1.

Introduction:
Although the teaching of Sufism was passed down from the Beloved Prophet (Peace and Blessings upon Him and his Family) via the chain of spiritual masters it was during the 12th century that different orders began to form for the purpose of teaching the methods of a particular murshid. These Sufi Orders are not sects of Islam and neither are they sects of Sufism. All of them strictly follow the teachings of the Qur'an al Kareem and Hadith. The different orders have different methods and ways in teaching one the path of Sufism but the aim and goal of all the tariqas is the same. There are numerous Sufi orders but in India only four were popular. These orders/ salasil got fame after the name of their great masters like the Qadiriya silsila was named after Ghawth alA'zam Hazrat Sheikh Abdul Qadir al-Jilani, the Chistiya silsila was named after Hazrat Khawaja Abu Ishaq Chisti and made famous in India by Hazrat Khawaja Muinuddeen Chisti better known as Khawaja Gareeb-e-Nawaaz. The Naqshabandiya silsila was named after Hadrat Baha ud-Din Naqshabandy. The Suharwardy silsila was named after Hazrat Sheikh Umar Suhrawardy (Radi Allahu ta'ala anhum 'ajmain - May Allah Almighty be pleased with them All.). People usually get confused with Shihab ud-Din Yahya al-Suhrawardy (1153/5-1191) who was called "the Master of Oriental Theosophy", and founder of the Ishraqi or "Illumination" School. Yahya al-Suhrawardy was the most controversial of three celebrated mystics who lived at the same time and bore the same place-name - Suhraward, in northwest Iran, near Azerbaijan. His contemporary Hazrat Sheikh Shihab ud-Din `Umar b. `Abd Allah al-Suhrawardy (11441234) kept his head by being a model of orthodox moderation, and enjoyed the patronage of Caliphs and princes. He was the founder of the great Suhrawardy Sufi order, which still has many adherents today. Shihab al-Din's teacher was his uncle Abu Najib Suhrawardy (d.1168), rector of the Nizamiya academy and an authority on Hadith. The following assignment discusses the various stages of Sufism with a brief mention of the Suhrawardy order/silsila and the ultimate decline of Sufism in the Muslim World.

2. What is Sufism?
Sufism is the purification of ones soul.1 In fact the human mind /soul is always in search of the possession of a soul or spirit, independent of his body or corporeal existence. Such a soul is believed to survive the body and refers to a superior Spirit, creative and providential in its character. A more perfect knowledge an communion with this greater Spirit/or God, is the object of mans continuous aspirationsbesides this communion with God by Spiritual means only, and a direct intercourse between the Spirit of the Creator and the soul of man, many particular in the East believe it possible for him to approach near to God. This is affected by a devout adoration of Him, a frequent calling upon His Name, and the method of doing so has been established in a regular system.2 According to Junaid: Sufism is that God makes thee die to thyself and become resurrected in Him.3 It is the form which mysticism has taken in Islam.4 Different scholars agree that Sufism is the inner, esoteric, mystical or purely spiritual dimension of the religion of Islam.5 Mysticism is a practical spiritual discipline based on the insight of illuminated seekers after truth 6 A. J. Arberry states in Sufism that it is the name given to the mysticism of Islam and the mystical movement of an uncompromising Monotheism. He says that Sufism in essence derived from the Quran and Prophet Muhammads tradition and attempted to view the movement from within as an aspect of Islam. Victor Danner in his book The Islamic Tradition, says Sufism is the Spiritual Path of Islam and has been identified with it for well over a thousand yearsit has been called as Islamic Mysticism by Western scholars because of its resemblance to Christian and other forms of Mysticism, however, Sufism is a continuous historical and even institutionalized phenomenon in the Muslim world, there is hardly a region, that does not have Sufi orders still functioning there. While according to some the name Sufi is derived from the Arabic word suf which means wool as early Sufis wore simple coarse woolen garments similar to those of Christian monks. 7 R. A. Nicholson in his book, A Literary History of the Arabs, says that Sufism is the product of four principal foreign sources i.e. Christianity, neo-Platonism, Gnosticism, and Indian asceticism and religious philosophy 8

3. Origin of Sufism:
Sufism is said to have been originated near a place called Basra located in Iraq. The Muslims located in this region started off this religion as a path to reach the Divine.9

