1870-1918) In 1875, a few philanthropists led by Mr. Sorabjee Shapuijee Bengalee started an agitation to draw the attention of the Government towards the need of legislative measures to protect child and women labour in particular and workers in general. The first workers' organisation in India was the Bombay Millhands Association organised in the year 1890 by N.M. Lokhande, himself a factory worker. Mr. Lokhande was its first President. However the Bombay-Mill hands Association had no roll of membership, no funds and no rules. Thus, it could be called the work of a philanthropic promoter of workers' welfare, rather than a pioneer of labour organisation. A working class newspaper 'Dinbandhu' ("Friend of the Poor") was also started by Mr. Lokhande. With the passing of the Factory Act, 1891, attempts at organising labour in India entered into a new phase. After this a large number of labour associations were started. More important of them were the following : 1. The Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants of India, 1897. 2. The Printers Union, Calcutta, 1905. 3. The Bombay Postal Union, 1907. 4. The Kamgar Hitvardhak Sabha (Workers Welfare Association), Bombay, 1910. It should be noted that these labour organisations were essential labour welfare associations with their goals to improve the lot of the workers by representing their case

to the government and pressing for suitable labour legislation. They were like ad hoc committees formed to attend to specific grievances of the working class. They did not have definite aims and objects and their leaders worked in advisory capacity. This period could be termed as "the social welfare period of trade union movement." Growth of Modern Trade Unionism The First World War broke out in August 1914. During the war period there was steep rise in the prices of essential commodities. Consequently, cost of living showed an upward trend. The number of those employed in factories also increased. All these factors created further urge to unite the workers. However, it was only after the end of the First World War in 1918 that the trade union movement on modern lines came to be organised in India. The credit for forming the first industrial union goes to Mr. B.P. Wadia who organised the textile workers in Madras in 1918. Mr. Wadia's was the first systematic attempt at organising modern trade union with regular membership and subscription etc. During this year, a number of other unions were also formed. The Indian Seamen's Union (Calcutta) M. & SM., Railway Employees Union (Madras), and the Seamen's Union (Bombay) were the more important of them. Between 1918 and 1923, many unions came into existence in the country. At Ahmedabad, under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, occupational unions like 'spinners' unions and weavers' unions were formed. A strike was launched by these unions under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi who turned it into a satyagrah. These unions federated into the industrial union known as the Textile Labour Association, Ahmedabad in 1920. International Labour Organisation (ILO) was set up in 1919 to protect the interests of working class at the international level. With the formation of the ILO., immediate necessity was felt for a forum for election of the workers' representatives to the ILO or, at least, of an agency that could tender suitable advice to Government regarding selection of the workers' representatives. Because of this and also the spread of trade unionism among the workers in various provinces and industries in 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (A.I.T.U.C.) was established. The ineffectiveness of isolated unions functioning in different parts of the country was

realised by the leaders of the movement and they felt the necessity of a central organisation to co-ordinate and guide the activities of the individual unions and to express their views on general policy matters and programmes affecting labour. The A.I.T.U.C. came into existence out of this realisation. The following factors contributed to the growth of trade union movement in India during the first quarter of 20th century. (i) The First World War (1914-18) affected the trade union movement in the following ways : (a) Trade and industry enjoyed unprecedented boom during the war period but there was no corresponding increase in the wages of workers. (b) Prices of essential commodities had shot up leading to steady increase in the cost of living. Wages lagged behind. This created wide disconent among mass of the workers. (c) Indian soldiers sent abroad to fight came in contact with their counterparts from England in the European theatre of war. They realised that there was no real difference between them and Westerners in relation to basic ability, intelligence, strength etc., but Westerners were enjoying better conditions of living because of their greater solidarity. (ii) Political upheavals in the country had great impact on the workers. The repressive measures of the Government of India such as Martial Law, Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the non-co-operation movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1919-21, and the mass movement started by Lokmanya Tilak, Annie Besant and other leaders all had their impact on the working class. (iii) The establishment of the International Labour Organisation in 1919 had the direct impact on the formation of trade unions in India because nominees of workers (along with those of employers) had to be chosen annually for the International Labour conferences. (iv) The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia overthrowing the Czarist regime and establishing the first Socialist State in the World over one/sixth part of the world (whole of Czarist empire spread over part of Europe and Asia) in November 1917

had its own effect on the workers in India as in other parts of the world. It held out prospect of a mass-oriented social order for the common man in the country. (v) The formation of a central trade union organisationAll India Trade Union Congress, 1920gave impetus to the movement and provided a common platform for discussing and debating over labour problems. Enactment of the Trade Unions Act, 1926 Though quite a number of workers' organisations did spring up during the early years of the twentieth century, legal recognition to the movement was not forthcoming readily. The first organisationThe Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants India and Burmaformed in 1897 was registered under the Companies Act. Specific legislation for registration of trade unions was enacted only in 1926. As a matter of fact, this legislation was facilitated by the pressure exerted by the trade union movement in the United Kingdom. However, the process was initiated through introduction of an element of militancy in the movement in India by Mr. B.P. Wadia. The Textile Workers Union set up by him in Madras in 1918 was an immediate success and through a number of strikes, he was able to get a lot of benefits for the workers. But the employers retaliated by filing a suit for damages against Mr. Wadia and other leaders and obtained court injunction restraining the union leaders from interfering with their business. This led to focussing attention to the need for legislation for protecting trade union activities. The Trade Unions Act, 1926 gave legal status to the registered trade unions and conferred on them and their members a measure of immunity from civil suits and criminal prosecution. The Act also led to enhancing their position in the minds of employers and the general public. This Act was an important landmark in the history of trade union movement in India. The enactment of the Trade Unions Act gave a fillip to the trade union movement in India. By 1929, the number of trade unions registered under the Trade Union Act, 1926 came to 87 with a membership of 1,83,000. It is worth noting that the failure of the Bombay textile strike of 1929 and the economic depression of 1929-33 brought a lull in the trade union activity. At the same time, the attitude of workers got hardened and militancy in trade unionism began in India.

