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IES PRACTICE
PRACTICE GUIDE
GUIDE
NCEE 2007-4011
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) publishes practice guides in education
to bring the best available evidence and expertise to bear on the types of systemic
challenges that cannot currently be addressed by single interventions or programs.
Authors of practice guides seldom conduct the types of systematic literature searches
that are the backbone of a meta-analysis, though they take advantage of such work
when it is already published. Instead, they use their expertise to identify the most
important research with respect to their recommendations, augmented by a search
of recent publications to assure that the research citations are up-to-date.
One unique feature of IES-sponsored practice guides is that they are subjected to
rigorous external peer review through the same office that is responsible for inde-
pendent review of other IES publications. A critical task of the peer reviewers of a
practice guide is to determine whether the evidence cited in support of particular
recommendations is up-to-date and that studies of similar or better quality that
point in a different direction have not been ignored. Because practice guides depend
on the expertise of their authors and their group decisionmaking, the content of a
practice guide is not and should not be viewed as a set of recommendations that in
every case depends on and flows inevitably from scientific research.
The goal of this Practice Guide is to formulate specific and coherent evidence-based
recommendations for use by educators addressing a multifaceted challenge that
lacks developed or evaluated packaged approaches. The challenge is effective lit-
eracy instruction for English learners in the elementary grades. The Guide provides
practical and coherent information on critical topics related to literacy instruction
for English learners.
IES PRACTICE GUIDE
Scott K. Baker
PACIFIC INSTITUTES FOR RESEARCH AND UNIVERSITY OF OREGON
Timothy Shanahan
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO
Sylvia Linan-Thompson
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN
Penny Collins
Robin Scarcella
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT IRVINE
NCEE 2007-4011
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
This report was prepared for the National Center for Education Evaluation and Re-
gional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences under Contract ED-02-CO-0022
by the What Works Clearinghouse, a project of a joint venture of the American In-
stitutes for Research and The Campbell Collaboration, and Contract ED-05-CO-0026
by Optimal Solutions Group, LLC.
Disclaimer
The opinions and positions expressed in this practice guide are the authors’ and do
not necessarily represent the opinions and positions of the Institute of Education
Sciences or the United States Department of Education. This practice guide should
be reviewed and applied according to the specific needs of the educators and edu-
cation agency using it and with full realization that it represents only one approach
that might be taken, based on the research that was available at the time of pub-
lication. This practice guide should be used as a tool to assist in decision-making
rather than as a “cookbook.” Any references within the document to specific educa-
tion products are illustrative and do not imply endorsement of these products to
the exclusion of other products that are not referenced.
July 2007
This report is in the public domain. While permission to reprint this publication is
not necessary, the citation should be:
Gersten, R., Baker, S.K., Shanahan, T., Linan-Thompson, S., Collins, P., & Scarcella,
R. (2007). Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in
the Elementary Grades: A Practice Guide (NCEE 2007-4011). Washington, DC: National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sci-
ences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee.
Alternate Formats
On request, this publication can be made available in alternate formats, such as
Braille, large print, audio tape, or computer diskette. For more information, call the
Alternate Format Center at (202) 205-8113.
iii
Contents
Foreword from the Institute of Education Sciences iv
Overview 1
Notes 31
References 34
iv
The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) One unique feature of IES-sponsored prac-
publishes practice guides in education to tice guides is that they are subjected to
bring the best available evidence and exper- rigorous external peer review through the
tise to bear on the types of systemic chal- same office that is responsible for inde-
lenges that cannot currently be addressed pendent review of other IES publications.
by single interventions or programs. Al- A critical task of the peer reviewers of a
though IES has taken advantage of the his- practice guide is to determine whether
tory of practice guides in health care to pro- the evidence cited in support of particular
vide models of how to proceed in education, recommendations is up-to-date and that
education is different from health care in studies of similar or better quality that
ways that may require that practice guides point in a different direction have not been
in education have somewhat different de- ignored. Peer reviewers also are asked to
signs. Even within health care, where prac- evaluate whether the evidence grades as-
tice guides now number in the thousands, signed to particular recommendations by
there is no single template in use. Rather, the practice guide authors are appropriate.
one finds descriptions of general design A practice guide is revised as necessary to
features that permit substantial variation meet the concerns of external peer reviews
in the realization of practice guides across and gain the approval of the standards
subspecialties and panels of experts.2 Ac- and review staff at IES. The external peer
cordingly, the templates for IES practice review is carried out independent of the
guides may vary across practice guides and office and staff within IES that instigated
change over time and with experience. the practice guide.
The steps involved in producing an IES- Because practice guides depend on the
sponsored practice guide are, first, to se- expertise of their authors and their group
lect a topic, informed by formal surveys of decisionmaking, the content of a practice
practitioners and requests. Next is to recruit guide is not and should not be viewed as a
a panel chair who has a national reputa- set of recommendations that in every case
tion and up-to-date expertise in the topic. depends on and flows inevitably from sci-
Third, the chair, working with IES, selects a entific research. It is not only possible but
small number of panelists to coauthor the also likely that two teams of recognized
practice guide. These are people the chair experts working independently to produce
believes can work well together and have a practice guide on the same topic would
the requisite expertise to be a convincing generate products that differ in important
source of recommendations. IES recom- respects. Thus, consumers of practice
mends that at one least one of the panelists guides need to understand that they are,
be a practitioner with experience relevant to in effect, getting the advice of consultants.
the topic being addressed. The chair and the These consultants should, on average, pro-
panelists are provided a general template vide substantially better advice than an
for a practice guide along the lines of the in- individual school district might obtain on
formation provided here. The practice guide its own because the authors are national
panel works under a short deadline of six to authorities who have to achieve consensus
nine months to produce a draft document. among themselves, justify their recom-
It interacts with and receives feedback from mendations with supporting evidence, and
staff at IES during the development of the undergo rigorous independent peer review
practice guide, but its members understand of their product.
that they are the authors and thus respon-
sible for the final product. Institute of Education Sciences
vi
We, the authors, are a small group with Strong refers to consistent and generaliz-
expertise on various dimensions of this able evidence that an approach or prac-
topic. Several of us are also experts in tice causes better outcomes for English
research methodology. The range of evi- learners or that an assessment is reli-
dence we considered in developing this able and valid. Moderate refers either to
document is vast, ranging from expert evidence from studies that allow strong
analyses of curricula and programs, to causal conclusions but cannot be gener-
case studies of seemingly effective class- alized with assurance to the population
rooms and schools, to trends in the on which a recommendation is focused
Preface vii
(perhaps because the findings have not do not mean to suggest that it is the best
been sufficiently replicated) or to evidence study reviewed for the recommendation
from studies that are generalizable but or necessarily an exemplary study in any
have more causal ambiguity than offered way.
by experimental designs (such as statisti-
cal models of correlational data or group We have not addressed two main areas.
comparison designs where equivalence
of the groups at pretest is uncertain). For First, we did not address English learners
the assessments, moderate refers to high- in middle school and high school. Schools
quality studies from a small number of face very different issues in designing in-
samples that are not representative of the struction for students who enter school
whole population. Low refers to expert when they are young (and often have re-
opinion based on reasonable extrapola- ceived no education or minimal instruc-
tions from research and theory on other tion in another language or educational
topics and evidence from studies that do system) and those who enter in grades 6
not meet the standards for moderate or to 12 and often are making a transition to
strong evidence. another language and another educational
system. For that reason we chose to focus
In this English Learner Practice Guide we on only one of these populations, students
use effect sizes for describing the magni- in the elementary grades.
tude of impact of a program or practice
reported in a study. This metric is increas- Second, we did not address the language
ingly used in social science research to of instruction. Our goal is to provide guid-
provide a gauge of the magnitude of the ance for all English learners, whether
improvement in performance reported in a they are taught to read in their home lan-
research study. A common index of effect guage, in English (by far the most preva-
size is the mean difference between the lent method in the United States), or in
experimental and comparison conditions both languages simultaneously. The rec-
expressed in standard deviation units. In ommendations are relevant for students
accordance with the What Works Clearing- regardless of their language of reading
house criteria we describe an effect size of instruction. The best language to use for
+0.25 or higher as substantively important. initial reading instruction has been the
This is equivalent to raising performance subject of great debate and numerous re-
of a group of students at least 10 percen- views of the literature.
tile points on a valid test.
