HOW TO DETERMINE SOIL ERODIBILITY FACTOR (K)

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Soil Erosion and Land Degradation is one of the most serious problems for the environmentalist which must be taken into consideration to prevent ecological imbalance in nature, basically among the natural resources like soil, water and plant. Soil erosion is the detachment and transportation of soil material from one place to another, resulting in loss of most fertile uppermost layer of soil surface and decreasing productivity. Transport of soil material is caused by water, wind, ice or gravity but water (rainfall) and wind are the major factors. Large flood plains and coastal plains are formed due to wearing of mountains. However, this steady and slow process of nature is non-destructive, and is, therefore, known as natural erosion or geological erosion. Geological erosion is not detrimental to mans well being and is wholly beyond his control. Contrary to this, when natures balance is disturbed by human activities like large scale cutting of forests, leveling and cultivation, etc., the process of erosion is speeded up manifolds. The surface one-inch soil which may be formed in thousand years can be lost in just one year. This rapid erosion, as a result of human interference, is known as accelerated erosion. In common parlance, unless specifically mentioned, erosion refers to accelerated erosion. Thus, erosion consists of: (i) detachment of soil particles from the surface; and (ii) their transportation, that requires a source to carry the detached particles away. No substantial erosion is possible unless both the processes are operative. Soil particles must be dislodged first from their mass before they can be splashed, rolled, slid or carried in suspension along the surface. In soil erosion by water, these processes are largely the result of raindrop splash, turbulence of moving water caused by raindrops and flowing water. Raindrops strike the soil surface and they breakdown the clods and smaller aggregates. When rainfall occurs in excess of the infiltration capacity of the soil, the flow of water over soil surface exerts a drag or a tractive force on the soil. The detached soil materials are then transported along with the flowing water and finally deposited in depressions or plains when the flow velocity is reduced. The falling raindrops and surface flow (runoff) produce widely different effects on soil. The melting of snow and the resulting surface runoff will have similar effect on the soil surface. If this drag force is sufficiently large, soil particles are dislodged and transported along with the water However, when the land is brought under cultivation, deforestation is carried out, the soil mass is thus exposed to the abrasive action of water and air, and accelerated soil erosion takes place. Accelerated soil erosion is caused by deforestation, grazing, various cultivation practices, mining operations, construction of road and buildings and artificial creation of slopes. The quantity of fertile soil is lost in this way is very large. For example, it is estimated

that atleast 4x106 tonnes of soil materials are washed out of the lands in U.S.A. every year. The effects of soil erosion include loss in the productivity of lands, undesirable deposition of eroded material and increase in the frequency of floods and depletion of ground water flow. It is estimated that the earths surface is eroded at an average rate of 30 mm per thousand years. And hence it may be taken about 28 million years for the earths surface to reduce to the sea-level. This estimate is based on the assumption that the average elevation of the earths surface is 840 m above M.S.L. The average erosion rate in different continent varies from 43 tonnes/km2/year in Australia to about 210 tonnes/km2/year in Asia. However, the sediment yields in various drainage basins vary within wide limits due to variations in drainage basin characteristics and hydrologic and land use conditions. In India these rates vary from about 500 to 3000 tonnes/km2/year. The recently reported values of sediment yield are excess of 10,000 tonnes/km2/year as reported by Lal(1988). It has been estimated that in India about 81 million hectares of land, out of the total geological area of 326 million hectares suffer from soil erosion. Out of the net cultivated area of 135.8 million hectares, 56.7 million hectares are affected by soil erosion in varying degrees. Erosion from hills from the hilly regions have become common causing various problems. For computation of soil loss, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) developed by Smith and Wischmeier (1962) is used. The equation states that: A = RKLSCP, Where, A = Computed soil loss per unit area obtained by multiplication of the remaining factors R = Rainfall factor K = Soil erodibility factor L = Slope Length factor S = Slope gradient factor C = Cropping Management factor P = Conservation practice factor

1.2 CONCEPT
A watershed is a drainage area on earths surface from which runoff, resulting from precipitation flows past a single point into a larger stream, a river, a lake or the ocean. Many definitions have developed over the recent years for the term watershed. While the definitions employ a wide variety of words, they all mean practically the same thing. Most generally, a watershed can be defined as a body of soil with definite boundaries around it, above it, and below it. In other words, it is a land surface (body of soil) bounded by a divide which contributes runoff to a common point. A positive

In Physiography (a branch of geology), any structure of rock masses raised to a conscpicuous elevation relative to its surrounding area is termed as a hill or a mountain. The difference between a hill and a mountain is again relative. Hills of exceptionally high elevation may be termed mountains. Commonly structures raised up to a relative height of 700 m may be called as hills and structures with greater relief as mountains. Physiographically, Indian sub-continent is divided into three broad regions. 1. The Northern (including north-western and north-eastern) zone, comprising chiefly the Himalayas Mountain System and regions at its immediate vicinity like parts of the Punjab, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam and is termed as ExtraPeninsula. 2. The central alluvium filled region in front of the Himalayas and covering wide areas of the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Bihar, Rajasthan etc. and known as the Indo-Gangetic Plains. It forms amedial zone running across the country. 3. The southern and south-western and south-eastern zone comprising all of the southern states like Bihar, Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat etc. the whole region, triangular in outline, goes under the name of Peninsula.

Hills are generally covered with trees and plants. The trees and plants provide cover to the sloped surface of the hills. The surface gets protection from impact of rains and other environmental factors. Vegetation in hilly areas consolidates the slope soil mass, provides cohesion by its root system and also retards the flow of water and is erosion capacity. But with the continuous struggle for development, urbanization, deforestation, population explosion etc. have put an impact on natural features of the hills. People have shifted to hills for their habitation and hence they cut valuable trees and plants. Thus the canopy cover of the hills have reduced and thus causing landlslides and erosion of hill surface.