At the session of the All India. Trade Union Congress at Nagpur over which Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru presided, the split in the trade union movement came. The immediate cause was the success of the militant group in getting the resolutions passed in favour of the boycott of the Royal Commission on Labour (1928), sending the delegation to the International Labour Conference and affiliation of the Congress to the Third International at Moscow. The moderates led by N. M. Joshi, V.V. Giri, B. Shiva Rao, R.R Bakhale and Dewan Chaman Lai seceded from the A.I.T.U.C. and formed the All India Trade Union Federation. However, the Railwaymen's Federation kept itself aloof from both the Congress and the Federation. Another sjilit took place in the All India Trade Union Congress when a section led by S.V.Deshpande and B.T. Ranadive broke away at the Calcutta session of the Congress in 1931 and formed the All India Red Trade Union Congress. During the period other developments were : (i) the formation of the Bengal Labour Association in Calcutta, (ii) the establishment of the Hindustan Mazdoor Sevak Sangh as a labour advisory body associated with the Conspiracy case of 1928 leading to the conviction of some leading trade unionists. The number of registered trade unions rose to 170 in 1932-33. The total membership of the unions submitting returns was 2,37,369 during the same year covering 147 unions which submitted returns to the Registrar of Trade unions. Trade Unionism during 1935-1947 It was felt that the split in the A.I.T.U.C. had affected the solidarity of the trade union movement and considerably weakened organised labour and its power of collective bargaining. Realising the importance of unity, the Railwaymen's Federation took initiative to unify the A.I.T.U.C. and the A.I.T.U.F. With the introduction of the Act of 1935 which provided for the labour or trade union constituencies for election of representatives to the legislatures, efforts for trade union unity were intensified. The All India Red Trade Union Congress merged itself with the A.I.T.U.C. In 1931, Trade Union Unity Committee was formed to bring A.I.T.U.C. and A.I.T.U.F. together. Alternatively a body with a new name was proposed, Thus the National Trade Union Federation was established in April 1933. The Unions affiliated to the A.I.T.U.F. and railway unions joined this body. However, efforts at unity between the National Trade Union Federation

and All India Trade Union Congress continued. "Giri Proposals" for unity were agreed upon according to which questions of strike and political resolutions would be decided by 3/4th majority of the central organisation and no foreign affiliations would be sought. Finally, the National Trade Union Federation merged itself with the A.I.T.U.C. in April 1938 at Nagpur. Thus, attainment of unity was the major achievement of this period. The advent of popular ministries in most of the provinces, the provision for labour seats in the legislatures through registered trade union constituencies and acceptance by the employers of the trade unions as an inevitable force to be recognised gave a fillip to the trade unions and their number rose to 667 in 1939-40. The total membership of 450 unions which submitted returns was 5,11,138 in the same year. At the outbreak of the Second World War (1939), Indian trade union movement was in a strong position with one central organisation. But this unity proved shortlived. This time differences arose on the issue of rose on the issue of participation in the war efforts. On the issue of resolution of neutrality relating to war efforts, the Seamen's Association, Calcutta seceded from the A.I.T.U.C. Mr. N.M. Roy of the Radical Democratic Labour Party went a step further and formed a rival organisation, the Indian Federation of Labour in 1941. The Federation organised countrywide campaign for an all-out support by the Indian working-class to the war-effort. The Federation got financial and other support from the government. Due to paternalism extended by the authorities and absence of nationalist elements of the A.I.T.U.C. (who were in the prisons on account of Quit India Movement), the Indian Federation of Labour could gain some strength. Though its membership was much less than the A.I.T.U.C., the government nominated its representatives to attend International Labour Conferences. After the end of the war, the Federation could not continue as a separate entity. Unions affiliated to it joined either the A.I.T.U.C. or the Hind Mazdoor Sabha (after it was set up in 1948). The number of registered trade unions in 1945-46 was 1087. The total membership of 555 unions which submitted returns was 8,64,010. After the leaders of the Indian National Congress were released from the prison towards 1945-46, they tried to capture the platform of the All India Trade Union Congress (A.I.T.U.C.) which had slipped into the hands of the communists. Failing in changing the policy of the A.I.T.U.C. to their liking