Some experts conclude that students are
For each recommendation we include an best served by having some reading in-
appendix that provides more technical in- struction in their native language,3 others
formation about the studies and our deci- that students should be taught to read si-
sions regarding level of evidence for the multaneously in both English and their na-
recommendation. To illustrate the types of tive language,4 still others that the results
studies reviewed we describe one study in are inconclusive.5 Many reviews have cited
considerable detail for each recommenda- serious methodological flaws in all the
tion. Our goal in doing this is to provide studies in terms of internal validity;6 oth-
interested readers with more detail about ers have not addressed the quality of the
the research designs, the intervention research design.7 Currently, schools op-
components, and how impact was mea- erate under an array of divergent policies
sured. By including a particular study, we set by the state and local school district.
viii Preface
In most cases school administrators have and Lana Edwards Santoro and Rebecca
little say on issues involving language of Newman-Gonchar of RG Research Group.
initial reading instruction, so we do not We also wish to acknowledge the excep-
take a position on this intricate issue for tional contribution of Elyse Hunt-Heinzen,
this Practice Guide. our research assistant on the project, and
we thank Charlene Gatewood of Optimal
We would like to thank the following in- Solutions and the anonymous reviewers
dividuals for their helpful feedback and for their contributions to the refinement
reviews of earlier versions of this Guide: of this report.
Catherine Snow and Nonie Lesaux of Har-
vard University; Maria Elena Arguelles, in- Dr. Russell Gersten
dependent consultant; Margaret McKeown Dr. Scott Baker
of University of Pittsburgh; Michael Coyne Dr. Timothy Shanahan
of University of Connecticut; Benjamin S. Dr. Sylvia Linan-Thompson
Clarke of University of Oregon and Jeanie Dr. Penny Collins
Smith of Pacific Institutes for Research; Dr. Robin Scarcella
ix
development of reading skills for children Dr. Robin Scarcella is a professor in the
from linguistically diverse backgrounds School of Humanities at the University
and the early identification of children at of California, Irvine, where she also di-
risk for reading difficulties. She is involved rects the Program of Academic English/
in projects on effective instructional inter- ESL. She has taught English as a second
ventions to promote academic success for language in California’s elementary and
English learners in elementary, middle, secondary schools and colleges. She has
and secondary schools. Dr. Collins is on written many research articles, appear-
the editorial boards of Journal of Learn- ing in such journals as The TESOL Quar-
ing Disabilities and Educational Psychology. terly and Studies in Second Language Ac-
Her work has appeared in Applied Psycho- quisition, as well as in books. Her most
linguistics, Journal of Educational Psychol- recent volume, Accelerating Academic
ogy, Journal of Experimental Child Psychol- English, was published by the University
ogy, and Scientific Studies of Reading. of California.
xi
Vocabulary instruction for English learn- Provide teachers with appropriate pro-
ers should also emphasize the acquisition of fessional development to help them learn
meanings of everyday words that native how to teach academic English.
speakers know and that are not necessarily
part of the academic curriculum. Consider asking teachers to devote a
specific block (or blocks) of time each day to
Recommendation 4. building English learners’ academic English.
Develop academic English
Recommendation 5.
Adopt a plan that focuses on ways and Schedule regular peer-assisted
means to help teachers understand that in- learning opportunities
struction to English learners must include
time devoted to development of academic Develop plans that encourage teachers
English. Daily academic English instruction to schedule about 90 minutes a week with
should also be integrated into the core activities in reading and language arts that
curriculum. entail students working in structured pair
activities.
Teach academic English in the earliest
grades. Also consider the use of partnering for
English language development instruction.
5
Summary of evidence to support this are useful in both kindergarten and first
recommendation grade.25
• Measures of reading single words and
This recommendation is based on a large knowledge of basic phonics rules are
number of studies that used reading assess- useful in first grade.26 Toward the mid-
ment measures with English learners. Level dle and end of the first grade, and in the
of Evidence: Strong. next few grades, measures of reading
connected text accurately and fluently
Twenty-one studies demonstrated that three are useful.27
types of measures—phonological process-
ing, letter and alphabetic knowledge, and For students in grades 2 to 5. Three studies
reading of word lists or connected text—are have demonstrated that oral reading fluency
valid means of determining which English measures are valid screening measures for
learners are likely to benefit from typical English learners and are positively associated
classroom reading instruction and which with performance on comprehensive stan-
children will require extra support (see ap- dardized reading tests. Oral reading fluency
pendix 1 for details).22 The primary purpose is emerging as a valid indicator of reading
of these measures is to determine whether progress over time for English learners.28
interventions are necessary to increase the
rate of reading achievement. These mea- These criterion-related validity studies are
sures meet the standards of the American particularly important because another set
Psychological Association for valid screen- of studies has investigated whether English
ing instruments.23 learners can attain rates of reading growth
comparable with those of their monolingual
For students in kindergarten and grade 1. The peers. These studies have demonstrated that
early screening measures for kindergarten English learners can learn to read in English
and the first grade fit into three categories: at the same rate as their peers in the primary
grades (K–2).29 Much of this evidence comes
• Measures of phonological awareness— from research in Canada and from schools
such as segmenting the phonemes in a providing intensive and systematic instruc-
word, sound blending, and rhyming— tion for all children, supplementary instruc-
are useful in both kindergarten and first tion for those falling behind, and instruction
grade.24 in settings where growth in oral proficiency
• Measures of familiarity with the alphabet is supported by both peer and teacher-stu-
and the alphabetic principle, especially dent interactions. Evidence on reading inter-
measures of speed and accuracy in let- ventions for English learners in the United
ter naming and phonological recoding, States is the focus of Recommendation 2.
1. Screen for reading problems and monitor progress 7
resolve itself when oral language proficiency note that the authors of this Guide did not
in English improves. conduct a comprehensive review of avail-
able assessments (such a large undertaking
Using the same standards for successful was beyond the scope of this project), and
reading performance with English learn- individual schools and districts should be
ers and native English speakers may mean careful when selecting assessments to use.
that a higher percentage of English learn- It is important to select assessments that
ers will require more intensive reading in- are reliable and valid.
struction to reach the benchmarks, but we
believe that this early emphasis on strong 5. Provide training on how teachers are to
reading instruction will be helpful in the use formative assessment data to guide
long run. Providing intensive early read- instruction.
ing instruction for English learners does
not imply they have a reading disability or The primary purpose of the formative
they are not able to learn to read as well assessment data is to determine which
as other students. It means that while they students are at risk (or not making suffi-
are learning a new language and learning cient progress) and to increase the inten-
to read in that language simultaneously, sity of reading instruction systematically
they face challenges other students do not for those students. We recommend that
face. The instruction they receive should school-based teams of teachers be trained
reflect the nature of this challenge. to examine formative assessment data to
identify which English learners are at risk
A score on a screening measure indicat- and to determine what instructional ad-
ing that an English learner may be at risk justments will increase reading progress.
for reading difficulties does not mean the These teams can be for one grade or across
child has a reading disability. Being at risk grades. We believe that the reading coach,
means that the English learner needs extra in schools that have one, should play a key
instructional support to learn to read. This role on these teams. Although principals
support might simply entail additional should also play an important leadership
time on English letter names and letter role, it may be difficult for them to attend
sounds. In other cases additional support all meetings or be extensively involved.
might entail intensive instruction in pho-
nological awareness or reading fluency. Possible roadblocks and solutions
Additional diagnostic assessments can
be administered to determine what areas 1. Some teachers believe that reading prob-
require instructional attention. lems may resolve themselves once English
learners develop proficiency in oral English.