While according to others the origin of Sufism can be traced back to the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad, where a group of scholars who came to be called Ahl-e-Sufa, these were the people who used to sit at the platform in the Masjid-e-Nabvi in Madina. They were engaged in the discussions concerning in the reality of Being, and in search of the inner path and devoted themselves to spiritual purification and meditation. They were the Companions of the Prophet and were the people of principles practicing certain disciplines and meditations for the sake of purification, the realization of Divine Love and the understanding of reality. These individuals are considered as the founders of Sufism. It grew as a reaction against the rigid legalism of the orthodox religious leadership and as a counterweight to the growing worldliness of the expanding Muslim Empire. 10 Thus the origin and growth of mysticism in Islam depended on general causes and conditions e.g. (1) The political anarchy of the Umayyad period (2) The skeptical tendencies of the early Abbasid age (3) The dry formalism of Muslim theology were responsible to provoke countermovements towards quietism, spiritual authority, and emotional faith 11

4. Sources of Sufism:
One source of Sufism is to be found in the two-fold presentation of God in the Quran: on the one-hand He is described as the Al-Mighty Creator, Lord and Judge, and on the other hand He is seen as a binding in the believers heart and nearer to man than his own jugular vein. Sufism searches for a direct mystical knowledge of God and of His Love. Its goal is to progress (existential) experience that submerged limited man in the infinity of God. It used Jewish, Gnostic, Hellenistic, Zoroastrian and Hindu traditions that were brought converts from the many conquered populations Sufism believes that the Quran and Hadith have secret, esoteric meaning and symbolism (batin). In opposition to the literal method of interpretation (tafsir), Sufism used an allegorical method (tawil) which looked for the hidden meaning and symbols in the holy texts. Several techniques were developed to achieve the goal a blissful union with Ultimate Reality. They were known as dhikr (remembrance, mention of God) and sama (hearing). In the dhikr Sufis would recite the many names of God and sing hymns of praise. Special forms of breathing were supposed to aid concentration and help them attain to an ecstatic state in which they actually felt they had reached union with God. During the sama, poetry, music and dance were used as an aid to reach the ecstatic state.

Sufism is found amongst both Sunnis and Shia being a movement within orthodox Islam. However, it has many links with Ismailism and other extreme Shia sects as it developed in similar times and circumstances. These informal groups later crystallized into Sufi brotherhoods gathered around famous leaders. In some countries even today most Muslims belong to one order or another... Around the Muslim world there are hundreds of orders and they are an important religious and political force. Sufism developed in the eighth and ninth centuries in three major centers: (1) The cities of Basra, Kufa and Baghdad in Iraq, (2) The city of Balkh in the Khurasan district of Persia, and (3) Egypt.

5. The Rise of Sufi orders:

Sufi orders began to form in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries centering around a master founder and stressing companionship (suhbah/fellowship) as essential to Sufi spiritual path. This was time of terrible Mongol invasions when the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad was overthrown. Sufism was one of the forces that helped prevent the downfall of Islam. It helped convert the conquerors and had stabilizing influences on the community during those troubled times. This period was actually Sufisms golden age. In its first stages Sufism had been the prerogative of limited spiritual elite. From the twelfth century onwards it succeeded in involving the Muslim masses on a large scale in its network of orders. Sufi hospices (Zawiya in Arabic, Khanqah in Iranian, Ribat in Maghreb and Tekkiya in Turkish) were founded in all over the Muslim world from Morocco to Central Asia. The Sheikh of each order, a successor of the original founder presided over the hospice. In this centre he taught his disciples (murids) and performed with them the Sufi rituals of dhikr and sama. There was an elaborate initiation ritual for the disciple when he was admitted into full membership (usually after three years). In this ceremony he received from the Sheikh a special cloak (Khirqa) which symbolized poverty and devotion to God. Sufis had no rule of celibacy and most were married. The orders received endowments from sympathetic rulers and rich citizens and some eventually became fabulously wealthy. Each order developed its own specific set of techniques for its dhikr and sama, used by its members to attain to the ecstatic state. These rituals also had a social function, helping to unify people from widely varying backgrounds into a spiritual brotherhood.
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The orders were thus a unifying force in society, drawing members from all social classes to their dhikr and sama ceremonies as well as to their joyous celebrations of the anniversaries of the deaths of their founder (urs). They provided the masses with a spiritual and emotional dimension to religion which the hair splitting legalists could not supply. The orders also established trade and craft unions and provided hospices for travelers and merchants which were located along the great trade routes (such as the famous silk road), between the thirteenth and the eighteenth century most Muslims belonged to some Sufi Tariqah.