1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL EROSION

Following are some of the factors which affect the soil erosion:Climate- Climatic variables affecting erosion are precipitation, wind velocity, temperature, humidity and radiation receipts. Precipitation is the most forceful factor causing erosion through splash and surface runoff. The effect of climate on natural vegetation and on soil development shows that soil and vegetation boundaries coincides in a general way with climatic boundaries. Consequently,

climate affects the erosion conditions on an area directly as well as through the vegetation that occurs. In arid climates, wind erosion is more severe than in human ones. Lack of organic matter in soils of arid and semi-arid regions makes them more susceptible to erosion by water as well as by wind. Soil properties- Soil erodibility is largely dependent upon texture, structure, organic matter, nature of clay and the amounts and kinds of salts present. Generally, fine textured and alkali soils are more erodible. On the other hand, soils with low silica/sesquioxide ratio, common in humid tropics, e.g., latosals and other lateritic soils, are reported to be less erodible. Soils with greater absorptive and retentive capacities reduce runoff and are, therefore, less erodible. Also, soils that have dried out thoroughly become highly erodible when exposed to rain storm. This is particularly true if little or no vegetation remains at the end of the dry period. Soils of high detachability and high transportability are highly erodible. Coarser textured soils containing a greater proportion of sand are more susceptible to wind erosion. This applies to all sand fractions less than about 1mm in diameter. In addition, low silty, clay and organic matter content in such soils deters clod formation, and even if some clods are formed they are far less stable. In general, any process which reduces consolidation usually increases erodibility. Topography- Slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of the flowing water observations indicate that a four-time increase in the degree of slope doubles the velocity of flowing water which can increase its erosive power four times and the silt-carrying capacity 32 times. Unidirectional general slope of the field results into sheet erosion while an undulating field with local slopes in more than one direction results into rill or gully erosion in addition to imperceptible sheet erosion. Lateritic soils, associated with rolling topography in high rainfall area, also suffer from sheet and rill erosion. On nearly level land there is little runoff, because much water is held as depression storage. As the slope increases the depression storage decreases and the amount and rate of runoff increases. Increasing steepness of slope increases the velocity of runoff and makes the water a better transporting agent. Steepness also allows the raindrop to hit the ground more directly, because the sheet of water on the surface becomes thinner as the flow velocity increases. The effective length of slope in erosion studies is measured from the beginning of overland flow to the point where the water flows into a well defined channel or where the slope diminishes so much that deposition occurs. Configuration of the slope, it is convex or concave also affects soil erosion. For example, sheet erosion is more severe on a convex slope than on a concave one due to drying rate, soil depth steepness, resulting into high flow velocity. Non-uniformity of slopes from crest to valley also affects runoff and erosion. On large areas, the erosion losses from variable steepness are less, than those of the same average slope that are uniform. Aspect of the slope is also important in causing runoff and erosion. Biological factors:- Biological factors attributing to soil erosion include vegetation, residue mulch, animals and shifting cultivation practiced by tribals in hilly areas. Heavy destruction of

natural protective cover like trees and grasses accelerates erosion in hilly areas. Shifting cultivation, particularly on steep slopes without any protective measures and animal traffic destroys natural vegetation and exposes soil surface to direct action of rain drops and runoff water. Vegetation:- The soil erosion becomes severe when the natures balance is disturbed by human activities of growing crops and meeting other necessities. The presence of vegetation acts as an erosion- retarding factor. Forests and grasses provide better cover than the cultivated crops. In general, vegetation intercepts the beating action of falling raindrops, retards the amount and velocity of surface runoff, permits more water flow into the soil, and checks the abrasive power of wind. It also reduces runoff as part of the intercepted rainfall is evaporated directly from the plant surface. Lack of vegetation creates erosion-permitting conditions. Plant roots and other residues of vegetation help to improve soil aggregation and porosity and thereby enhance infiltration and reduce runoff. Residue Mulch:- Residue mulch prevents direct impact of rain drop on soil aggregates, maintains pore space continuity and high infiltration rate and enhances crop growth to provide an early ground cover through improvement in soil temperature and moisture. Runoff and soil loss decreases exponentially with an increase in mulch rate. Shifting cultivation:- Shifting cultivation is an important cause of soil erosion in hilly areas of Assam, Orissa, Tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh and some other states(about 3.65 mha). This is practiced by tribals who indiscriminately cut the forest and set fire after drying the branches and tree trunks. Char areas are cultivated for two to three years and abandoned thereafter for about five to forty years to allow regeneration of natural vegetation and replenishment of soil fertility. Even the steepest slopes are not spared if otherwise found suitable for cultivation. It has been observed that atleast 10cm of soil is washed away even from moderate slope in each cycle. Animals:- Many times, animal traffic severely affects soil erosion. Action of animal hooves, especially the small cloven type of sheep and goats, is extremely adverse to the surface soil in destroying vegetation cover by treading upon the soil. Their mechanical pulverization often directly increases erodibility, and where heavy grazing denudes the land of vegetation or vegetative residue, serious wind blowing or water erosion results. The footpaths used by human and cattle in time develop into rills and then into gullies. Even with limited or controlled grazing, concentration of animal traffic in watering areas or through gates or lanes often becomes the site of initial wind blowing which may spread to other parts of the field, if control measures are not taken. Herds of cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats graze in lands and reduce the vegetation. Mice, ants, earthworms, jackals, foxes, rabbits, mongoose and porcupines induce soil erosion. Wild buffaloes, deer and a host of insects cause extensive damage to the forests particularly during monsoon season by compacting the soil, trampling the seedlings, grazing, debarking, lobbing of branches etc. Activity of soil micro-organisms such as protozoa, bacteria, fungi and algae affect the decomposition of organic matter, thus affecting the erodibility of soil.