Unless districts have considerable re- So, they are hesitant to refer these students
sources and expertise, they should not try for additional assistance or to provide in-
to develop the formative assessment mate- tensive instruction in foundational areas of
rials on their own. Several screening and beginning reading.
progress monitoring materials that have
been developed and tested with native- There is no evidence to support the position
English-speaking students are appropriate that early reading problems experienced
to use with English learners. Information by English learners will resolve themselves
about formative assessments can be found once oral language skills in English are
from a number of sources, including the established.30 Districts should develop
Web and commercial developers. Please and disseminate materials explaining that
8 1. Screen for reading problems and monitor progress
using English oral language proficiency task, but this is different from knowing
is as accurate as flipping a coin to decide word meanings. For an assessment to be
which English learners are likely to have valid the examiner must clearly explain
difficulty learning how to read. the nature of the task and the child must
understand what she or he is being asked
To demonstrate that phonological, letter to do. If possible, adults who are fluent in
knowledge, and word reading measures the child’s native language can be hired
are effective screening measures, princi- and trained to administer assessments.
pals and reading coaches can look at data But good training is essential. When ap-
from their own schools and see the links propriate, the examiner can explain or
between scores on these measures in kin- clarify the task in the language the child
dergarten and the first grade and later understands best. For districts with many
scores on state reading assessments. native languages and few professional ed-
ucators fluent in each native language, it
2. Some teachers may feel that it is unfair to is possible to make CDs of instruction in
test a child in a language that she or he does the appropriate native languages.
not understand.
Make sure at least two or three practice
Although this is true in many areas, it is items are provided before formal admin-
not true for tasks involving phonological istration, when the task is modeled for the
processing, as long as the child under- child and corrective feedback is provided.
stands the nature of the task.31 If students This will give all children (especially Eng-
possess phonemic awareness of a word lish learners) the opportunity to under-
such as cake or fan, even without know- stand what the task requires of them. An
ing the meaning they should be able to tell important consideration for all assess-
the examiner the first, middle, and last ments is to follow the testing guidelines
sounds in the word. Phonological aware- and administration protocols provided
ness is an auditory skill that greatly helps with the assessment. It is acceptable to
students with reading development, and it provide practice examples or explanations
transfers across languages. That is, if stu- in the student’s native language outside
dents learn the structure of sounds in one the testing situation. During the testing,
language, this knowledge will help them however, it is essential that all assessment
identify individual sounds in a second lan- directions and protocols be followed. Re-
guage without being taught explicitly what member, the purpose of the assessment is
those individual sounds are. It is possible to determine whether children are phono-
to demonstrate this to teachers by having logically aware or know the letters of the
them pull apart the sounds in words from alphabet. It is not to determine how quickly
an unfamiliar language, such as Russian or or well children learn the formative assess-
Arabic. Reading coaches can demonstrate ment task when they are given explicit in-
that once a student knows how to identify struction in how to complete the task.
the beginning, ending, or middle sound of
a word, knowing the meaning of a word is 3. Some teachers may feel that native lan-
irrelevant in being able to reproduce the guage assessments are more valid than
sound. English language measures for this group
of students.
Teachers should be clear that, for pho-
nological processing tasks to be valid, Formative early reading assessments in
English learners have to understand the English are valid for English learners.32 If
1. Screen for reading problems and monitor progress 9
district and state policies permit testing a 5. In districts that have the same early read-
child in her or his native language, it is pos- ing goals and standards for English learners
sible to get a richer picture of her decod- and non-English learners, it is likely that the
ing skills or familiarity with the alphabet. current performance of many English learn-
But this is not necessary for phonological ers will be below these standards.
awareness because it easily transfers across
languages. Students who have this aware- Although the average performance of Eng-
ness in their native language will be able lish learners may be lower than that of
to demonstrate it on an English language non-English learners, there is no reason to
assessment as long as they understand the assume that English learners cannot make
task.33 In other words, even students who the reading progress necessary to reach
are limited in English will be able to dem- high standards of performance.34 This
onstrate knowledge of phonological aware- progress will require providing more in-
ness and decoding in English. tensive instruction than the district might
normally provide in both reading and lan-
4. Districts should anticipate that schools will guage development.
have a tendency to view data collection as
the terminal goal of conducting formative as- 6. Teachers may focus too much on what is
sessments, especially early in the process. tested—phonemic skills, decoding ability, and
oral reading fluency—and neglect instruction
It is important to remind school personnel in comprehension and vocabulary.
that data collection is just one step in the
process. The goal of collecting formative In monitoring student progress in phono-
assessment data is to identify students logical processing, phonics, and reading
who are not making adequate progress fluency, instruction in the development
and to increase the intensity of instruction of comprehension and higher order think-
for these students. In a system where the ing skills may be overlooked. But these
performance of all children is assessed skills should not be neglected. Instruc-
multiple times a year, it is easy to become tion in comprehension and higher order
consumed by ways of organizing, analyz- skills should receive attention in the ear-
ing, and presenting data and to lose sight liest phases of reading development. The
of the primary purpose of data collection: challenge for schools will be to maintain a
to determine which students need extra strong instructional focus on both higher
support and which do not. and lower order skills.
10
One key aspect of these interventions is ever their focus, as outlined in the teacher
pacing. It is particularly important that manuals and training materials.
the teachers and interventionists receive
training in how to teach these programs at 4. Training for teachers and other school
an appropriate pace. This critical aspect of personnel who provide the small-group
instruction is frequently overlooked. When interventions should also focus on how to
it is missing from instruction, it is easy for deliver instruction effectively, independent
children to become bored or to lose focus, of the particular program emphasized. It is
which can lead to behavior problems. important that this training include the use
of the specific program materials the teach-
T he t h r e e inter vent ion pr og r a m s ers will use during the school year. But the
studied—and others like them—contain training should also explicitly emphasize
highly engaging activities of short du- that these instructional techniques can be
ration. The Panel believes that teachers used in other programs and across other
should implement the activities, what- subject areas.41
In the past several years four high-quality An important finding was that in two of the
randomized controlled trials have been four studies the interventions demonstrated
conducted on reading interventions for lasting effects on reading performance. In
struggling English learners. These stud- investigating the longitudinal effects of En-
ies appear as Intervention Reports on the hanced Proactive Reading, positive achieve-
What Works Clearinghouse website.42 Ap- ment outcomes were maintained when stu-
pendix 1 provides technical details on the dents who received the intervention in the
methodology used in these studies, the key first grade were assessed at the end of the
findings, and statistical significance levels. second grade.46 Students in the first grade
These interventions used the following intervention group read at higher levels than
three programs: students in the control group one year after
the intervention ended. For the SRA program
• Enhanced Proactive Reading.43 the positive reading effect was maintained
• Read Well.44 two years after the intervention ended.47
• SRA Reading Mastery/SRA Corrective
Reading.45 The programs used in these studies had many
characteristics in common. They formed a
The participants in these research studies central aspect of daily reading instruction
were English learners in grades 1–5 with and took between 30 and 50 minutes to imple-
serious reading problems (reading at least ment per day. In each study program imple-
one year below grade level or scoring in the mentation involved intensive small-group
lowest quartile on standardized tests). Read- instruction following the principles of direct
ing achievement was assessed on a wide and explicit instruction in the core areas of
range of measures, including word reading, reading.