6. Some famous Sufi orders:

(1) The Qadiriya (2) The Naqshbandiya (3) The Mawlawiya (4) The Bektashiya (5) The Tuaniya (6) The Daraquiya` (7) The Khalwatiya (8) The Suhrawardiya (9) The Rifaiya (10) The Shadiliya (11) The Chishtiya The Sanusiya The Nimatuahiya The Ahmadiya 12

7. The Suhrawardy order and its Disciples:

Emergence of the Suhrawardiya order/silsila: Like Chishty order/silsila, the Suhrawardy order had its origin outside the limits of South Asia, in Iraq, but succeeded only in India to take share as a fraternity with its infrastructure, internal hierarchy of members and cloisters and a single centre in Multan. The Suhrawardy is a strictly Sunni order, guided by Shafi school while the Chishtys belonged to the Hanafi school of thought. For that matter, like the Chishtys, the Suhrawardys also trace their spiritual genealogy to Ali bin Abi Talib (through Junaid and al-Ghazzali, whose disciple was Najib ud-Din Suhrawardy.13 Suhrawardy silsila has its origins in the teaching of Ziya ud-Din Abu-Najib al-Suhrawardy (1097-1168). After studying Islamic law in Baghdad Abu-Najib went to live by the river Tigris where he set up a khanqah and gathered a group of disciples.

Sheikh Shihab ud-Din Suhrawardy: The order/silsila became particularly influential through the work of Abu-Najib's nephew, Shihab ud-Din Abu Hafs 'Umar (1145-1234).14 He obtained training under his uncle sheikh Zia ud-Din Abu-Najib Suhrawardy (490/1097-563/1168), who built a hospice on a ruined site on the Tigris in Baghdad.15) Shihab ud-Din acquired the support of the Caliph and attracted Sufis from all over the world to hear him teach.16 The founder of the fraternity adhered to moderate orthodoxy and used to bestow khirqa even upon those whom it is impossible to call dervishes, for example, al-Qastalani, founder of the school of traditionalists. His influence was not limited to the members of the fraternity founded by him alone but even the Chishty malfuzat, in particular Fawaid al-fuad, are replete with He was an ambassador of the Caliph, on whose behalf he had traveled to the Ayyubi Sultan Malik al-Afif I of Egypt, to Khwarizm Shah Muhammad of Bokhara and the Kaiqubad I, the Seljuk ruler of Konya. stories about his spiritual feats and virtues.17 It is said that Caliph an-Nasir had built for Shihab ud-Din Suhrawardy a luxurious residence with gardens and bath houses in Baghdad.18 Sufis from all over the world flocked to his khanqah to obtain initiation from him. It is said that he went each year to visit Makkah and al-Madinah. He had met and conversed with Sayyadina Ghawth al-A'zam 'Abd al-Qadir Gilani (Radi Allahu ta'ala anhu).19

In recognition of the numerous services rendered to the state the title of sheikh al-Shuyukh, the official head of all the Sufis of Baghdad was conferred on him. Apart from success in the field of diplomacy Abu Hafs Umar Shihab ud-Din Suhrawardy managed, again on the Caliphs instructions to put into 20 shape the movement of aristocratic futuwwa. It is also thought that this movement was specially instituted for the extensive dissemination of the teaching of the Suhrawardy order. The connection with futuwwa was reected even in the girdling (shadd) ceremony, forming a part of the initiation ritual of this fraternity. Abu Hafs Umar Shihab ud-Din became famous as a preceptor and teacher, whose personality exerted a profound influence on many outstanding contemporaries among his admirers was even the great poets like the Persian Sadi Shirazi, who celebrated Abu Hafs in his poem Bustan 21 and Kamal ud-Din Isma'il al-'Isfahani. Sa'di mentions about him: My wise sheikh the murshid, Shihab, gave me two advices: One, not to be ego-centric, The other, not to regard others with pessimism.22