they decided to set up a new Central Trade Union organisation and thus Indian National Trade Union Congress (I.N.T.U.C.) was set up in May, 1947. The Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association joined this organisation. Trade Unionism after Independence The partition of country in August 1947 affected adversely the trade union movement particularly in Punjab and Bengal. Further the multiplicity of Central Trade Union organisations on the basis of political affiliation became a disturbing feature of the Indian Trade Union Movement. When the socialists seceded from the Indian National Congress and formed Socialist Party of India, they started Hind Mazdoor Sabha in December 1948. With whatever number of affiliated unions the Indian Federation of Labour existed then, it merged with the Hind Mazdoor Sabha. The United Trade Union Congress Some trade union leaders who attended the conference called by the socialists in December 1948 did not agree with the principles and objectives of Hind Mazdoor Sabha. They met again on 27th December, 1948 at Calcutta and decided to call upon the various trade union leaders to form a United Trade Union Committee. The Committee called a conference* of various leaders at Calcutta on 30th April, 1949 where the United Trade Union Congress was formed. Thus by 1949, four Central Trade Union organisations were functioning in the country: 1. The All India Trade Union Congress; 2. The Indian National Trade Union Congress; 3. The Hind Mazdoor Sabha, and 4. The United Trade Union Congress. Subsequently a few more central organisations came to be formed Bharatiya Jana Sangh formed the Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh at Bhopal July, 1955. The Samukta Socialist Party formed Hind Ma door Pancha- The Communist (Marxist) Party formed in May, 1970 the Centre of Indi Trade Unions (C.I.T.U.). With the split in the United Trade Union Congr another organisation the United Trade Union Congress (Lenin Sarani) into existence. Later, some efforts to unite the Central Trade Union organisations were made. The Indian National Trade Union Congress (I.N.T.U.C.), the All India Trade

Union Congress (A.I.T.U.C.) and the Hind Mazdoor Sabha (H.M. formed a national Council of Central Trade Unions in May, 1972. The Cen of Indian Trade Unions (C.I.T.U.), the United Trade Union Congress (U.T.U.C.) and the Hind Mazdoor Panchayat (H.M.P) formed the United Council of Trade Unions. The Bharatiya Mazdoor; Sangh kept itself aloof. After India's independence, the era of economic planning started with the launching of first five year plan in 1950-51. Since then the, trade unionism has experienced speedy growth. The workers got support from both the society at large and government in particular. The result was that the unionisation of workers increased significantly. Exhibit 1 reveals that both unions and union membership have been rising continuously over the years, except a few dismal spots here and there. The membership has increased by more than four times since 1951-52, and similarly number of unions has also increased considerably. One of the important reasons responsible for this is political influence. The various parties with a view to making inroads among workers tried to bring workers within the folds of unions. Although this caused the problem of multiplicity of unions, it did increase the extent of unionisation and made workers aware of the usefulness of this instrument. Exhibit 1: Growth of Trade Unions and Membership Year Registered Unions 1951-52 1956-57 1961-62 1964-65 1970 1975 1976 1978 1984 1988 4,623 8,554 11,614 13,023 20,879 25,460 25,665 32,207 34,112 49,034 Unions submitting returns 2,556 4,399 7,087 7,543 8,537 6,097 6,609 8,351 9,301 8,668 Membership of Unions submitting returns (in '000s) 1996 2377 3977 4466 5120 4579 4697' 6007 8231 7019

1989 1990 1992 1994 1998

49,463 52,016 55,680 56,872 61,592

6,578 8,828 9,070 6,277 7,403

7073 7097 7115 4103 4157

However, while analysing the extent of trade unionism in India, the major problem is regarding accurate data. The published figures are not as accurate as they appear to be because they are not properly verified by the collecting authorities because of reasons beyond their control. The unions - show exaggerated figures of their membership so as to claim the representative character. Besides very few unions submit returns. And whenever unions do so, they are not consistent, This mars the comparability of data. However, despite these lacunae, the available figures do provide an outline of the state of affairs.

STRUCTURE OF UNIONS
The structure of unions refers to the basis on which unions are organised (i.e., whether they are organised on craft or industrial or general union basis) and to the pattern whereby the plant unions are linked to regional level or national level federations or unions. Let us examine these two aspects one by one. Trade unions can be classified into three categories : (a) craft unions, (b) industrial unions, and (c) general unions. A craft union is an organisations of wage earners engaged in a single occupation. It may cover all workers engaged in a particular craft irrespective of the industries in which they are employed. Thus, electricians though working in different industries, may form a union of electricians. There may be separate unions for fitters, turners, carpenters, ate. The International Wood Carvers' Association and the Indian Pilots' Guild pay be cited as examples of craft unions. An industrial union is organised on the basis of an industry rather than a craft. If the workforce of a cotton textile factory decide to form a union insisting of workers of different crafts, the union will be called an industrial union. A general union is one whose membership covers workers

employed in different industries and crafts. General unions are not popular in India. In India, trade unions have largely been organised by industry rather i craft. Although industrial unions have grown continuously, craft unions lave also emerged here and there. They exist among non-manual workers like administrative staff, professionals, technicians, etc.