Maintenance of organic matter in the soil through use of farmyard manure, green manure and crop residue is, therefore favourable for soil conservation. Other factors:- Tillage is also an erosion-inducing factor in agriculture as it directly detaches the soil and tends to oxidize its organic matter. Continuous ploughing to the same depth leads to the development of a plough pan which reduces infiltration capacity and consequently higher runoff and erosion. Glaciers also cause considerable erosion at higher altitudes and keep on advancing every year during the winter months. They cause soil failure, destroy vegetation and expose the soil surface to direct action of raindrops during summer when the slow cover is cleared off due to high temperature. These areas lie between Karakorum or The Great Himalayan Range and lesser Himalayan Zone

1.3 SOIL EROSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES Soil erosion can be totally controlled through conservation measures. There are several approaches based on land disposition, degree of erosion and funds availability. Some of the essential methods are

Control techniques: Ploughing, Furrowing, Trenching, Bunding, Gradoni, Hedging, Terracing, Wattling and Staking. Gully control: Pervious and impervious. Rain water management: Stream head cutting, Bank management, Flow irrigation and Waterways. Reclamation of alkali soils: Alkaline, Saline, Acidic and Sulfide Green Carpeting Vetiver system

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PRESENT STUDY

The present study is based on the following studies1. To study about the natural features of the area

2. To study the soil characteristics of the area 3. To identify the causes of soil erosion in the area 4. To study the applicability of Universal Soil Loss Equation(USLE) to determine the annual soil loss from the area. 5. To study the utility of various erosion control techniques 6. To suggest some affective measures to control erosion

1.6 LIMITATIONS
We were not able to study the whole area due to 1. Rain 2. Dense forest 3. No definite accessible route 4. Difficulty in carrying equipments 5. Difficulty in placing equipments 6. Time limitations

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1GENERAL
Erosion can be classified into sheet erosion, gully erosion and channel erosion. Channel erosion includes stream bed and bank erosion and flood plain scour. Land slides, mud flows and rock falls caused by heavy rain, tectonic activity and volcanic eruptions may also contribute to the sediment entering streams. The rate of erosion from the catchment and the quantity of the eroded material that may reach the outlet of a catchment depend on several factors like climatic conditions, topography, land use and geology. Rainfall including its total yearly amount and temporal distribution, runoff and temperature are the main climatic factors affecting sediment yield. Temperature plays an important role in the weathering of rocks; it also affects runoff since evaporation depends on temperature. The catchment area, its average slope and the drainage density are some of the topographic variables which are found to affect erosion and sediment yield. The velocity of flow, the shear stress on the land surface as well as the transport capacity increase with increase with catchment slope. The sediment field per unit catchment area, on the other hand, is found to decrease with increase in the catchment area. This happens because the small upstream basins are generally steep and have limited flood plains on which sediment can be stored. With increase in catchment area the storage space apparently increase faster than the rate of sediment production. A factor affecting sediment yield from a catchment is the drainage density defined as the total length of channel per unit area of the catchment and expressed in km-1. Greater the drainage density, greater will be the channel erosion and hence sediment yield would increase with increase in drainage density. Vegetation or plant cover reduces soil erosion, its effectiveness depending on the height and the continuity of canopy, density of ground cover, and root density. If the canopy is near the ground, it dissipates the kinetic energy of rain; canopy on the ground increase the roughness and reduces the velocity of flow. Roots play an important role in reducing erosion by binding the soil mass to increase surface runoff. Generally, forests are more effective in reducing

erosion because of their canopy, dense grass is equally effective. However, the decrease in erosion with the extent vegetative cover is insignificant for more than sixty percent cover. The effect of extent of vegetal cover on soil erosion is shown in fig. 2.1 below

Activities such as building and road construction and cultivation result in significant increase of sediment yield. In as much as all these activities increase with increase in population and the passage of time, one may expect sediment yield to be well co-related to these factors. The fact that agriculture contributes considerably to the sediment erosion is borne out by the date presented in tables below.

Table 2.1 Sediment sources and their total contributor to sediment in streams in the USA (Robinson, 1977) Sediment sources Agricultural land Stream Bank erosion Pasture and range land Forest lands Other Federal Lands Urban Roads Mining Others Total sediment(Million tons/year) 680 450 210 130 115 73 51 18 14 Percentage of total 40 26 12 7 6 4 3 1 1

Table 2.2 A comparison of soil erosion rates(in N/m per year) under natural undisturbed conditions and under cultivation in selected areas of the world(Walling, 1994) Country China USA Ivory Coast Nigeria India Natural < 2.00 0.03-3.00 0.03-0.20 0.50-1.00 0.50-1.00 Cultivated 150.0-200.0 5.0-170.0 0.1-90.0 0.1-35.0 0.3-20.0

Belgium UK

0.10-0.50 0.10-0.50

0.3-30.0 0.1-3.0

Erosion is also strongly dependent on the type of crop. Relative erosion rates for different crops in Pacific North-West, USA, (Walling 1994) are given in figure

Geology of the catchment is also an important factor controlling upland erosion and channel erosion. However, the interdependence amongst climatic conditions, land use and geology makes it difficult to detect the specific role played by geology on sediment yield. Landslide enhance erosion in the catchment and have been found to be related to the geology of the area. Also unconsolidated sedimentary rocks(recent alluviums) are the most erodible geologic formations.