It may be noted here that this Suhrawardy Sheikh is not the same as the controversial but famous philosopher known as Sheikh al-'Ishraq, who was killed around 581-590/1185-1194 in Aleppo, Syria. Sheikh Shihab al-din Umar Suhrawardy the gnostic died around the year 632/1234. 23 There is much confusion as to who founded the Suhrawardy order. According to some the first al-Suhrawardy was Abu Najib Abdal-Qahir al-Suhrawardy, the well-known author of the Adab

al-Muridain, the manners of the Disciples, who died in 563 A. H. leaving two sons, Abdul Rahim and Abdal Latif. Browns authorities stated that Abu Najib founded the Nurbakhshis and that Shihab ud-din Suhrawardy, who died at Baghdad in 1206, founded the Suhrawardis. But Atayi, does not agree to it, he says that this Shihab ud-din founded the Nurbakhshis, and places his death a year earlier, in 1205/602 A. H.24 It is usually held that the Nurbakhshis, Suhrawardys and Ishraqis were identical, and it is selfevident that they were closely akin; the Ishraqis apparently owed their foundation to another Shihab ud-Din surnamed Qatil-Ulllah, of Aleppo, the Maqtul, so known because he was executed at that city in A. D. 1191, at an age of 38. Belonging originally to the Shafi school, which was then regarded as of very doubtful orthodoxy, he studied jurisprudence at Maragha, but subsequently devoted himself to philosophy at Isphahan, Baghdad and Aleppo. He set forth the tenets of his sect, the Ishraqiun or Illuminati in his work, the Hikmat al-Ishraq The Philosophy of Enlightenment. He also wrote the Kalimat al-Tasawwaf Precepts of Mysticism. At Aleppo, he found a powerful patron in the viceroy Malik Zahir, son of Saladin, but the influence of the orthodox party secured his condemnation. His grave is still pointed out at a spot outside the al-Faraj Gate close to the Christian quarter. Where Shihab ud-Din Suhrawardy or Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardy, the founder according to the Indian tradition of the Suhrawardys died in 632 A. H. Another ascribes it to Sheikh Zia uddin, a son of Abu Najib, and yet a third to Abu Najib himself. Probably Abu Najibs unorthodox views and the condemnation of Shihab ud-Din (rendered it dangerous to use the term Ishraqi or to assign the foundation of the order to them, so it was content to be known by more colourless titles). In any case the real founder of the order was doubtless Abu Najib. One of his sons or immediate descendants carried his teachings into India, where the Nizam of Hyderabad claims descent from Shihab ud-din.25 He is the author of the celebrated 'Awarif al-ma'arif, an excellent text of 'irfan and Sufism. 'Awarif al-Ma'arif: The Suhrawardys have left a number of books and treaties, which became normative manuals on Sufism for the coming generations of mystics. Chief of these is the celebrated work Awarif alMaarif.26 which is the only other work able to match the Kashf al-Mahjub in popularity and utility in India.27 This Sufi manual became an important book for all Sufis striving to understand and practice the proper Sufi path (tasawwuf) as it was connected to a rich philosophical tradition in Islam called the 'school of illumination.' This Sufi treatise contains a wide range of Sufi theology; from Qur'anic hermeneutics, hadith tafsir, rational arguments on epistemology, different levels of spirituality, proper etiquette, correct methods to subsisting with God, to disparaging criticism of other Sufi orders. It is a systematic examination of al-Suhrawardy's Sufi exegesis of the Qur'an al-Kareem and the different methodologies he applied to his particular Sufi theosophy.28
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8. The arrival of the Sufis in Ind-o-Pakistan sub-Continent:

From the Middle East the order spread into the sub-continent in the thirteenth century 29 i.e. India, Bengal and Pakistan and into Afghanistan as well, in spite of splitting into a large number of subgroups, it became active in sub-continent Islamic spiritual life, an influence which extended even as far as the Mughal court. The order does not have a distinctive symbol system, but today its many followers are spread throughout the west as well as the Far East.30 The Suhrawardys came to South Asia somewhat later than the Chishtys. The rivalry between Chishtys and Suhrawardys should not be conceived as enmity or antagonism: many members of the competing fraternities were on very friendly terms with each other, for example, Qadi Hamid ud-Din Nagori with Qutb ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki or Nizam ud-Din Awliya with sheikh Rukn udDin. The instances of mutual hostility between leaders of the two fraternities are most probably an exception rather than the rule. In any case this hostility was expressed not in hostile conduct, but in frank discussions, of the type held on the question of poverty by Hamid ud-Din Suwali Nagori and Bahaud-Din Zakariya on the occasion of the mazhar in Delhi. Three of the ve khalifas of Abu-Hafs Suhrawardy: Nur ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznavi (died in 1235), Qadi Hamid ud-Din Nagori (died in 1244, and he should not be confused with the Chishty khalifa Hamid ud-Din Suwali Nagori), and Bahaud-Din Zakariya Multani (11821262) finally settled down in the subcontinent. All of them made an excellent career: Nur ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznavi held the post of sheikh ul-Islam of Delhi for twenty years and was called Mir-i Dihli (Lord of Delhi); Hamid ud-Din Nagori was the chief metropolitan qadi (although he won real fame thanks to his Sufi treatises and successful campaign against ulama in support of sama), and Bahaud-Din Zakariya also acted rst as the sheikh ul-Islam and subsequently, having founded the central cloister of the fraternity in Punjab, became the real spiritual sovereign of Multan, nicknamed Mir-i Multan.31 Although Shaikh Abu Hafs taught that a mystic should belong only to a single fraternity, eventually many Sus started taking initiation into both the orders, for example, Makhdum-i Jahaniyan Jahangasht or Ashraf Jahangir Simnani, because of which they were respectfully called jami as-salasil (Uniers of orders). Finally, towards the end of the thirteenth century, the territory of the subcontinent became divided into walaayats: the Chishtys retained the central regions around Delhi, Awadh, Rajasthan and the Deccan, and the Suhrawardys held their positions rmly in Punjab, Sind, Bengal and Gujarat. As to how the division into walaayats looked like in practice can be judged by one of the episodes of Fawaid al-fuad. A certain musician, Abdullah by name, having made up his mind to go from Ajodhan to Multan, requested Shaikh Farid to pray that his journey would end happily. The saints reply was that the limits of his spiritual jurisdiction extended only up to the banks of the Ravi, and further on began the spiritual domains of Bahauddin Zakariya, whose help he should have sought if he wanted to ensure safety for himself throughout the entire journey. Hagiographic literature passes over in silence the conicts, if any, between the sheikhs of the two fraternities because of any violations of the frontiers of their walaayats. From a theoretical point of view there were no particular differences between Chishtys and Suhrawardys: both of them made use of the same doctrinal texts and manuals, for example
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Awarif al-Maarif, Adaab al-Muridain, ar-Risala al-Qushairiyya, Kashf al-Mahjub etc. The same Suhrawardys acquainted South Asia with the concept of wahdat al-wujud. The Wahdat al-Wujud of Ibn al-Arabi was introduced to India through the Suhrawardy, Iraqi, however, by this time had not yet penetrated deeply into Chishty or Suhrawardy ideology. Until the mid-fourteenth century mystic ideas had been cast in the mould of the Awariful-Maarif and other earlier Sufi classics. The mystic spiritual experience of life with God rested entirely on love, which was opposed to both the philosophers reason and the jurists wrangling. Khwaja Muinud-Din advocated that within the realm of love there must be both trinity and unity, that is, Lover, Love and Beloved are all one, and sheikh Hamid ud-Din wrote Ishqiyya in this vein. These, however, were expressions of ecstasy rather than an advocacy of the Wahdat al-Wujud. Their source was the Tamhidat of Ainul-Quzat Hamadani.32

9. Eminent Suhrawardy Sufis in the sub-Continent:

Among the distinguished Sufi saints who reached the sub-continent one was sheikh Baha ud-Din Zakariyya, who was born at Kot Karor near Multan (now in Pakistan) in about 578/1182-83.33 To him and his successors goes the credit for the formation and growth of the Suhrawardy order/silsila or brotherhood in South Asia. The founder of the Indian branch of the fraternity Bahaud-Din Zakariya was a native Punjabi going back several generations his ancestors had come to Multan with Muhammad bin Qasims expedition. He was born in the mountain village of Kot Karor and, like many other awliya, lost his father early. However, in contrast to the great sheikhs of the Chishty order, whose childhood was spent in poverty, Bahauddin Zakariya belonged to a well-to-do family, which made it possible for him in his youth to travel a lot in Khurasan, perform Hajj in Makkah and to visit Jerusalem. He got his religious education beyond the borders of the subcontinent at rst in Bukhara and subsequently in Baghdad, where Abu Hafs Umar initiated him into the Suhrawardy order/silsila and admitted him amongst his murids. Bahaud-Din Zakariya was always the best pupil34 his teachers in Bukhara nicknamed him Farishta (angel) for his gentle nature and obedience. Probably these qualities stood him in good stead in Abu Hafs riba, where, according to Fawaid al-fuad, he stayed only for seventeen days, after which he got khilafat-nama from the sheikh. Other disciples, who had been waiting for this event for years, grumbled: We have spent so many years in the saints presence and yet we had no such favors conferred on us. Their murmurings reached the ears of Sheikh Shihab ad-din. He made this reply to them: You brought wet wood. How can wet wood catch re? But Zakariya brought dry wood. With one puff he went up in ames! From Baghdad Bahauddin Zakariya returned to Multan, which was assigned to him as walayat by his preceptor. Jalal ud-Din Tabrizi, who was nominated to work in Bengal, accompanied him. The ulama and Sufis of Multan did not show any particular enthusiasm on the occasion of the new competitors arrival and made it clear by sending him a jug, full to the brim with milk, as a complimentary gift. In the allegorical language of Islamic etiquette it signied that the city was overcrowded with mystics and scholars, and there was no room in it for Bahaud-Din. The sheikhs reciprocal gesture was no less expressive:

He sent the jug back after putting a rose in it. It implied that the young Sufi was laying claim to a position as exceptional as the place of a rose in milk. Besides, as is generally known, milk will not run over the edge of the vessel because of the rose oating on its surface.35 The fame of Baha ud-Din Suhrawardy was such that Multan became a center of spiritual life where the Persian poet Iraqi spent twenty-five years.36 It appears that merchants from Iraq and Khurasan were attracted to him in large numbers. The sheikh built an extensive khanqah on the pattern of his spiritual guides khanqah in Baghdad. He fearlessly opposed Qubachah, the ruler of Multan, and espoused the cause of Sultan Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (607/1211-633/1236) of Delhi, who seized Multan in 625/1228. The repeated Mongol invasions of Multan made the life of the townsfolk miserable, but the fame of sheikh Baha ud-Dins piety in Khurasan and Transoxiana facilitated successful negotiations with the Mongol invaders. Sheikh Baha ud-Din strongly discouraged Sufis from seeking guidance from a number of different pirs (spiritual guides), urging them to lay their heads on one rather than a number of thresholds. He placed great stress on performing obligatory prayers and assigned a secondary place to supererogatory prayers and zikr. In Safar 661/ December 1262 he died at Multan, and his tomb became a center of pilgrimage in the region. He was succeeded by his own son, sheikh Sadr ud-Din Arif (d. 684/ 1286). Sheikh Baha ud-Din Zakariyyas disciple and son-in-law, the poet and mystic sheikh Fakhr ud-Din Ibrahim, popularly known as Iraqi (d. 688/ 1289), spread his fame from Syria to Turkey. Iraqis Lamaat (Divine Flashes), based on lectures by sheikh Sadr ud-Din Qunawi (d. 673/ 1274) on his master, made a deep impact on the spiritual discipline of the Indian Suhrawardy. Sheikh Sadr ud-Din Arif was fortunate to have the poet Amir Husayn Husayni (b. 671/1272-73) as his disciple. Husayni works, such as Ad al-Musafirin (Provision of Travelers), Nuzhat alArwah (Pleasure of Spirits), and Kanz al-Rumuz (Treasury of Mysteries) are devoid of Iraqis spiritual sensitivity, but their deep ethical teachings are of far-reaching importance. Sheikh Sadr al-Dins son and successor, sheikh Rukn ud-Din Abul-Fath, revived the political and spiritual glory of his grandfather. From the reign of Sultan Ala ud-Din Khalji (695/1296715/1316) to his own death in 735/1334-35 in the reign of Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq (725/1325752/1351), sheikh Rukn ud-Din was deeply revered by all the reigning monarchs of the Delhi sultanate. Whenever he visited Delhi, he never forgot to call on the great Chishty sheikh Nizam ud-din Awliya, but he did not care for the latters strained relations with the Sultan. Petitioners filled sheikh Rukn ud-Dins palanquin with petitions on his way to the Sultans court. The latter read them carefully and granted the petitioners requests, thanks to sheikh Rukn udDins influence. The works of the sheikh do not survive, but some of his authentic conversations with Sufis tend to indicate that he regarded possession of wealth, scholarship, and mystical enlightenment as indispensable for the Sufis. The Chishtys, however, never agreed with the Suhrawardys on the question of the accumulation of wealth. Some of the Suhrawardy saints were, however, great ascetics. One of them was sheikh Uthman Sayyah (d. 738/ 1337-38) (the traveler) of Sunnam in eastern Punjab. He was a disciple of sheikh Rukn ud-Din. With his pirs, he departed on a pilgrimage to Makkah without carrying even so much as a water-pot. After his return from Makkah, his pir allowed him to live in Delhi, where he spiritedly defended the Chishty practice of sama (spiritual music).
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Among sheikh Shihab ud-Dins disciples, who strengthened the Suhrawardi spiritual movement in India, we may mention the name of Hamid ud-Din of Nagor in Rajasthan, his family had migrated from Bukhara to Delhi before its conquest by the Turks. He completed his education in Delhi and was appointed the Qadi of Nagaor. After three years of service, he was disgusted with it and left for Baghdad, where he became sheikh Shihab ud-Dins disciple. He visited Makkah and Madina, traveled to many parts of western Asia and then arrived in Delhi around 618/1221. He was a firm friend of the Chishty Khwajah Qutb ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki and enthusiastically participated in sama sessions in Delhi. His wit, in conjunction with his deep knowledge of Islamic Law, frustrated the ulamas efforts to defeat him on legal issues. His thirst for unqualified and non delimited love in his three surviving works, the Ishqiyyah (Pertaining to Love), the qawali al-shumus (Risings of the Suns) and the Risalah min kalam (Treatise of Kalam), is very profound. In the Ishqiyyah he says that although Lover and Beloved appear to be different, they are in fact identical. Whoever sees them as two is confused and whoever does not see them at all is insane. One who is lost in Being is a part of Gods Attributes. This stage makes Sufis present everywhere. The extinction of "I" leads to the predominance of "He." Both Lover and Beloved mirror each other. Love is the source of everything that exists. Fire is the burning quality of love, air is its aspect of restlessness, water is its movement, and earth is its immutable aspect. In the Tawali al-Shumus, the Qadi spells out the mystery of the Names of Allah. He says that the greatest Name of God is Huwa (He) and it indicates His eternal nature, hallowed and free from decline and fall. The Qadi died in 643/1245-46.37 From Multan and Uch the Suhrawardy order, more closely in touch with the aristocracy than the Chishtiya order, spread soon to Bengal where its cultural influence has never ceased.38 The disciple of sheikh Shihab ud-Din Suhrawardy who made Islam popular in Bengal was sheikh Jalal ud-Din Tabrizi. He excelled all the sheikhs disciples in serving his pir. Migrating to Bengal, he built a khanqah at Deva Mahal near Pandua in northern Bengal and converted a large number people to Islam.39 A unique figure in thirteenth century Sufism was Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, whose tomb in Sehwan is still a much frequented shrine.40 The early Suhrawardys and the Chishtys had divided different regions of the Indian subcontinent into spheres of their respective spiritual influence and refrained from interfering with those of others. Despite their humility and self-abasement, the Chishtys encouraged their disciples to exhibit the utmost veneration to their pirs and even permitted the performance of sajdah (prostration) before them, but sheikh Baha ud-Din Zakariyya expected his disciples to greet him with the customary as-salamu alaykum (peace be upon you). He also urged his disciples to finish their obligatory religious duties first and to greet him afterward. The Suhrawardy view of the function of the state, envisaged by sheikh Shihab ud-Dins disciple, sheikh Nur ud-Din Mubarak Ghaznawi, who settled in Delhi and died there in 632/1234-35, encompassed the prosperity of the Sunni upper classes alone; Shias and Hindus were permitted to survive, provided they did so in a deprived economic state. The activities of the Suhrawardys, especially those of sheikh Jalal ud-Din Tabrizis in Bengal and of Makhdum Jahaniyan, were unhesitating in their proselytizing zeal. By contrast, the Chishtys believed that only the company of pious and ascetic Muslims prompted others to accept Islam. To them, their main mission was to work for the integration of