factors responsible for the Growth of Industrial Unions

The predominance of industrial unions can be attributed partly to conditions not favouring the growth of craft and general unions and partly to environmental support to industrial unions. The specific reasons are as below: (i) Bypassing of merchant craftsmen stage of capitblism. When Industrialization started in India, the technological development had advanceded far enough to reduce the importance of craftsmen. India as such bypassed the merchant craftsmen stage of capitalism and went straight from culture to factory stage. Resultantly, the craftsmen were reduced greatly significance. The reduced importance of craftsmen coupled with large number of unskilled workers made industrial unions more significant for strength than the craft unions. (ii) Higher wages of skilled workers. In early days of union growth, skilled workers enjoyed higher rates of remuneration due to their relative scarcity. They, therefore, took no interest in unionism. This lack of interest on part plus the predominance of unskilled workers favoured union growth on industrial rather than craft lines. (Hi) Influence of outsiders. Trade union movement in India was started by outsiders who were interested in labour class as a whole and not in a section of it. They, therefore, gave more attention to the formation of industrial unions rather than craft unions. Industrial unions bring more workers within the fold of unions as compared to craft unions. (iv) Industrial centres. Industrial unionism has also flourished in India because of the concentration of certain industries in particular areas. For instance, plantation labour in Assam, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and engineering workers in Bombay and Calcutta are organised on this basis.

Pattern of Structure Another aspect of the structure of unions in India relates to their pattern of relationship between national level, regional level, local level and plant level unions. Let us see how they are related in India. (i) Local level federations. This is the second level in the structure from below. The local trade union federation holds together the plant level unions at the local level in a particular craft and industry. The local level federations might be affiliated to either some regional level or national level federation discussed below or they may be independent. (ii) Regional level federations. These are the organisations of all the constituent unions in a particular state or region. The importance of such federations cannot be exaggerated. In a vast country like India, conditions vary from region to region. The style of living, language, customs, traditions, working conditions, etc. are different. Therefore, it is better that workers are organised at regional or state level. These regional federations may have members of two kinds : (a) the plant level unions affiliating themselves to these directly, and (b) the local federations. In the second case, plant level unions become the members of regional federation indirectly through the local federations. It may be noted that the regional federations may be independent or they may get affiliated to some national federation. (iii) National federations. These are national level bodies to which plant level unions, local unions or regional level unions may get affiliated These are the apex bodies at the top of the structure. They act as coordinating bodies. The national federations may have their own regional or state level coordinating bodies to which the plant level unions may get affiliated. Four important central organisations of workers in India are as follows: 1. The Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC). The INTUC was formed by the Congress Party and the top Congressmen like Nehru and Patel were associated with it. Every union affiliated to, INTUC has to submit its dispute to arbitration after exhausting other means of settlement of disputes.

2. The Indian National Trade Union Congress (AITUC). This union serves as the labour forum of Communist Party of India at present. It is considered as the second largest union in India. 3. The Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS). It was formed in December 1951 in Calcutta by the socialists who neither approved INTUC nor AITUC. The HMS was organised with a view to keeping its members free from any political or other outside interference. 4. The United Trade Union Congress (UTUC). It was formed on 30th April 1949 by the dissident socialists. It functions mainly in Kerala and West Bengal. ' Verification of membership of the central unions has always been a problem. In 1969, membership verification as on 31 December 1968 of unions affiliated to INTUC, AITUC, HMS and UTUC was undertaken. The Government again decided to verify membership as on 31 December 1977 and 31 December 1979 of the 10 central trade union organisations. However, verification could not be undertaken in the absence of consensus amongst the central organisations of workers. On account of strong differences in their views, the Government evolved a procedure. Accordingly, the 10 central organisations were addressed for submission of their claims as on 31 December 1980 for the purpose of general verification. All the central trade union organisations except AITUC and CITO submitted their claims. Membership figures of unions affiliated to AITUC and CITU were collected from the records of the Registrar of Trade Unions. The general verification work initiated in November 1981 was completed and the final verification results as on 31st December 1980 given in Exhibit 2 were announced on 30th August 1984. According to the latest provisional data relating to 31st December 1989, as released by the Chief Labour Commissioner, in August 1994, Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) which is an affiliate of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has secured the top position in terms of membership by having a total membership of 31.17 lakh as compared to 12.11 lakh in Dec. 1980. This is followed by INTUCCongress affiliated union with a total membership of 27.06 lakh, followed by CITU affiliated to CPM with a total membership of 17.98 lakh and HMS with a membership of 14.77 lakh. In relative terms, as against the final figures of 1980, BMS has improved its position by raising its membership from 21.0% of total to 26.2% while INTUC has lost ground from 38.85% to

22.75%. CITU affiliated to CPI(M) has improved its position considerably from 5.75% to 15.12% AITUC affiliated to CPI has a strengthened its position from about 6% to 7.77%. Since many Central Trade Unions have filed claims challenging the provisional verification, the final figures are not available. But provisional figures do indicate that the hold of the Congress-affiliated INTUC has been on the decline and that of BMS, CITU, HMS and AITUC has been increasing. Size of Unions An idea of the size of the Indian trade unions can be had from a look at their average membership figures. A few of the trade unions are big in size, but most of them are very small. There is yet another aspect of union membership that shows the dominance of small unions. In India presently about 75% of unions are with members less than 500. On the other hand, unions with the membership of 2000 or more constitute only about 4% of total unions in the country. This picture is highly disappointing and disheartening when compared with the size of the unions in the U.K. where union membership runs into millions. In such a condition, it is difficult to visualise that size of union will be large in India.