2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION

The scientific investigation of erosion of soil particles was carried out by Wollny(1895), a German scientist, who carried out an extensive study on small plots of land to determine soil erosion. He studies wide range of effects such as vegetation and surface mulches on the interceptions of rainfall, deterioration of soil structures and also affects of soil type as well as slope on runoff and erosion in between 1877 to 1895. But he could not describe the phenomenon of raindrop to splash erosion. Probably, Cook(1936) is the first scientist who had established a mathematical relationship describing effects of various factors on soil erosion, such as soil erodibility, soil erosivity of rainfall and degree of protection afforded by vegetal cover on process of land deterioration and also the influence of various sub-factors on them. Zing(1940), published the result of his comprehensive study on the effect of degree of slope(S), slope length(L) and soil loss(X) and recommended the following relationship, X= CS1.4L1.6 In which, C is constant of variation, X is the total soil loss, or A= CS1.4L1.6 Where A is the average annual soil loss. The following year, Smith(1941) added crop factor(C) and supporting practice factor(P), to this equation, A= CS7/5L3/5P ----------(2.02) ----------(2.01) ----------(2.00)

He used this equation to develop a graphic method for selecting the necessary conservation on shelloy and associated soil in Midwest. The factor C includes the effects of

weather and soil as well as cropping system. The equation of sheet erosion, which is the detachment of the material from the land surface by the raindrop impact and its subsequent removal by overland flow, was given by Ellison(1945), as E= KV4.33d1.07I0.65 ----------(2.03)

Where, E= Soil intercepted in splash sampler during 30 minutes period in gram . V= Velocity of drop in meter per second. d= Diameter of drop in mm I= Intensity of rainfall in cm/hour, and K= Constant. In the year 1946, the national committee of USA presented and adopted the Cornbelt equation. They added the rainfall factor in the land slope practice method and suggested the following equation which is known as Musgrave equation, A=F.C.Sg 1.35/ 10.L 0.35/72.6.P301.75/1.375 ----------(2.04)

Where, A is the sheet erosion in tones per acre. F is soil factor basic erosion rate in tones per acre per year. C is the cover factor S is the degree of slope in percent. L is the length of slope in feet. P30 is the maximum 30 minutes duration 2years frequency rainfall in inches. In this equation the following considerations are taken in to accounts

The effect of rainfall, flow characteristics of surface runoff as affected by slope steepness and slope length, soil characteristics and vegetal cover are taken into consideration. The 1.75 power of the two years, 30 minutes was adopted on the rainfall factors. Slope length and steepness exponents were lowered from Zinggs 0.60 and 1.40 (1940) to 0.35and 1.35 respectively. Annul cover factors were estimated relative to a value of 100 for either continuous fallow or continuous row crops.

A soil factor was desired by adjusting measured annual soil losses at the experimental locations for differences in rainfall, slope and cover.

This equation was further modified by Musgrave (1947) for estimating average soil losses from large, heterogeneous watershed as A=K.C.R.Sg1.35/10.L0.35/76.6 Where, R is the rainfall factor (rainfall erosion index) And K is the soil factor in tones /acre/year /unit-rainfall index. Smith et al (1947) presented a method for estimating soil losses from fields of clay-pan soils. They described effects of slope percentage (S) as, A a + b S3/4 Where, a and b were constants. The effect of slope length (L) was described as A L1.6 Soil loss ratios at different slopes were given for contour farming, strip cropping, terracing. Recommended slope length limits were presented for the contour farming. Relative erosion rates for a wide range of crop rotation were also given. The following year, Smith et al (1949) presented the following national erosion estimating equation for the principal soil in Missouri. A= C.L.S.K.P -----------(2.07) ----------(2.06) ----------(2.05)

Where, C is the annual average soil loss from clay paint soils for a specific rotation on a 3 % slope, 90 feet long, farmed up and down slope. The other factors for slope(S), length(L), soil group(K) and conservation practice(P) were dimensionless multiplies to adjust the value of C to other conditions. P factor values were discussed in details. The work also acknowledged the need for a rainfall factor to make this equation applicable over the several states. In the year 1950, Van Doren and Bartelli proposed the following equation A= f(T.S.L.P.K.I.E.R.M) Where, A is the annual estimated soil loss. T is the measured soil loss. S is steepness of slope. -----------(2.08)

L is the length of slope. P is the practice effectiveness K is soil erodibility I is intensity and frequency of 30 minutes rainfall E is previous erosion R is rotation effectiveness M is management level. The key value for T was 3.5 tonnes per acre for Flanagan silt loam on a 2% slope, 180 feet long, cropped continuously to corn. Estimates of other conditions were made using S1.5 and L0.38(L > 200 feet). Values of other factors were given in tables and graphs for application on soils and cropping conditions throughout Illinois. In the year 1955, the joint conferences of personal from SCS. The Soil and Water Conservation Research Branch of the Agricultural Research Service, and Co-operating State Agencies were held at Purdue University in February and July. They concentrated on the need of reconciling differences among existing soil loss equation and extending this technique to regions where no measurements of erosion by rain storm had been made. At this workshop they proposed the following equation, A = C.M.S.L.P.K.E. Where, A is estimated soil loss C is a crop rotation factor(C = 100 for continuous corn) M is management factor(values from 0.5 to 0.8 for different residues and method of tillage) S is degree or percent of slope factor(S steepness1.4 with continued study of a proposed quadratic relationship). L is the length of slope factor(L length0.5 + 0.1) P is conservation practice factor(specific values for slope groups from 1.1 to 24%) K is soil erodibility factor(each soil given a value of 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5 or 1.75) E is previous erosion factor(not evaluated but considered when establishing the permissible soil loss limit for each soil). Wischmeier and Smith(1965) have developed a Universal Soil Loss Equation(USLE) for the state east of the Rocky Mountains by combining the crop rotation and management -------------------(2.09)

factors to the rainfall factor at a series of regional soil loss prediction workshops from 1959 to 1962 which was revised in the year 1978. This tool is a useful one for commercial agricultural lands in the United States and perhaps elsewhere. Its applicability to other regions and other forms of rural land use remains to be tested. The testing and extension for other prediction methods requires an independent field measurement of erosion. The equation may need to be adopted to local conditions especially the significance of the rainfall factor(R) and the cropping management factor(C) need to be checked. Also, although the USLE is a rather simple steadystate model, a rather sophisticated data set is needed, especially, again, with respect to rainfall(daily records over a number of years), vegetation and to a lesser extent, to soil conditions.