12 2. Provide Intensive Small-Group Reading Interventions
in key content areas, such as science and Words for instruction should be selected
history. carefully. Long lists of words cannot be
taught in depth because rich vocabulary
A major part of any vocabulary curricu- instruction is time intensive. Only a hand-
lum is specifying the words to be taught. ful of words should be taught in intensive
It is the Panel’s opinion that adopting a ways at any one time. Some authorities
districtwide core vocabulary list for Eng- recommend teaching only about eight to
lish learners will help focus instruction on ten words per week this way, while others
valuable words and reduce unnecessary suggest teaching two to three words per
duplication. A core vocabulary list does day (but always with lots of future review
not prevent teachers or students from and extension).60
adding to this list when problem words
arise in the classroom—in fact, some dis- Reading coaches, teacher teams, curricula
tricts even build in space for the addition specialists, and summer workshops for
of such words. teachers can generate vocabulary lists for
intensive instruction. A key is for teachers
The lists currently identified in core read- to have these lists as they teach reading,
ing programs are inadequate for this pur- social studies, and science units, so they
pose.59 They often fail to emphasize the know in advance which words to teach in
words most critical for understanding a depth. Study groups and grade-level teams
story or most useful for the child’s lan- can do this work.
guage development. For example, many
vocabulary lists stress decoding issues 3. Vocabulary instruction for English learn-
rather than meaning. Thus, to accomplish ers should also emphasize the acquisition
vocabulary instruction goals, districts of meanings of everyday words that native
must develop their own lists and provide speakers know and that are not necessarily
access to these lists for their teachers. part of the academic curriculum.61
The vocabulary gap between English learn- vehicle for work on vocabulary instruc-
ers and native English speakers is substan- tion, giving teachers a way to share their
tial because English learners do not know frustrations and jointly collaborate on so-
many of the simpler words or conversa- lutions. Study groups can also be a way
tional words that native English speakers to keep effective vocabulary instruction
acquire before they enter school or learn in the forefront of instructional priorities.
in school without explicit teaching. Many They are especially valuable when led by
of these words are crucial for understand- vocabulary experts, who can provide clear
ing text and other academic content. For suggestions about how teachers can con-
example, English learners may not know tinue to move forward to provide effective
such words as bank, take, sink, or can. instruction in the classroom.
Textbook publishers assume that students
know these words and do not include Coaching teachers in effective vocabulary
them as vocabulary targets. Nor do they instruction should have a strong in-class-
provide recommendations for how to ad- room component. There are routines in
dress teaching these words should teach- good vocabulary instruction that teachers
ers have students who do not know them. can learn. For some teachers, these rou-
English learners can acquire these words tines will be learned best through in-class-
easily if teachers provide them with brief room coaching, where coaches provide im-
instruction during lessons. This instruc- mediate feedback and demonstrations.
tion can emphasize the meanings of com-
mon phrases and expressions, not just 2. Some teachers may incorrectly assume
single words. that English learners know a concept and
the word for that concept in their primary
During reading instruction, teachers language—when, in fact, they do not. This is
can teach many of these common words particularly true for technical terms encoun-
explicitly—in roughly the same way that tered in science, geography, and history. If
they teach content words, but much more students do not know the concept in their
quickly. They can teach many words as primary language, the Panel suggests teach-
they arise in the classroom, drawing at- ing the word directly in English.
tention to the potentially confusing words
and phrases. District practice should en- Caveat: For teachers to help English learn-
sure that these words are also taught ers develop vocabulary knowledge by
and reviewed during English language making connections to a student’s primary
development. language, teachers need some knowledge
of the primary language. If the linguistic
Possible roadblocks and solutions transfer involves a simple concept or a
one-to-one correspondence between the
1. Teaching vocabulary effectively is difficult. student’s primary language (each language
Many teachers will struggle learning how to has an identifiable word for the concept),
provide effective vocabulary instruction to teachers may be able to help students even
English learners.69 when these teachers know very little of the
primary language. But if the concepts are
Concerted professional development and difficult or there is no clear word for the
coaching will be necessary to ensure that concept in the student’s native language,
all teachers learn to provide effective vo- teachers will need more extensive knowl-
cabulary instruction to English learners. edge of the primary language to be able to
Teacher study groups can be an excellent help the student.
16
prepositions, words that express relation- of adjectives and adverbs.86 Students need
ships. But these are not designed for regu- practice in using these features in the con-
lar use by teachers in the classroom or as text of meaningful communication (both
an instructional manual. oral and written).87 They also must learn
to use language accurately in a range of
Teachers will need extensive professional situations—to tell stories, describe events,
development and support in using cur- define words and concepts, explain prob-
riculum materials effectively to teach aca- lems, retell actions, summarize content,
demic English.83 and question intentions.88
2. Teach academic English in the earliest Note: For students entering school, atten-
grades. tion in the first year of instruction must
also be devoted to informal, social lan-
Instruction focused on academic English guage. For example, newcomers (English
should not wait until students are able to learners who have recently arrived in the
read and write in English. Before English United States) benefit greatly from imme-
learners are reading, the development diate instruction in social language (Hi!
of age-appropriate academic English— What’s up?) and survival language (Help!
morphology, syntax, vocabulary—can be Fire!).89
accelerated orally through planned and
deliberate daily instruction.84 3. Provide teachers with appropriate profes-
sional development to help them learn how
Focused instruction in academic English to teach academic English.
can also build on students’ work with
text. For example, when English learners In the opinion of the Panel, professional
read expository text that includes aca- development needs to be ongoing and to
demic language, teachers should discuss entail a specific and manageable number
the text and the language in structured of key features and principles. Basic fea-
ways.85 Instruction should also focus on tures of English morphology, syntax, and
teaching English learners to use specific discourse need to be addressed carefully
features of academic language related to and gradually so as not to overwhelm
tense agreement, plurals, and proper use teachers.
Summary of evidence to support this and only indirectly address classroom in-
recommendation struction, we cannot conclude that the stud-
ies affirm the effectiveness of instruction of
Because there is little empirical research on academic English at this time. Level of Evi-
the topic and primarily just expert opinion, dence: Low (primarily expert opinion).
the level of evidence is low. Two studies re-
viewed by the What Works Clearinghouse90 Despite the paucity of experimental research,
demonstrate that focused interventions in the strong consensus of expert opinion92 is
two relatively narrow areas of academic that English learners require considerable ex-
English (quality of oral narrative and syntax) plicit and deliberate instruction to learn the
are potentially effective.91 That is, evidence features of the type of formal English used
suggests that they lead to better outcomes in the schools and in academic discourse.93
in highly specific areas of formal, academic This consensus applies to the importance of
English. But because the studies address teaching academic English from the earliest
very selective aspects of academic English grades.94
18 4. Develop Academic English
Professional development should also in- processing and retention. Third, during
clude extensive practical activities, such English language development time, the
as analyzing texts used by students for focus is clearly on language. When teach-
academic English instruction, determining ers try to merge English language develop-
features of language that students need to ment with academics, it becomes easy to
complete specific oral and written assign- lose track of the dual objectives and focus
ments, and designing “student-friendly” more on teaching reading or mathemat-
explanations. Professional development ics or science than on teaching academic
should also give teachers opportunities English. The obvious exception is writing
to practice teaching academic language instruction, a natural fit with teaching aca-
with feedback. demic English.
4. Consider asking teachers to devote a spe- It is easy to overlook academic English and
cific block (or blocks) of time each day to to allow teachers and students to commu-
building English learners’ academic English. nicate in informal English. For this reason,
it might be a good idea for administrators
Experts agree that English learners require to structure specific blocks of time each
time each day when the primary instruc- day to ensure its instruction. For example,
tional goal is developing academic English in kindergarten, the instruction of aca-
(as opposed to mastering the academic demic English can be routinely incorpo-
content).95 A recent observational research rated into the instruction of storytelling
study found that students’ growth in Eng- and vocabulary development at specific
lish language proficiency was much higher times each day. As Saunders, Foorman,
in classrooms where a separate block of and Carlson97 have shown, providing spe-
time was devoted to ESL or English lan- cific blocks of instruction in English lan-
guage development.96 So, in addition to guage development leads to gains in mea-
the better integration of teaching academic sures of oral language proficiency. In later
English in the context of academic content grades, specific blocks of time dedicated
such as reading or mathematics, the Panel to the development of academic English
also suggests that there be specific times can be scheduled, for example, in reading
during the day when the primary instruc- and writing instruction and in the instruc-
tional focus is on English language devel- tion of vocabulary in all subject matter.
opment and that some of the time be de- Scheduling regular blocks of time for the
voted to academic English. We are aware instruction of academic English should
that this recommendation extrapolates not only guarantee an increased focus
from only one study and that this study on academic English in the classroom. It
looked at all English language develop- should also make teachers more diligent
ment instruction, not only academic Eng- in structuring instructional activities that
lish instruction. So, this should be consid- require the use of academic English and in
ered as merely a recommendation based monitoring their students’ development of
on our opinion. academic English.