POLITICALISATION OF TRADE UNIONISM

The pattern of industrial relations has been deeply affected by the politicalisation of trade union activity. Trade unions are drifting more and more towards politics rather than clinging to their main goal of collective bargaining and negotiation with the management to obtain greater benefits for the workers. This has led to violence and coercion becoming a part of the attitude of the Indian worker. Gheraos, Dharnas and Bundhs may be cited as examples of such attitude. This development is the outcome of reckless multiplication of political parties which are penetrating deep in the rank and file of trade unions to establish their strength and stability. They have no political programme to achieve nor any social policy to pursue. They are committed to opportunism without caring for any scruples or norms of political behaviour. The impact of politics may only be reduced by making the unions strong in composition and representative in character. The entire tripartite machinery consisting of the government, the employers and the employees shall have to work unitedly to bring in

the remaining 65 percent of the labour also within the fore of trade unionism. They should further ensure that outsiders do not get a free licence to dominate the trade unions The Trade Unions Act may be amended to at least reduce the percentage of outsiders from 33 to not more that 10 if not banning their entry altogether. The trade unions may further be strengthened by checking the wild growth through the process of registration and recognition. The Trade Unions Act may be amended to the effect that a union could only be registered when a minimum of 10 percent of the workforce or 50 workers (in an establishment), whichever is higher, apply for the registration. The registration of unions for collective bargaining will further check the wild growth of the unions. Recognition may be given by the majority status which may either be decided by the secret ballot or membership verification. Whatever be the mode for deciding the majority status, it should be uniform in all the states. The majority status union will have the right to be recognised as sole bargaining agent. Outside Leadership in Trade Unions Labour movement has been guided by outsiders in its early phases in many countries. But as the movement attained certain maturity, the outsiders made way for the leadership for the working class. In India, however, outsiders still continue to dominate the trade union movement which is now more than a century old. These outsiders are professional politicians and lawyers who have no history of physical work in the industry. This is leadership by intellectuals rather than by workers. The important reasons for the continued dominance of outsiders are as follows : () The rank and file are largely illiterate and they cannot communicate with their employers. They do not possess that knowledge, education and ability which make a successful leader. They lack confidence which might stimulate workers to meet the employers or their representatives as equals. (b) Personnel in managerial posts are members of castes which are higher in hierarchy than those of rank and file unionists. (c) The body of laws and rules applicable to labour relations is very large and the parties are prone to legalistic approach The recourse to conciliation, adjudication and courts

adds greatly to complexity of union work. Since most workers are not highly educated, they have to look to outsiders for leadership.

The existence of outside leadership in trade unions has created the following difficulties : (i) Since outsiders have link with political parties, they give greater importance to the interest of their political parties. At times they do not mind sacrificing the interest of their followers i.e., workers for the achievement of political ends. (ii) Their approach towards labour problems is coloured by political considerations. This hampers the growth of healthy employer- employee relations. Whenever there is an industrial dispute, the leaders try to solve it through political pressures and interventions. This naturally obstructs the growth of understanding and accommodation between workers and employers. (iii) Outside leaders are responsible for the creation of multiple unions. In case they are not satisfied with other union leaders, they would leave that union with a group of dissident workers and form another rival union in the same plant. Such an approach kills the solidity and solidarity of trade union movement.

PROBLEMS OF TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN INDIA

The position of trade unionism in India is not very sound. In fact, the trade union movement is wanting in many respects. This is because of the fact that the Indian trade unions of today suffer from many problems. A brief account of these problems is given below : (i) Uneven Growth. Trade union activities are concentrated in large scale industry sector and there too in regard to manual labour only and mainly in bigger industrial centres, for example, textile workers in Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Indore, Kanpur, and plantation labour in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. Hardly, any trade union activity exists in small scale enterprises, domestic and agricultural labour. The degree of unionisation varies from industry to industry. It is 39% in transport and communication, manufacturing

industries and electricity and gas. In coal, it is 61%, tobacco manufacture 70%, and cotton textile 56%. Thus, unionism has touched only a portion of the working class in India. (ii) Low Membership. The number of trade unions in India has increased considerably. But this has been followed by the declining membership per union. The average number of members per union was about 3,594 in 1927-28. It reduced to about 1552 in 1944-45 and again 877 in 1950-51. The average number of members of those unions submitting returns has varied between 600 and 806 after this period. The average number of members per union was 734 in 1974, 806 in 1988 and 632 in 1992. During 1992, 70% of the unions submitting returns belonged to the group having a membership below 300. More than 75 per cent of the trade unions submitting returns have less than 500 members. The average membership of all trade unions including both submitting returns and those not submitting returns is likely to be much below this figure. This indicates the emergence of small sized unions in large numbers. This is due to the reason that any seven workers may form a union under the Trade Unions Act, 1926 and get it registered. Moreover, the rivalry among the leaders of trade unions has resulted in multiplicity of unions, thereby reducing the average size of membership per union. (iii) Outside Leadership. Another remarkable feature of trade unionism in India has been domination by outside leadership down to the present day Most of the trade unions in India have professional political leadership. The leadership is not rooted in the working class. The leadership of professional politicians is interested in exploiting workers for their political purposes. The interest of the working class is not protected by the political leaders. The political leadership is actually harmful to the cause of the working class. Strikes are prolonged by political leaders for personal prestige. Very often, negotiations with employers fail due to such political leadership. The interest and welfare of the workers are very often ignored. Thus, outside leadership of politicians is a major weakness of trade unions in India. (iv) Multiplicity of Unions. Another problem of trade unionism in India is that of multiplicity of unions. There exist many trade unions in the same establishment. There