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those who embraced Islam in an attempt to make them genuinely pious Muslims and save them from emulating the example of the haughty governing classes. Makhdum Jahaniyan Sayyid Jalal al-Din Bukhari was a grandson of sheikh Baha ud-Din Zakariyyas disciple, Sayyid Jalal ud-Din Surkh. Sultan Muhoammad ibn Tughluq, who initiated the policy of controlling the appointment of the heads of Sufi khanqahs, had made him the head of the khanqah of Sehwan. Before long, however, Makhdum Jahaniyan embarked on a pilgrimage and later traveled to many parts of the Islamic world, earning the title Jahangasht (world traveler) for himself. During the reign of Sultan Firuz Tughluq (752/1351-790/1388), he settled down in Uch and occasionally visited Delhi. Makhdum Jahaniyan strongly condemned/criticized the Indian Muslim religious customs and ceremonies which had been borrowed from Hindus and were an Indian accretion. He urged that dervishes, Sufis, and ulama visit rulers and government officials in order to obtain assistance for the downtrodden sections of Muslims. He introduced among his disciples the spirit of the akhi and futuwwah (spiritual chivalry) organizations of Anatolia, Khurasan, and Transoxiana. After his death in 785/1384, he was succeeded by his brother, Sadr ud-Din, who achieved fame under his nicknames Raju and Qattal (slayer) for his militant evangelism/conversion. A grandson of Makhdum Jahaniyan moved to Gujarat and before long came to be known as Qutb-i Alam (The Pole of the Universe). He settled in Ahmadabad, the newly founded capital of an independent provincial ruling dynasty of Gujarat. He died in 857/1453 and was succeeded by his son, who came to be known by the illustrious title Shah-i Alam (The Emperor of the World), and was also called Shah Manjhan. Qutb-i Alam, Shah-i Alam (d. 880/ 1475) and their disciples made Gujarat a leading Suhrawardy Sufi center of India. The influence of sheikh Sama ud-Din and the fame of his disciple sheikh Jamali transformed Delhi into an important Suhrawardy center. Jamali (d. 942/ 1536) was passionately fond of traveling and, starting with a pilgrimage to Makkah, he traveled through western Asia and the Maghreb. At Herat he called on the great Persian poet Jami and held lively discussions, particularly on Iraqis Lamaat. Jamali was the author of several Persian mathnawis in which he lyrically delineated the theme of spiritual transmutation through love. The biographical notes on the Chishtys and Suhrawardys which he wrote in his Siyar al-Arifin (Biography of the Gnostics) comprise a wealth of information which he collected during his travels to Persia and Iraq. In the eighth/ fourteenth century a Suhrawardy center was established in Kashmir, strengthening orthodox Sunnism there.41 Other well-known Sufis of the order were sheikh Ahmad Sud Dinori, sheikh Muhammad Amuya, sheikh-ul-Shuyukh Raweem, sheikh Abu Abdullah bin Khafif, sheikh Abul Abbas Nehawandi, sheikh Najib ud-Din Ali Barghash, sheikh Abdur Rahman bin Ali Barghash, Ameer Hussain Sadaat, sheikh Burhan ud-Din Qutb-e-Alam, Siraj ud-Din Muhammad Shah Alam etc.42