2.3 WORK ON UNIVERSAL SOIL EQUATION

Application of USLE to Indian condition was conducted at Soil Conservation Research Demonstration and Training Centre(ICAR), by Nema et al(1974) to determine some parameters of the USLE from runoff plot study. Singh et al(1981) evaluated the USLE parameters for different regions of the country and presented a report on soil loss prediction research in India. It shows the applicability of this equation for different land use pattern, soil condition, rainfall condition, erosion control practices and topographic conditions. Narain et al(1982) presented a method for determination of the different parameters of USLE from runoff plot at Soil Conservation Research Centre, Kota Das(1982) based on Williams equation proposed the following equation for estimation of sediment yield from Naula watershed of Ramganga reservoir catchment. He also proposed the equation, Sy = 11.8(Q.qp)0.257K.L.S.C.P. -------------------(2.10)

Where, S = the sediment yield from the watershed in m. tones per storm. qp = the peak rate in cu,m per second and the other factors remain same. Ram Babu et al(1969) established the co-relation of daily, monthly and annual rainfall with energy product to evaluate the R(rainfall factor) of USLE parameters for Doon Valley. Rao(1981) evaluated the crop management factor of USLE under natural rainfall condition of Kharagpur, India. Suresh(1998) worked on USLE and evaluated the optimal land use planning model for watershed in Kumaon Hills, India. Suresh, et al(2002) presented the soil loss trend corresponding to various land use activities at Ramganga catchment by applying RUSLE. Pathak(1991) evaluated the R(rainfall factor) and K(soil erodibility factor) of USLE in the hill areas of N.C. Hills, Assam.

CHAPTER-3 MECHANISM OF EROSION

3.1 INTRODUCTION Erosion is defined as the wearing away of the land. Agents of erosion are water, wind, Ice and gravity. However activities like mining, excavation, highway etc. add to the process. Sediment is the by-product of erosion. Normal erosion often called as Geological norm is erosion of land in its natural environment, undisturbed by human activity. It includes process of weathering and the removal of material by gravity, water and ice. Weathering can be defined as the process by which solid rocks are broken up and decayed. The size, the mineral composition, the density and other factors such as surface texture depend on the nature of the parent rocks from which the sediments are formed. The process of weathering can be sub-divided into chemical weathering, mechanical weathering and organic weathering. The three agents in the atmosphere which are responsible for chemical weathering are oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. In certain cases carbonic acid and excess water act on granite, albite, biotite, etc., and give free silica, carbonate of alkali elements and other secondary minerals. Sometimes the iron ores are oxidized. In certain other cases hydration of minerals gives rise to new secondary minerals and increases their volume. Several mechanical agencies also disintegrate the parent rocks into fragmental material. These agencies include freezing water, expansion caused chemical change and exfoliation resulting from sudden changes in temperature. Volume of water increases by approximately 10% when it freezes. When the water is confined, such expansion causes a considerable force. Therefore, water which enters the cracks

and fissures and freezes tend to push the rocks apart. Repeated freezing thawing at high altitudes can be one of the most important disintegrating forces for the rocks. In certain cases, secondary minerals such as kaolinite formed by chemical weathering occupy a volume much greater than mineral. This can create forces which ultimately break the rocks. In another process called chemical exfoliation, the sheets are notably decayed and discoloured. The work is performed by the solutions which penetrate slowly along the cleavage cracks of crystals and between the grains and thereby induce the formation of new minerals of large volume which causes disintegration. Exfoliation or scaling also occurs due to extreme heating followed by sudden cooling. Organic agents of weathering are primarily burrowing animals and also roots trunks of trees which wedge the rocks apart. After the parent rocks are disintegrated, the material is transported from one place to another and deposited by streams, wind or glaciers. Under natural conditions and particularly in humid areas, dense vegetation affords protection against erosion. Disturbance of this covers by mans activity, such as over gazing of grass lands. Removal of timber by logging or burning and breaking of sod cover by ploughing disturbs the natural conditions and the rate of erosion is greatly accelerated. Therefore the major portion of the sediment load carried by stream comes from the erosion of material in the drainage basin.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL EROSIO The rate of erosion from the and the quantity of eroded material that may reach the outlet of a catchment depend on several factors. 1. Climate 2. Topography 3. Vegetation 4. Soil (geology)

Climate The major climate factors that influence runoff and erosion are rainfall, temperature and wind. Of these rainfall is the most important factor. Temperature and wind are most evident through their effects on evaporation and transpiration. Wind also influences the angle and impact of raindrops. Rainfall and runoff are two erosive agents of soil erosion by water. The principal effects of raindrops is to detach soil, while the principal effects of surface flow of water is to transport the detach soil particles.