Many teaching approaches still advocate to all students, including English learners
giving English learners highly simplified, and native English speakers.
informal texts that are easy to read but not
challenging. The problem with regularly 3. Many teachers fail to link vocabulary in-
giving English learners a diet of familiar struction to instruction on proper language
reading material is that the academic texts usage.
of assessments and most content areas re-
main unfamiliar. Informal, narrative texts Even when English learners know word
tend to be familiar, but reading these texts meanings, they may be uncertain about
does not lead to proficiency in academic how to use new words appropriately. As
English. In academic writing crammed knowledge deepens, words have to be
with facts, the content is often unfamiliar used with the appropriate number (goose,
to English learners. geese), tense (is, are, was), and word form
(fun, funnier, funny). Systematic instruc-
The focus on developing academic English tion in usage and language conventions
can come after a challenging text has been needs to be a core feature of English lan-
read and discussed, so that the vocabulary guage development, and many of the
and meaning are clear. Then the teacher words used should be the same words
can come back to the story and focus on students are working with during their
the aspects of language that may be prob- reading lesson. Teachers should model
lematic for English learners (sentence con- appropriate syntax, word order, and tense
struction, word usage, prepositions) in the agreement and have students practice
familiar text. Language-focused activities these skills with new vocabulary words.
will have more meaning for English learn- Teachers should be careful and explicit
ers if they already have a general under- about pointing out or modeling appropri-
standing of the material in the text. ate use, as students use new vocabulary in
the context of sentences that should, over
2. There may not be enough time in the in- time, become more complex and gram-
structional day to provide English learners matically correct.
with sufficient instruction on the features of
academic English. Note that instruction in the proper usage of
words is very different from correction of
This problem is particularly relevant when any and all errors a student makes in word
English learners enter the upper grades usage. In the Panel’s view, error correction
with little knowledge of academic English, needs to be focused on the instructional
limited reading ability, and large educa- target of the lesson. If the instructional
tional gaps. Teachers need to be aware that focus of the vocabulary lesson is on word
many features of academic English can forms such as success, successful, and
and should be included during the block of succeed, teachers should correct errors in
time devoted to reading instruction. Virtu- word forms but ignore other errors. For in-
ally all students would benefit from activi- stance, in the learner’s sentence, “The boy
ties that teach them how to build complex is very succeed on mathematics,” teachers
sentences through sentence combining— should point out that the correct word is
and how to use words such as however and successful but should not focus on the in-
but to build an argument. Thus, a partial correct use of the word on. In restating
solution to the time problem is to include the sentence, the teacher might emphasize
daily academic English instruction as part correct usage by saying “Yes, the boy is
of the core reading instruction delivered very successful at mathematics.”
20
disabilities or who are low performers, as respond to errors, the format can be used
well as average and above-average students, in a number of different content areas
will benefit from working with a partner in across grade levels. The use of peer-
a structured way if the activities are orga- assisted instruction across grade levels
nized and carried out appropriately. provides a consistent and familiar struc-
ture for practicing specific content.
Peer-assisted learning is not, however, a
substitute for teacher-led instruction. It 3. Teachers may be concerned that this takes
is an evidence-based approach intended time away from instruction.
to replace some of the independent seat-
work or round-robin reading that students Most teachers replace some of the inde-
do, for example, when the intention is to pendent seatwork or round-robin reading
provide practice and extended learning with peer-assisted learning. Again, peer-
opportunities for students. assisted learning is not a substitute for
instruction. It is an opportunity for Eng-
2. Teachers may be concerned about the time lish learners to practice and work with
it takes to teach students the routines. skills and concepts they are learning. It
allows students to receive feedback as
Once students have learned peer-assisted they practice.
instructional routines, such as how to
Richards, & Gerber, 2004; Wiley & Deno, that English learners can develop equiva-
2005), with three of four investigating the lent degrees of fluency in reading both
use of oral reading fluency. Two of these word lists and connected text by the sec-
focused specifically on the technical issues ond grade (Geva & Yaghoub-Zadeh, 2006;
of monitoring progress regularly. They in- Lesaux & Siegel, 2003). There is also some
dicated that oral reading fluency was sen- limited evidence that English learners
sitive to growth over periods as short as can develop equivalency with native Eng-
two weeks when used in the early grades lish speakers in reading comprehension
(Baker & Good, 1995) and when used (Chiappe, Glaeser, & Ferko, 2007; Lesaux,
with students up to grade 5 (Dominguez Lipka, & Siegel, 2006; Lesaux & Siegel,
de Ramirez & Shapiro, 2006). In two of 2003). We conclude that it is reasonable
the studies (Baker & Good, 2005; Wiley to expect that English learners can learn
& Deno, 2005) oral reading fluency pre- to read at rates similar to those of native
dicted the performance of English learn- speakers if they are provided with high-
ers on comprehensive reading tests such quality reading instruction.
as the SAT-10 and state-developed reading
assessments.
Recommendation 2.
Comparable expectations Provide intensive small-
for English learners group reading interventions
An interesting and important sidelight of
the validity studies is the corresponding The Panel rated the level of evidence as
set of descriptive statistics. Many of the Strong. We located four high-quality, ran-
studies demonstrate that English learn- domized controlled trials demonstrating
ers can perform at comparable levels of support for the practice of explicit, sys-
proficiency to native English speakers on tematic small-group instruction. Each of
measures assessing phonological aware- the studies met the standards of the What
ness, word reading, and reading connected Works Clearinghouse (WWC). Conducted at
text fluently. These studies have been various sites by different research groups,
conducted with English learners in the they targeted different interventions that
primary grades who receive their instruc- share core characteristics in design and
tion exclusively in the general education content.
classroom alongside their native-English-
speaking peers. It is in these contexts For sample sizes, there were 91 first grad-
that they develop comparable word read- ers in one of the studies of Enhanced
ing, word attack, and spelling skills in Proactive Reading, 41 first graders in the
kindergarten through the second grade other, 33 students in grades 2–5 for Read
(Chiappe & Siegel, 1999; Chiappe, Siegel, Well, and 17 students in kindergarten
& Wade-Woolley, 2002; Lesaux & Siegel, through third grade for SRA Reading Mas-
2003; Limbos & Geva, 2001; Verhoeven, tery. All the students were English learn-
1990, 2000). ers. In three of the studies, all were stu-
dents reading at or below the first-grade
The comparable development of early level.
reading skills for English learners appears
to extend beyond accuracy in word rec- Effect sizes were consistently positive
ognition and spelling. There is evidence for reading but inconsistent for English
24 Appendix 1. Technical information on the studies
language development. Only the study The What Works Clearinghouse concluded
of Enhanced Proactive Reading (Vaughn, that the effects for reading achievement
Mathes, et al., 2006) demonstrated a sta- were not statistically significant (largely
tistically significant effect in reading. Yet because of analysis at the classroom level,
all the studies demonstrated substantially which decreased power), but five of the
important effect sizes for reading: 0.89 seven effect sizes, as well as the average
and 0.25 for Enhanced Proactive Reading, effect size, were large enough to be sub-
0.76 for SRA Reading Mastery, and 0.25 for stantively important. These effects were
Read Well. average for overall reading achievement
(effect size = 0.27) and for specific mea-
Despite the different names and some dif- sures of letter-sound knowledge (0.26),
ferences in lesson content and sequenc- decoding (word attack, 0.42), reading flu-
ing, all three interventions have many ency (DIBELS passage 1, 0.32; DIBELS pas-
features in common: fast-paced, intensive, sage 2, 0.27), and word reading efficiency
highly interactive small-group instruction; (0.41). Impacts on letter-word identifica-
frequent review; frequent opportunities tion and passage comprehension were
for students to respond; heavy emphasis not considered important (0.13 and 0.06,
on systematic teaching of phonological respectively).