are at times as many as twenty unions in the same plant. The existence of this phenomenon can be attributed partly to the domination of outside leaders (as explained above) and partly to the labour laws. The Trade Unions Act, 1926 permits any association of seven workers to be registered as a union, and confers upon it certain rights. That is, such a union is allowed by law to raise disputes, go to conciliation, file suits, and even bargain with employers. Such provisions in the law naturally encourage small sections of workers to form separate unions. Any seven persons can get together to form a union. Many a time, it is contended that multiplicity of unions is because of outside leaders, but more pertinent point is that they are able to form new unions because law permits and gives sanctity to the small unions. (v) Inter-Union Rivalry. Due to the existence of multiple unions there occurs the problem of union rivalry. Unions try to play down each other in a bid to gain greater influence among workers. In the process they do more harm than good to the cause of unionism as a whole. Employers are given an opportunity to play unions against each other. They can refuse to bargain on the contention that there is no true representative union, besides this, the workers' own solidarity is lost. Employers 'are able to take advantage of infighting between workers' groups. Solution to this problem can be found in secret ballot vote. After some stipulated time period (say two years or so), the workers should go to polls to elect their representative union for {hat duration. This would do away with both multiplicity of unions and inter-union rivalry. (vi) Absence of Paid Office-Bearers. Majority of unions do not have whole time paid office-bearers. Many union activists work on honorary basis. They devote only limited time and energy to trade union activities. The domination of political leaders is also due to the absence of full time union workers. The union office bearers are also not trained properly. They lack the knowledge of basic principles and practices of trade unionism. (vii) Weak Financial Position. The financial position of the trade unions is very weak because their average yearly income is very low and inadequate. Total income of the 9,073 trade unionswith a membership of 57.38 lakhswas Rs. 3,238 lakhs in 1992. The yearly income per member works out to Rs. 56.4 which is too low. Total expenditure of these unions was Rs. 2,532 lakhs in 1992 and, thus, per member

expenditure works out to be only Rs. 44.1. The subscription rates vary from union to union and are quite low in most of the unions. Under conditions of multiplicity of unions, unions interested in increasing their membership-figures keep the subscription rate unduly low. As a result, the funds with the unions are inadequate and they cannot undertake welfare programmes for their members. In such a situation, the subscription rates must be raised. It is argued that the financial condition of Indian workers is not too good to afford the increased rates. This, however, is only a myth. Over the years the average income of the workers has been on an increase. It is wrong to plead that they cannot afford higher subscription rates for union membership. (viii) Subscription Dues Unpaid. Another important reason for the weak financial position of unions is that large amounts of subscription dues remain unpaid by the workers. The names of constant defaulters continue to appear on the membership registers of most of unions. They are neither expelled nor cease to be members ipso facto, according to the union rules. Rules for expulsion of defaulting members are seldom invoked. Besides this, unions do not have proper staff and organisation to collect subscription. If workers are approached on or near the pay day, they will py their subscriptions readily. A solution to the problem of collection of subscription on regular basis can be found in the check off system. Under this system, the subscription is deducted from pay at the time of making wage payment by the employer. The amount is later on handed over to the union of which the worker is a member. (ix) Lack of Interest. In order to make the trade union movement succeed, the members of trade unions should take keen interest in the union affairs. They should understand what unionism is all about and what demands it makes on individual members. They must feel the need to give the movement necessary support for a common cause. In India, a large number of workers have not joined any union. About 2/3rd of the workers have no truck with any union. Moreover, all the members of the trade unions do not show interest in the union affairs. The attendance at the general meetings of the -unions is very low. Under such circumstances, trade unionism cannot be expected to make much progress. This gives rise to another problem that unions cease to function democratically. They are run by a few interested persons who at times

have their own axe to grind. This problem can be removed by educating workers of their rights and duties and' developing in them a sense of responsibility. (x)) Limited Stress on Welfare. Many unions in India undertake only limited welfare activities. They feel that their major activity is to fight with the employer for more wages and allowances Other activities like opening a co-operative bank or store, provision of educational and medical facilities, provision of welfare facilities, etc. are not undertaken by many unions. As a result, workers are not attracted towards unions. (xi) Lack of Public Support. The trade unions frequently resort to strikes and demonstrations. They give limited attention to peaceful methods for the settlement of demands and disputes. The general public is affected due to strikes, go slow policy and other practices of unions. As a result, public support or sympathy is not available to the unions. The general public opinion is not favourable to unions and their unfair activities.