The following are the factors in the soil erosion process The detaching capacity of the erosion agent. The detachability o f the soil The transporting capacity of the erosion agent The transportability of the soil

The quantity of soil detached will be proportional to the detaching capacity of the falling raindrops and the detachability of the soil while quantity of soil transported will be proportional to the transporting capacity of the erosive agent and transportability of the soil. Rainfall is the chief detachability agent in the water erosion. Raindrops cause soil splash, detach soil particles and make them available for transport. The amount soil detached by the rain depends on The intensity of the rain or its detaching capacity. The character of the soil or its detachability The protective value of any cover present.

When the rate of rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate of the soil, water that is not absorbed where it falls, moves across the land as surface flow. The amount of soil movement affected by surface flow result from energy of the runoff water, susceptibility of the soil to detachment and transportation, and the resistance or protection afforded by vegetation on field structures.

Topography On flat lands, erosion is usually not a problem . it is the sloping lands that experience increasingly greater problems of erosion. The main features of topography affecting erosion are Size: Both, runoff volumes and rates increases as watershed size increases. However both rate and volume per unit of watershed area decreases as the area increases.

Shape: Long and narrow watershed likely to have longer times of concentration resulting in lower runoff rates than more compact watersheds of the same size. Relief: It is the elevation difference between any reference pints on the basin with respect to outlet elevation. The governs the time of concentration,

Land slope: the degree of slope and the length of slope are the two main features of topography affection erosion. Velocity of the runoff water is influenced mainly by degree of slope. Greater the slope, the greater will be velocity of flow of the runoff water. According to law of falling bodies velocity varies as a square root of the vertical drop. Hence if the land slope is increased four times, the velocity of water flowing n the slope is doubled . when the velocity is doubled the erosive capacity, as represented by the kinetic energy of the flowing water, is increased about four times. Thus the erosive capacity of runoff varies in direct proportion with the slope of a land on which the runoff occurs. The length of slope is another important factor. Soil loss by erosion E is proportional to the length of slope L ,to the 0.5 power (E ) water accumulates over the entire length of the slope, unless the soil and land covers are such as to absorb rain as fast as it fall.

Drainage Factors affecting drainage of an area are required to assess the susceptibility to erosion, runoff pattern, sedimentation and location erosion control structures and erosion thereof. High drainage density affects runoff pattern pattern in that a high drainage density affects surface water rapidly decreasing the lag time and increasing the peak of hydrograph. Drainage density =

Drainage pattern: Drainage pattern of an area refers to the design of the stream courses and their tributaries. It is influenced by the slope of the land, lithology and structures.

Vegetation: A dense cover of vegetation is a most powerful weapon for reducing erosion. A good vegetation cover, such as a thick growth of grass or a dense forest, may reduce completely the effect of climate, topography and soil on erosion.

Soil The soil properties influencing erosion by water are the infiltration rate of soil and the resistance of soil to dispersion and erosion during rainfall and runoff. When the rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration capacity of the soil, all of the water soaks in and there is no runoff. On the other hand, if raindrops could not beat the soil into a state of dispersion there would be no erosion. The more important factors affecting the infiltration capacity are the permeability of the soil profile, the condition of the soil surface and the soil moisture content.

The infiltration rate declines with the increase in soil moisture content. The soil structural relationships of the immediate surface play a dominant role in determining the infiltration capacity of soils. A compact surface is responsible for low infiltration and high runoff. The size of soil particles generally determines the size of the opening between soil particles, which influence infiltration rate. A coarse sandy soil, for example, has very high infiltration rate and permits little runoff from a normal rainfall. Erosion is not severe in such soils under an average rainfall. However, these soils contain little fine material to bind the particles together and hence are easily eroded by heavy rains. At the other extreme is, the fine textured soils, such as clays and clay loams. The pores in these heavy soils are so minute that infiltration is very slow. A large proportion of even and ordinary rain is lost as runoff from heavy soils moderate to steep slopes. However, these soils have a higher water holding capacity. Silt loams, loams and fine sandy loams are the more desirable soils from the point of view of minimizing soil erosion 3.3 TYPES OF EROSION Raindrop erosion The characteristics of the rainfall have a significant effect on the magnitude of splash erosion. The other factors which affect this type of soil erosion are, the type of soil, land and topography, and the vegetative cover. The intensity of rainfall is dependent on the drop size, the number of drops per unit area, and the duration of rainfall. The erosive capacity of the raindrop varies with the distribution of different sizes of the raindrop during a storm. Sheet erosion It is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil from the land surface by the action of rainfall and runoff. This type of erosion, though extremely harmful to the land is usually so slow that the farmer is not conscious of its existence. It is common on land having a gentle slope. It results in uniform skimming of the cream of the top soil with every hard rain. To the eye the field appears to be same as before. Areas where loose, shallow top soil overlies tight subsoil are most susceptible to sheet erosion.

Movement of soil by raindrop splash is the primary cause of sheet erosion. Raindrops cause the soil particles to be detached and the increased sediment reduces the infiltration rate by sealing the soil pores. As the water passes over a smooth slope, it flows along in a sheet of more or less uniform depth. In areas of unprotected sloping land the sheet of water picks up soil particles and carries them down the hill. Rill erosion Rill erosion is the removal of soil by running water with formation of shallow channels that can be smoothed out completely by normal cultivation. There is no sharp line of demarcation where sheet erosion ends and rill erosion begins, but rill erosion is more readily apparent than sheet erosion. Rills develop when there is a concentration of runoff water which if neglected grows into large gullies. Gully erosion Gully erosion is the removal of soil by running water, with the formation of channels that can be smoothed out completely by normal cultivation. Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion, much as rill erosion is an advanced stage of sheet erosion. Any concentration of surface runoff is a potential source of gullying. Cattle path, cart tracks, dead furrows, tillage furrows, or other small depressions down a slope favour concentration of water. Unattended rills get deepened and widened every year and begin to attain the form of gullies. During every rain the rain water rushes down these gullies, increasing their width, depth and length. Within a few years time an entire landscape may be filled with a network of gullies. Large areas of fertile lands thus get swallowed by the everincreasing gullies and are rendered uncultivable. Gully erosion is more spectacular than other types of erosion.