awareness and phonics principles; use of
decodable text; and emphasis on fluency In the second Enhanced Proactive Reading
as well as comprehension. study (Vaughn, Mathes, et al., 2006), which
met the WWC standards with reservations
Example of a study of intensive (because of randomization problems),
small-group reading intervention there was a statistically significant and
substantively important impact on reading
In one Enhanced Proactive Reading study overall (0.89), on decoding (word attack,
(Vaughn, Cirino, et al., 2006), 91 Eng- 1.53), and on comprehension (1.32).
lish learners below the 25th percentile in
English reading from four schools were Together, these two studies, plus the other
randomly assigned (at the student level) studies in this set, showed potentially pos-
to the intervention or comparison con- itive effects in reading achievement and
dition. The intervention involved daily no discernible effects in English language
small-group reading instruction focusing development.
on five areas: phonological awareness, let-
ter knowledge, word recognition, fluency,
and comprehension. There were 120 50- Recommendation 3.
minute lessons. Teachers modeled new Provide extensive and varied
content, and the lessons were fast paced. vocabulary instruction
Students’ responses were primarily cho-
ral, with some individual responses. Stu-
dents in the comparison group received The Panel rated the level of evidence as
the same core reading instruction as stu- Strong. We reviewed three studies that
dents in the intervention condition, and directly investigated the impact of vo-
many students also received supplemen- cabulary instruction with English learn-
tal instruction, although it was different ers. A randomized controlled trial (Carlo
from the supplemental instruction pro- et al., 2004) reviewed by the What Works
vided to English learners in the interven- Clearinghouse and was found to meet
tion condition. the WWC evidentiary standards with
Appendix 1. Technical information on the studies 25
The Panel also considered that many stud- In the control classrooms, English learners
ies of vocabulary instruction for native received instruction normally included in
English speakers have found that explicit the school curriculum.
word meaning instruction improves read-
ing achievement (see Beck & McKeown, In the WWC analysis the intervention was
1991; Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000; Blacho- found to have a potentially positive impact
wicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe, 2006; on both reading achievement and English
Mezynski, 1983; National Institute of Child language development. But because of the
Health and Human Development, 2000; small sample size (with the classroom as
Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). We also reviewed the unit of analysis), the gains in these
intervention research conducted with Eng- domains were not statistically significant.
lish learners. The effect size in reading comprehen-
sion was 0.50, and the average effect size
Example of a vocabulary across five specific measures of English
intervention study language development was 0.43. Both ef-
fect sizes were considered substantively
In the study of the Vocabulary Improve- important.
ment Program (Carlo et al., 2004), 16 class-
rooms were randomly assigned to treat- Perez (1981) also found that a vocabulary
ment (n = 10) and control (n = 6) conditions. intervention had a positive impact on read-
These classrooms included 142 fifth-grade ing achievement with third-grade English
English learners and 112 English-only stu- learners. In a multiple baseline study,
dents. The intervention lasted 15 weeks. At Rousseau et al. (1993) found that discus-
the beginning of each week, 10 to 12 target sion of key words prior to text reading
words were introduced, and instruction in combination with teacher reading of
was provided four days per week for 30 to the text prior to students’ reading of the
45 minutes. Each fifth week was a review text on their own resulted in a positive
of the previous four weeks. impact on both oral reading and reading
comprehension.
On Mondays English learners previewed
a reading assignment in their native lan- Reading interventions and
guage. On Tuesdays intervention activities vocabulary development
began, with English learners reading the
assignment in English and defining the These three studies are the only direct
target vocabulary words in large-group tests of the impact of vocabulary instruc-
discussion with the teacher. On Wednes- tion on the reading development of Eng-
days the English learners completed cloze lish learners. But it is important that many
activities (fill in the blanks) in small groups complex interventions that have improved
26 Appendix 1. Technical information on the studies
the reading achievement of English learn- The two randomized controlled studies
ers also include explicit teaching of vocab- pertaining to academic English (Scientific
ulary. Various studies reviewed positively Learning Corporation, 2004; Uchikoshi,
by the What Works Clearinghouse make it 2005) are described in greater depth on the
clear that these more complex interven- What Works Clearinghouse website (www.
tions have been successful in increasing whatworks.ed.gov). Both were assessed as
English learners’ reading and language possessing high control for internal valid-
achievement, but these studies were not ity; they were rated as meets evidence stan-
designed to allow the specific effects of vo- dards without reservations.
cabulary teaching to be calculated. These
successful programs include Read Well In one randomized controlled trial (Uchiko-
(Denton, Anthony, Parker, & Hasbrouck, shi, 2005), 108 Spanish-speaking English
2004); Instructional Conversations (Saun- learners were assigned to watch either
ders, 1999; Saunders & Goldenberg, 1999); 54 half-hour episodes of Arthur (Arthur
Enhanced Proactive Reading (Vaughn, emphasizes stories with a plot, conflict,
Cirino, et al., 2006); and SRA Reading Mas- and resolution) or the same number of
tery (Gunn, Biglan, Smolkowski, & Ary, episodes of Reading Between the Lions (a
2000; Gunn, Smolkowski, Biglan, & Black, book-based program emphasizing pho-
2002). In all these programs, potentially nics and reading). Arthur had an overall
confusing or difficult words for English positive impact on measures of English
learners were drawn from reading texts language development (effect size = 0.29)
and given additional instructional atten- and specifically on overall quality of the
tion, often using procedures similar to students’ retelling a story (0.44); these ef-
those noted in the explicit vocabulary fects were not statistically significant. See
studies reviewed above. Dickinson and Tabors (2001) and Snow,
Tabors, Nicholson, and Kurland (1995) for
discussions of the role of narratives in
Recommendation 4. emerging literacy and the link of narra-
Develop academic English tives to the subsequent academic success
of monolingual children.
The Panel rated the level of evidence as The study of FastForWord (Scientific Learn-
Low. Two studies (Scientific Learning Cor- ing Corporation, 2004), a computer-based
poration, 2004; Uchikoshi, 2005) demon- program conducted with 81 English learn-
strate that focused interventions in two ers in kindergarten through the fifth grade,
relatively narrow areas of academic Eng- assessed three aspects of comprehension
lish (quality of oral narrative and syntax) of oral language that encompass three do-
are potentially effective. But because the mains: word classes and relations, gram-
studies address very selected aspects of matical morphemes, and elaborated sen-
academic English and only indirectly ad- tences. The effect size across these three
dress classroom instruction, we cannot areas was 0.88 (statistically significant).
conclude at this time that the studies af-
firm the effectiveness of instruction in aca- Example of a study of
demic English. Additional support is pro- academic English
vided by a recent classroom observational
study that correlates devotion of specific The correlational study by Saunders, Foor-
blocks of time to English language devel- man, and Carlson (2006) supports the
opment with enhanced outcomes. recommendation that student growth in
Appendix 1. Technical information on the studies 27
oral language is stronger in classes that academic English (see also Arreaga-Mayer
designate specific blocks of time for Eng- & Perdomo-Rivera, 1996).
lish language development. This observa-
tional study was conducted in 85 kinder-
garten classrooms in 11 school districts in Recommendation 5.
two states with large populations of Eng- Schedule regular peer-
lish learners. In 26 classrooms the entire assisted learning
school day was in English. In the remain-
opportunities
ing 59 classrooms teachers used Spanish
for most of the day but spent some time on
English language development instruction The Panel rated the level of evidence as
(also known as ESL or ESOL). The Woodcock Strong. Three studies of English learners
Language Proficiency Battery—Revised: addressed peer-assisted learning (Calhoon,
English and Spanish Forms (WLPB-R; Wood- Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2006; Mc-
cock, 1991; Woodcock & Muñoz-Sandoval, Master, Kung, Han, & Cao, in press; Saenz,
1993) was used to measure oral language Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005) and two investigated
development; word reading skills were as- the use of cooperative groups (Calderón,
sessed with the word identification (�������
Identi- Hertz-Lazarowitz, & Slavin, 1998; Klingner
ficación de letras y palabras) subtest from & Vaughn, 1996).
the WLPB-R. Students were assessed at
the beginning and the end of the school Two studies were randomized controlled
year. trials, and two were high-quality quasi
experiments. The Saenz et al. study (ran-
Two findings are worth noting. First, domized controlled trial) met the WWC
whether academic instruction was in Eng- evidence standards without reservations.
lish or Spanish, classrooms with a fixed Calhoon et al. was also a randomized
block of time devoted to English language controlled trial. The Calderón et al. quasi
development had greater proportions of experiment met the WWC criteria with
time during the school day devoted to oral reservations. McMaster et al. was a meth-
language development. Students in these odologically acceptable quasi experiment.
classes made significantly greater growth Because a set of four studies across mul-
in both language and literacy outcomes tiple sites conducted by multiple research
than students in classes where English lan- teams reached consistent conclusions
guage development was infused through- about the positive academic impacts of
out the day. So, it seems important for structured work in heterogeneous teams
teachers to have a block of time each day of two or four, we consider the evidential
during which English language develop- basis strong.
ment is the primary focus.