Measures for Strengthening of Trade Unions

The working of trade unions can be made successful with the adoption of following measures: (i) Development of Strong Base. A strong trade union movement is necessary both to safeguard the interests of the members and to help in achieving the targets of production. To develop a strong movement, it is necessary that trade unions with different affiliations come together on the basis of a common programme covering objectives, methods, and procedures. (ii) One Union in One Industry. Multiplicity of unions in the same plant leads to inter-union rivalry which ultimately cuts at the root of the trade union movement. It weakens the power for collective bargaining, and reduces the effectiveness of workers in securing their legitimate rights. Therefore, there should be only one union is one industry. (iii) Elimination of Political Influence. The pre3ent linking of unions with political parties and politicians is highly dangerous for the healthy growth of trade unionism in India. It diverts the attention of unions from the problems of working class. The unions must realise the utter uselessness of party politics in trade unionism. The present political influence should be thrown away by the unions.

(iv) Development of Internal Leadership. It is desirable to switch over to working class leadership from outside leadership. Leadership should be developed from within the rank and file of the workers. This will help the movement to gain strength. In regard to trade union leadership, the National Commission on Labour (NCL) recommended that (1) there should be no ban on non-employees holding the positions in the executive of the union, (2) steps should be taken to promote internal leadership and give it more responsible role, (3) permissible limit of outsiders in the executive of the union should be reduced to 25 per cent of the executive members, and (4) ex-employees should not be treated as outsiders. (v) Paid Union Officials. Generally, the trade unions avail the services of the honorary workers due to paucity of funds. This practice should be stopped because honorary office-bearers cannot do full justice to the task entrusted to them because of lack of time at their disposal. Therefore, paid union officials should be employed who are persons of proven integrity and who are able to evaluate demands of the workers and negotiate with employers on equal footing. (vi) Financial Stability. Most of the trade unions in India are financially weak. This creates various difficulties before the unions and restricts their activities. The financial problems of the unions can be solved by raising the membership and collecting more contributions from all members. The National Commission on Labour suggested that the membership fee should be raised to Re. 1 per month. The check-off system was suggested by the National Labour Conference (1982) under which each worker would individually authorize the employer to deduct membership fee from his wage or salary. This will help in strengthening financial condition of unions by reducing the chances of defaults in payment of monthly subscription by workers. (vii) Expansion of Union Activities. Most of unions concentrate on securing economic benefits for their members. They do not undertake social and cultural activities which are equally important for raising the welfare of the working class. Such diversification in the activities is essential for the popularity of the unions. Trade unions should, therefore, undertake various activities and programmes for the benefit of ordinary workers. Workers must realize the usefulness of their unions. For this, unions

should widen the scope of their activities and provide certain benefits and facilities to the workers. This will attract more workers towards unions and will make the unions strong and popular. (viii) Recognition of Trade Unions. Till recently, the employer refused recognition to the trade unions either on the basis that unions consisted of only a minority of employees or two or more unions existed. The Royal Commission observed as early as in 1931 that the fact that union consists of only a minority of employees is not adequate reason for withholding recognition. Some procedure must be worked out so that the most representative union in the plant is recognised by the management. The National Labour Conference (1982) suggested the check off system for verifying membership of different trade unions. Under this, workers would individually authorise managements to deduct, from their wages, dues to any of the unions of the their choice. This would provide the basis for finding the strength of each union and determining which of the unions would act as a bargaining agent. Code of Conduct In order to minimise the inter-union rivalries and, thus, to pave the way 4 for healthy development of the trade unions in the country, a code of conduct was evolved in a meeting of the representatives of four central organisations of the country in May, 1958. The basic principles of the code are as follows : () Every employee in an industry or unit shall have the freedom and right to join a union of choice. No coercion shall be exercised in this matter. () There shall be no dual membership of unions. (c) There shall be unreserved acceptance of any respect for democratic functioning of trade unions. (d) There shall be regular and democrat ] c selection of executive-bodies and officebearers of trade unions. (e) Ignorance and/or backwardness of workers shall not be exploit ml by any organisation. No organisation shall make excessive 0r extravagant demands. (f) Casteism, communalism and provincialism shall be eschewed by all unions.

TRADE UNIONS UNDER THE PLANS

With the achievement of independence, the need for developing workers unions was felt very acutely. It was realized that, workers co-operation was essential in creating a new organization and that the workers must be free to organize and take lawful action in furtherance of their rights and interests. The First Five-Year Plan visualized a tripartite joint consultative committee; and for this literacy was to be expanded and trade unions were to be developed on a much greater scale. The Plan said: The workers rights to association, organization, and collective bargaining are to be accepted without reservation as the fundamental basis of mutual relationship. The attitude of trade unions should not be just a matter of toleration, but they should be welcomed and helped to function as a part and parcel of the industrial system. It also said that collective bargaining can become meaningful only on the basis of organized strength of workers. It further observed that, trade unions and employers unions/associations can play a positive role in the execution of plans, as experience of other counties has shown. These recommendations did remain mostly on paper, but, they indicated a change in the policy of the government The Second Five-Year Plan stated: The creation of industrial democracy is a pre-requisite for the establishment of a socialist society. It recognized that a strong trade union movement was essential for safeguarding the workers interests and for realizing the production targets of the Plan. It proposed that, with a view to strengthening the movement, it was essential that trade union finances should be improved from within; and greater emphasis should be laid on conciliation and voluntary arbitration. The Standing Joint Consultative machinery should be more effectively used to reduce industrial disputes and for the successful implementation of the Plan, increased association of labor with management and with measures designed to promote increased productivity, better understanding of the workers role in production, discipline, and satisfying their urge for self-expression. The Second Plan further recommended that workers should be consulted before rationalization and a system of payment by results was introduced. In this connection the trade unions were expected to come to conclusions regarding: (a) Appointment of the work load; (b) The extent of wage increases in response to increased work load; (c) The obsolescence and depreciation of machinery which needs replacement; (d) Enforcement of control over the installation of new machinery; (e) Retention of retrenched workers and finding employment for them; and (f) The increasing measures of social security require the trade unions to play a more constructive and participative role. The Third Five-Year Plan remarked that There is a need for a considerable readaptation in the outlook, functions and practices of trade unions to suit the changing conditions which have arisen and are emerging. The Plan added: Workers participation in management should be accepted as a fundamental principle and an urgent need. It pointed out that the procedures laid down in the Code of Discipline for the recognition of unions and the representative status