Stream channel erosion Stream channel erosion is the scouring of material from water channel and the cutting of banks by running water. This erosion differs from gully erosion in that the former applies to the lower end of stream tributaries and the streams that have nearly continuous flow and relatively flat gradients. Stream channel erosion occurs in intermittent stream near the upper end of the stream tributaries. Bank cutting is the most common form of channel erosion. It is particularly noticeable on the outside bank at the beginning of bends in meandering streams. Stream banks erode either by runoff flowing over the side of the stream bank or by scouring or undercutting. Bank cutting is accelerated by the removal of vegetation by overgrazing or by tilling too near the banks. Scouring is influenced by the velocity and direction of the flow, depth and width of the channel and soil texture.

Gravity erosion It occurs when forces caused by the weight of material exceeds forces of resistance caused by the frictional resistance or the shearing strength of the material. Examples of gravity erosion are landslides, bank sloughing, talus movement and wind flows. Water as an erosive agent may contribute to gravity erosion by removal of the support of slopes or decreasing shear strength in cohesive materials through increase of moisture content. Locally gravity erosion may constitute a primary source of sediment delivered to reservoirs when masses of materials are moved to locations where they can be attacked by water, particularly concentrated flow.

3.4 ESTIMATION EQUATION (USLE)

OF

WATER

EROSION

LOSSESUNIVERSAL

SOIL

LOSS

Wischmeier and Smith (1965 & 1978) developed the Universal Soil Loss Equation(USLE) for prediction of gross soil erosion from agricultural watersheds in the USA. On a close look the USLE appears to have been based on the Musgrave Equation (1947) that have been developed earlier. The USLE has proved to be very popular and is widely used after incorporating the necessary modifications in the values of its parameters for different regions of the world. The equation is specially being employed as a guide for conservation planning of small agricultural watersheds. The equation states that A = RKLSCP Where A = Average annual soil loss in tonnes/hectare R = Rainfall factor = K = Soil erodibility factor L = Slope length in metre S = Steepness factor C = Cropping and management factor, 1 for good cropping and less for others. (as given by Wischmeier and Smith) ----------(3.1)

P = Supporting conservation practice such as terracing, strip cropping and contouring. Rainfall factor (R) The Rainfall Factor(R) is Wischmeiers erosion index ( E I30-index i.e. total kinetic energy E of rainstorm times its maximum intensity over 30 minutes (I30) divided by 100

R=

----------(3.2)

To Calculate the total kinetic energy of the storm event the precipitation is divided into periods with approximately the same rainfall intensity. The kinetic energy of rainfall for each period is given by E = 210.3 + 89log I (Joules/m2 per cm of rainfall) In which, E = Kinetic energy in Joules/m2 of rainfall I = Average rainfall intensity of the considered period in cm/hour. The 30 minutes intensity is multiplied by 2 in order to convert intensity per half hours into intensity per hour. In order to arrive at the total kinetic energy of a storm, the kinetic energy calculated for each period is multiplied by the cm of rain that fall during that period. Finally these products are summed. ----------(3.3)

Soil erodibility factor (K) Soil erodibility factor (K) is the rate of susceptibility of soil particles to erosion per unit of rain erosivity factor (R), for a specified soil on a unit plot having a 9% uniform slope and a slope length of 22.13 metres over a continuously clean fallow land with up and down slope farming. The value of the factor(K) is determined either experimentally or theoretically, based on the respective contents of clay and dust particles (<0.10mm), sandy particles(0.10-2.00mm), organic matter(% of humus), and soil texture and permeability. It can be calculated by the following regression equation: K=2.8 X 10-7M1.14(12-a)+4.3 X 10-3(b-2)+3.3 X 10-3(c-3) ----------(3.4)

Where M=particle size parameter(%silt+%very fine sand)(100-%clay), a=% organic matter b=soil structure code(very fine granular, 1; medium or coarse granular, 3; blocky, platy or massive, 4) c=profile permeability class(rapid,1; moderate rapid,2; moderate, 3; slow to moderate, 4; slow, 5; very slow, 6)

Slope length factor(L)

The length of the slope, on which the overland flow occurs, affects the rate of soil erosion. On larger slope lengths, there is a higher concentration of overland flow, and also a higher velocity of flow which triggers a higher rate of soil erosion. Zingg(1940)

found that the soil loss has a non linear relationship with the land slope length i.e. soil loss (Lp)m, where Lp is the actual slope length, and m is the ratio of the soil loss from the field plot length to the soil loss from the unit plot with a slope length of 22.13metres. The slope length factor is determined by using the following formula: L=

)m

----------(3.5)

Where Lp is the actual unbroken length of the slope(metres), measured upto the point where the overland flow terminates, and m is an exponent which is equal to 0.5 for slopes 5%, 0.4 for 4%, 0.3 for 3% and 0.2 for 1%

Slope gradient factor(S) On steep slopes the flow velocity is high which causes scouring and cutting of soil. Also soil erosion due to splash is high, because splash particles on steep slopes are thrown to larger distances down the slope on an inclined plane and damage due to raindrop impact is greater on the soil crust. The slope gradient factor(S) expresses the ratio of soil loss from a plot of unknown slope to soil loss from a unique plot under identical conditions. Wischmeier and Smith(1965) used the following formula for determination of the slope gradient factor S; S= Where s = slope of the field plot(%) ----------(3.6)