The study by Klingner and Vaughn (1996)
Second, very little time was devoted to used a weaker design (with threats to in-
building academic English in any of the ternal validity). This study compared peer-
various programs. On average, only 4.5 assisted learning (using groups of two)
percent of the time was devoted to vo- with reciprocal teaching (using groups of
cabulary development and less than 2 four). Both interventions seemed promis-
percent of the time was spent on work on ing, and impacts were roughly equivalent
language structures, such as grammar and for the two. But because the design did
syntax. In other words, less than 10 per- not include a control group, the study can-
cent of the time was devoted to developing not make strong claims. It does, however,
28 Appendix 1. Technical information on the studies
provide additional evidence of the poten- students per group in low, average, and
tial effectiveness of structured peer-as- high achieving groups, for a total of 11
sisted learning. students per classroom. Peer-assisted in-
struction was conducted three times per
Nature of the impacts week in 35-minute sessions for 15 weeks.
on student learning Relatively strong readers were paired with
relatively weak readers for the tutoring
In the kindergarten (Saenz et al., 2005) and sessions, and pairs were rotated every
first-grade (Calhoon et al., 2006) studies, three to four weeks. Each student assumed
positive effects were found for peer-as- the role of tutor and tutee and engaged
sisted learning on letter-sound and word in three reading activities: partner read-
attack measures, phoneme awareness, ing with story retelling, summarizing text
and oral reading fluency. The effect sizes (paragraph shrinking), and making predic-
were substantively important. In grades tions (prediction relay). In these activities
3–6 the impact on reading comprehension the stronger reader was the tutee first, and
was significant. tutors were trained to respond with struc-
tured prompts when tutees were having
Example of a study on difficulty. Treatment fidelity was very high,
peer‑assisted learning above 90 percent in all areas.
The Saenz et al. (2005) study provides a In this study, there was a positive impact
good example of how peer-assisted learn- on reading comprehension, as measured by
ing works and how this research is fre- questions answered correctly. There was
quently conducted. Twelve classroom no interaction with learner type, and the
teachers were randomly assigned to peer effect sizes were 1.03 for English learners
tutoring and control conditions. Within with learning disabilities, and 0.86, 0.60,
each classroom four groups of English and 1.02, respectively for the low, average,
learners were identified: two English learn- and high achieving groups. These effect
ers with learning disabilities, and three sizes were substantively important.
29
• One large, well designed, randomized, pretest and therefore do not meet the
controlled, multisite trial meets the standards of the What Works Clear-
standards of the What Works Clearing- inghouse but that consistently show
house and supports the effectiveness enhanced outcomes for participants
of a program, practice, or approach— experiencing a particular program,
and there is no contradictory evidence practice, or approach and have no
of similar quality. major flaws related to internal valid-
ity other than lack of demonstrated
• For assessments, evidence of reliabil- equivalence at pretest (such as only
ity and validity meets the standards in one teacher or one class per condi-
Standards for Educational and Psycho- tion, unequal amounts of instruc-
logical Testing.107 tional time, or highly biased outcome
measures).
Moderate level of evidence
OR
In general, characterization of the evi-
dence for a recommendation as moderate • Correlational research with strong
requires studies with high internal validity statistical controls for selection bias
but moderate external validity or studies and for discerning influence of endog-
with high external validity but moderate enous factors, and there is no contrary
internal validity. In other words moder- evidence.
ate evidence is derived from studies that
support strong causal conclusions but • For assessments, evidence of reliabil-
for which generalization is uncertain, or ity that meets the standards in Stan-
from studies that support the generality dards for Educational and Psychologi-
of a relationship but for which causality is cal Testing but provides evidence of
uncertain. Evidence for this Practice Guide validity from samples that are not ad-
is moderate if: equately representative of the popula-
tion on which the recommendation is
• Experiments or quasi experiments gen- focused.
erally meet the standards of the What
Works Clearinghouse and support the Low level of evidence
effectiveness of a program, practice,
or approach with small sample sizes In general, characterization of the evi-
or other conditions of implementation dence for a recommendation as low means
or analysis that limit generalizability— that the recommendation is based on ex-
and there is no contrary evidence. pert opinion derived from strong find-
ings or theories in related areas or expert
OR opinion buttressed by direct evidence that
does not rise to the moderate or strong
• Comparison group studies that do not level. Evidence is low if it does not meet
demonstrate equivalence of groups at the standards for moderate or high.
31
7. Greene (1997). 24. Chiappe, Siegel, & Wade-Woolley (2002); Geva
et al. (2000); Lafrance & Gottardo (2005); Lesaux
8. See http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ltt/
& Siegel, (2003); Limbos & Geva (2001); Manis et
results2004/sub_reading_race2.asp (retrieved
al. (2004).
October 9, 2006).
25. Chiappe, Siegel, & Wade-Woolley (2002); Geva
9. See http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
et al. (2000); Lesaux & Siegel (2003); Limbos & Geva
nrc/reading_math_2005/s0015.asp (retrieved
(2001); Manis et al. (2004); Swanson et al. (2004).
March 16, 2007).
26. Limbos & Geva (2001); Swanson et al. (2004).
10. See http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
nrc/reading_math_2005/s0015.asp. 27. Baker & Good (1995).
11. August & Hakuta (1997); Shanahan & August 28. Baker & Good (1995); Dominguez de Ramirez
(2006). & Shapiro (2006); Wiley & Deno (2005).
12. Morrison Institute for Public Policy (2006). 29. Chiappe & Siegel (1999); Chiappe, Siegel, &
Wade-Woolley (2002); Lesaux & Siegel (2003); Lim-
13. Fitzgerald (1995); Krashen (1985).
bos & Geva (2001).
14. Bialystok & Herman (1999); Geva, Yaghoub-
30. August & Hakuta (1997); August & Shanahan
Zadeh, & Schuster (2000); Limbos & Geva (2001).
(2006); Geva et al. (2000).
15. Chiappe & Siegel (1999); Chiappe, Siegel, &
31. Cisero & Royer (1995); Gottardo (2002); Hsia
Wade-Woolley (2002); Lesaux & Siegel (2003); Lim-
(1992); Mumtaz & Humphreys (2001).
bos & Geva, (2001).
32. Chiappe, Siegel, & Wade-Woolley (2002); Geva
16. Chiappe, Siegel, & Wade-Wooley (2002); Geva
et al. (2000); Limbos (2006); Manis et al. (2004);
et al. (2000); Lesaux & Siegel (2003); Limbos &
Townsend, Lee, & Chiappe (2006).
Geva (2001); Manis et al. (2004); Swanson et al.
(2004). 33. Cisero & Royer (1995); Gottardo (2002);
Quiroga et al. (2002).