of unions would pave the way for the growth of a strong and healthy trade unionism in the country. The trade unions should be accepted as an essential part of the apparatus of industrial and economic administration of the country and prepared for the discharge of their responsibilities.It visualized a progressive growth of trade union leadership out of the rank and file of workers. The Fourth and Fifth Five-Year Plans envisaged that trade unions should serve not only as agencies seeking for their members fair wages and proper conditions of work and living, but should also play an increasing role in the nations development. The various forms in which labor is represented provide a ready means through which trade unions can make an effective and continuous contribution in the area of policy. The Sixth Five-Year Plan observed that the proliferation of unions and inter-union and rivalry have affected their bargaining power as well as their financial position. This phenomenon of multiplicity and dependence of unions on outsiders for leadership has led to inter-union rivalries. It would help in the growth of trade unions on healthy lines if multiplicity is overcome. It calls for a reorientation of the approach, which has to be based on a value system of social obligations, mutual trust and fair practices in an atmosphere of goodwill and understanding. Serious efforts need to be made by trade unions to promote a spirit of greater involvement of workers in the enterprise to fulfill the norms of greater efficiency and also achieve excellence in its overall performance so as to able to share the benefits of such improved functioning.

ESSENTIALS FOR SUCCESS OF A TRADE UNION

The first essential of a trade union is to have an enlightened labor force to guide and direct the movement. This presupposes, according to R.K. Mukherjee, the existence of correct leadership, which is not prepared to sacrifice the interests of the workers to imported doctrinaire enthusiasm but desires to hack a highway for them to attain their stature as participants in a new order of things. Another essential is that a trade union should have its foundation laid on solid ground so that it may achieve success in the attainment of its objects. The objectives of a trade union should be clearly enunciated. The trade unions with a complexity of objectives are looked upon with suspicion, and the employers, who should be willing to sit with them round a table for discussion and negotiation, often try to pass them. The trade unions should have a coherent and well-conceived policy with regard to their structure. A haphazard growth of trade unions is likely to give rise to difficult problems of jurisdiction and spheres of activity. A trade union should be regarded as a business organization which requires careful planning and sound organizational methods. According to George Meany (former president of the American Federation of Labor), trade unions must possess some basic characteristics, if they are to be effective and useful. These characteristics are: First and foremost, a good union must be able to protect its members and win a reasonable measure of economic justice for them Second, a good union must be run by the members and for the members. There must be leaders-Strong leaders, able and willing to stand firm for what they believe is right and to fight

for it against what might appear at times to be a popular position. But they must always be subject to the support or ejection of the general membership of the union. Third, a good union must be an honest union. This goes beyond finances; just being money honest is not enough. The integrity of a good union is all-inclusive. It extends to its relationship with employers, to what it says to its own members, the formulation of its policies and the evaluation of its own performance. Fourth, a union must look beyond horizons. It must recognize and fulfill its proper role in life of the nation and of the community in which it lives.

CONCLUSION
Trade unions are voluntary organizations of employees or employers formed to promote and protect their interests through collective action. Contrary to popular perception, unions are not meant only to organize strikes. Their presence is felt in all HR activities of an organization, Unions have political affiliation. They act as partners in facilitating change in a more o less formalized manner. They play a role as sectional bargainers- plant-wise or industry-wise ensuring with a view to acceptance of their demands. They play a role as class bargainers, on behalf of civil servants as a class, each demanding a fair share in the national income. They act as the enemies of the industrial system, sabotaging production, encouraging excessive consumption aspirations on the part of workers, such as higher wages, higher bonus, etc. Employees join unions because of job dissatisfaction and they perceive that the unions can remove such dissatisfaction. Unions use at least three tactics to manage the managers. They are(i) organizing campaign, (ii) strike and (iii) political support. The factors that make a trade union strong and healthy are unflinching adherence to the unions constitution and rules, regular payment of dues, fully representative character of the union, co-operation with sister unions and a sound relationship. A methodological organization with an enlightened labor force is essential.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dynamics of Industrial Relations : Memoria & Gankar Human Resource Management : K. Aswathappa Human Resource Management : T.N. Chhabbra www.wikipedia.org www.google.com