Topographic factor(LS) Wischmeier and Smith(1965) recommended to use a combined value of LS and called it the topographic factor of slope length and slope gradient, and expressed it by the following formula. LS = (1.36 + 0.97s + 0.1385s2) ----------(3.7)

They also developed a nomograph to determine the topographic factor

Cropping Management Factor(C) A dense cover of vegetation is a most powerful weapon for reducing erosion. The main role of vegetation cover is interception of the rain drops that is their kinetic energy is dissipated by the plant rather than imparted to the soil. It also protects the soil surface from the direct impact of the falling rain drops. Vegetation cover enhances the degree of infiltration of rainfall into the soil, maintains the roughness of the soil surface, retard the surface runoff and binds the surface layer of the soil mechanically knitting and binding effect of root systems, diminishes the micro-climatic fluctuations in the uppermost layer of the soil and improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. The cropping management factor measures the combined effect of all the interrelated cover and management variables including the type of vegetation, plant spacing and the quality of growth, crop sequence, tillage practice, crop residues, land-use residues, fertility treatment and management on soil lose. Wischmeier and Smith have given a detailed account of quantitative evaluations of crop and management effects of factor(C) for permanent pasture, range lands and idle lands and for woodlands etc. which is given in the table.

Table C Values for permanent Pasture, Rangeland, and Idle Land

Vegetal Canopy Type and height of raised canopy Column No: No appreciable canopy Canopy of tall weeds or short brush (0.5m fall ht.) Canopy cover % 2 Type 3 G W G W G W G 0 4 0.45 0.45 0.36 0.36 0.26 0.26 0.17 Cover that contacts the surface Percent ground cover 20 40 60 80 95-100 5 6 7 8 9 0.2 0.1 0.042 0.013 0.003 0.24 0.15 0.09 0.043 0.011 0.17 0.09 0.038 0.012 0.003 0.2 0.13 0.082 0.041 0.011 0.13 0.07 0.035 0.012 0.003 0.16 0.11 0.075 0.039 0.011 0.1 0.06 0.031 0.011 0.003

25 50 75

25 50 Appreciable brush or bushes (2m fall ht.) 75 25 50 Trees but not appreciable low brush (4m fall ht.)
a)

75

W G W G W G W G W G W G W

0.17 0.4 0.4 0.34 0.34 0.28 0.28 0.42 0.42 0.39 0.39 0.36 0.36

0.12 0.18 0.22 0.16 0.19 0.14 0.17 0.19 0.23 0.18 0.21 0.17 0.2

0.09 0.09 0.14 0.085 0.13 0.08 0.12 0.1 0.14 0.09 0.14 0.09 0.23

0.067 0.04 0.085 0.038 0.081 0.036 0.077 0.041 0.087 0.04 0.085 0.039 0.083

0.038 0.013 0.042 0.012 0.041 0.012 0.04 0.013 0.042 0.013 0.042 0.012 0.041

0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011

All values shown assume : (1) Random distribution of mulch or vegetation, and (2) mulch of appreciate depth where it exists.

b) Average fall height of water drops from canopy to soil surface : m = metres. c) Portion of total-area surface that would be hidden from view by canopy in a vertical projection, (a birds-eye view).

d) G: Cover surface is grass, grass like plants, decaying compacted duff, or litter at least 5cm W: Cover at surface is mostly broad leaf herbaceous plants (as weeds) with little lateral-root network near the surface, and/or un-decayed residue.

Table 'C' Pasture for Woodland Standard Tree Canopy % of condition area

Forest litter % of area

Undergrowth Managed Unmanaged Managed Unmanaged Managed

Well stocked

100-75

100-90

Medium stocked

70-40

85-75

Poorly stocked
a)

35-20

70-40

Unmanaged

C' factor 0.001 0.0030.011 0.0020.004 0.01-0.04 0.0030.009 0.0220.09

When tree canopy is less than 20% the area will be considered as grassland or cropland for estimating soil loss.

b) Forest litter is assumed to be at least 2 inches deep over the present ground surface area covered. c) Undergrowth is defined as shrubs, weeds, grasses, vines, etc. on the surface area not protected by forest tiller. Usually found under canopy openings.

d) Managed-grassing and fires are controlled.

Unmanaged stands that are overgrazed or subjected to repeated burning. e) For unmanaged woodland with litter cover of less than 40%

Conservation practice factor(P) A bare fallow land surface causes maximum soil erosion, especially when it is cultivated up and down the slope, or in other words, cultivated across the contours of the land surface, when a sloping land is put under cultivation, it needs to be protected by practices that will attenuate the runoff velocity, so that much less amounts of soil are carried away by the runoff water. Some of the important practices are contour cultivation, strip cropping, terrace and bunding systems, and waterways for disposal of excess rainfall (runoff). The conservation practice factor P is the ratio of soil loss from a plot with a specific conservation practice to the corresponding loss from a plot with up and down cultivation under identical conditions. The numerical value of P is always 1.0.

Recommended conservation practice factor, P (Smith & Wischmeier, 1962)

Percent Slope 1.1-2.0 2.1-7.0 7.1-12.0 12.1-18.0 18.1-24.0 Conservation Practice factor values Contouring Strip Terracing and Contouring Cropping* contouring 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.12 0.8 0.4 0.16 0.9 0.45 0.16

*A system using four year rotation of corn, small grain and meadow.

This factor is similar to C except that P accounts for additional effects of practice that are superimposed on the cultural practice, such as contouring, terracing, diversion and contour strip cropping etc. Table gives the conservation practice factors P and combined CP factors developed by various soil conservation centers in India.