17. Geva & Yaghoub-Zadeh (2006); Lesaux & Sie-
gel (2003). 34. Chiappe & Siegel (2006); Chiappe, Siegel,
& Wade-Woolley (2002); Lesaux & Siegel (2003);
18. Chiappe, Glaeser, & Ferko (2007); Lesaux,
Geva et al. (2000); Limbos & Geva (2001); Verho-
Lipka, & Siegel (2006); Lesaux & Siegel (2003).
even (1990, 2000).
19. Miller, Heilmann, Nockerts, Iglesias, Fabiano, et
35. Denton, Anthony, Parker, & Hasbrouck
al. (2006); Proctor, Carlo, August, & Snow (2005).
(2004); Gunn, Smolkowski, Biglan, & Black (2002);
20. Baker & Good (1995); Dominguez de Ramirez Vaughn, Cirino, et al. (2006); Vaughn, Mathes, et
& Shapiro (2006). al. (2006).
21. Baker (2006). 36. August & Siegel (2006); Quiroga et al. (2002);
Shanahan & Beck (2006).
22. Arab-Moghaddam & Sénéchal (2001); Baker
(2006); Baker, Gersten, Haager, & Dingle (2006); 37. Denton et al. (2004); Gunn et al. (2002);
Baker & Good (1995); Chiappe, Siegel, & Gottardo Vaughn, Cirino, et al. (2006); Vaughn, Mathes,
(2002); Chiappe, Siegel, & Wade-Woolley (2002); et al. (2006).
32 Notes
38. Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, & Hickman-Davis 65. Perez (1981); Rousseau et al. (1993).
(2003).
66. Umbel, Pearson, Fernandez, & Oller (1992);
39. In two of the four intervention studies, in- Verhallen & Schoonen (1993).
structional assistants were trained to provide the
67. Carlo et al. (2004); Perez (1981); Rousseau et
instruction. Gunn et al. (2002); Vaughn, Cirino, et
al. (1993).
al. (2006); Vaughn, Mathes, et al. (2006); Cirino
et al. (2007). 68. NICHD (2000).
40. Haager & Windmueller (2001). 69. Baker et al. (2006); Gersten et al. (2006).
41. Vaughn, Cirino, et al. (2006); Vaughn, Mathes, 70. August & Hakuta (1997); Bailey (2006); Fran-
et al. (2006). Gunn et al. (2002). cis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Genesee, Lindholm-
Leary, Saunders, & Christian (2006); Goldenberg
42. For further information on the What Works
(2006); Scarcella (2003); Schleppegrell (2001,
Clearinghouse, visit www.whatworks.ed.gov.
2004); Snow & Fillmore (2000).
43. Vaughn, Cirino, et al. (2006); Vaughn, Mathes,
71. August & Hakuta (1997); Bailey (2006); Cal-
et al. (2006).
lahan (2005); Diaz-Rico & Weed (2002); Francis,
44. Denton et al. (2004). Rivera, et al. (2006); Genesee et al. (2006); Gold-
enberg (2006); Meltzer & Haman (2005); Scar-
45. Gunn et al. (2002).
cella (2003); Schleppegrell (2001, 2004); Snow &
46. Cirino et al. (2007); Gunn et al. (2002). Fillmore (2000).
48. Franklin (1986); Limbos & Geva (2001). 73. Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006).
49. Gunn et al. (2002); Cirino et al. (2007). 74. August & Hakuta (1997); Callahan (2005)
Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Genesee et al.
50. In the intervention studies, teachers and in-
(2006); Goldenberg (2006); Meltzer & Haman
structional assistants were trained to provide
(2005); Scarcella (2003); Snow & Fillmore
instruction.
(2000).
51. National Institute of Child Health and Human
75. Fillmore & Snow (2002).
Development (NICHD) (2000).
76. Michaels & Cook-Gumperz (1979); Saunders
52. Carlo et al. (2004); Perez (1981).
et al. (2006); Schleppegrell (2004).
53. Carlo et al. (2004); Perez (1981); Rousseau,
77. Feldman & Kinsella (2005).
Tam & Ramnarain (1993).
78. Girard (2005).
54. Carlo et al. (2004); Perez (1981).
79. Dutro & Moran (2002).
55. Gersten, Dimino, & Jayanthi (in press).
80. Snow & Fillmore (2000).
56. August, Carlo, Dressler, & Snow (2005); Bla-
chowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe (2006). 81. Diaz-Rico & Weed (2002).
57. Gersten, Dimino, Jayanthi, Kim, & Santoro 82. Scarcella (2003).
(2006).
83. August & Hakuta (1997); Francis, Rivera, et al.
58. Gersten et al. (2006). (2006); Meltzer & Haman (2005); Scarcella (2003);
Snow & Fillmore (2000).
59. Hiebert (2005).
84. Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Saunders, Foor-
60. Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown (1982); Biemiller
man, & Carlson (2006); Schleppegrell (2004); Fill-
(1999).
more (2004); Scarcella (2003).
61. August et al. (2005).
85. Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Gibbons
62. Carlo et al. (2004); Perez (1981); Rousseau et (2002).
al. (1993).
86. Goldenberg (2006).
63. See www.whatworks.ed.gov.
87. Celce-Murcia (2002); Fillmore & Snow
64. Carlo et al. (2004). (2000).
Notes 33
88. Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Fillmore & Snow is not a valid predictor of who needs extra sup-
(2000). port in learning to read in the early grades in no
way indicates that oral English language profi-
89. Bailey (2006); Gibbons (2002); Schleppegrell
ciency is not important for the development of
(2004). Note that English learners who enter
reading in the long term. In fact, experts consis-
school in the primary grades without the abil-
tently consider building oral proficiency in the
ity to use English in such ways can learn grade-
features of academic English to be critical. In
appropriate academic English as well as their
Recommendation 1, we were addressing screen-
English-speaking peers if they are given access
ing measures for learning how to read (the act
to the same rigorous curriculum early and ap-
of reading and understanding the relatively
propriate instructional support and interven-
straightforward books suitable for students in
tions, delivered daily in blocks of time dedicated
the early grades).
to the development of academic language. When
students receive high-quality instruction in aca- 94. Echevarria, Vogt, & Short (2004); Francis, Ri-
demic English early in their education, we see vera, et al. (2006).
gains in their test scores later.
95. Francis, Rivera, et al. (2006); Gersten & Baker
90. See www.whatworks.ed.gov. (2000); Fillmore & Snow (2000).
91. Scientific Learning Corporation (2004); 96. Saunders et al. (2006).
Uchikoshi (2005).
97. Saunders et al. (2006).
92. August & Hakuta (1997); August & Shanahan
98. 90 minutes is the median amount of time per
(2006); Bailey (2006); Callahan (2005); Francis,
week in the research.
Rivera et al. (2006); Gennesee et al. (2006); Gold-
enberg (2006); Meltzer & Haman (2005); Scarcella 99. McMaster, Kung, Han, & Cao (in press).
(2003); Schleppegrell (2001, 2004); Snow & Fill-
100. Calderón, Hertz-Lazavowitz, & Slavin (1998).
more (2000).
101. Klingner & Vaughn (1996).
93. At this stage, the reader may be a bit confused.
In Recommendation 1 (Formative Assessments to 102. Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos
Screen for Reading Problems and Monitor Prog- (2006); McMaster et al. (in press); Saenz, Fuchs,
ress), we noted that studies consistently find that & Fuchs (2005).
oral English language proficiency is a weak pre-
103. Calderón et al. (1998); Klingner & Vaughn
dictor of how quickly a child will learn to read in
(1996).
English. Yet, in Recommendation 4 we argue for
the importance of intensive work on the develop- 104. Calderón et al. (1998); Saenz et al. (2005).
ment of academic English, including oral language
105. Saenz et al. (2005).
proficiency, beginning in kindergarten.
106. Calderón et al. (1998).
A subtle but important distinction needs to
be made to explain the seeming contradiction. 107. American Educational Research Association
The fact that oral English language proficiency et al. (1999).
34
Meltzer, J., & Haman, E. T. (2005). Meet- Proctor, C. P., Carlo, M., August, D., & Snow,
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