10. The Suhrawardy Pratices:

The practice of one or another tariqa to a great extent depended on the personality of its founder. The Suhrawardys under their sheikh Shihab ud-Din, took recourse to active life, renounced reclusion and excessive fasting, maintained close contacts with the authorities, and undertook diplomatic missions and political settlement of conflicts.43 Prostration before the Sheikh prohibited: The Suhrawardys were against the performance of sajda before a sheikh, considering the posture of prostration appropriate only during prayers.
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Here they cited the Surah Prostration (as-Sajda), where it has been told: Only those believe in Our signs who, when they are reminded through them, fall down prostrate and glorify by praising their Fosterer and they do not consider themselves great (32: 15). Bahaud-Din Zakariya expected an ordinary greeting as-salam alaikum from his disciples and was in this matter considerably closer to the requirements of normative Islam. Respect for a Sheikh: The Suhrawardys censured excessive courtesy to ones pir to the detriment of prayers. Once Bahaud-Din Zakariya was extremely displeased by the misplaced zeal of his murids, who had on seeing him interrupted their wudu, and complained to him about the only disciple who had completed his ablution: Among all of you only this is a true dervish, he who rst completed his ablutions and then came to pay his respects to me. Generally speaking, Bahaud-Din Zakariya attached secondary importance to dhikr and voluntary prayers (particularly to the nocturnal prayer tahajjud, which is so important for Chishtys), considering that canonical alaat was the basis of piety. According to him, the person who misses even one mandatory raka imperils his life. Initiation ceremony: Initiation into Su orders/silsilas represented a complicated ceremony ahd (agreement), among the rituals of which the central one was baia, i.e. taking oath of loyalty to the sheikh. During the ceremony the neophyte was given admonitions, among which one could also hear the famous precept to be obedient to the sheikh, like a corpse44 in the hands of a mortician. Among the Suhrawardys the investing in khirqa was followed by the ceremony of winding a turban around his head or girdling a sash around his waist, ensuring a denite number of knots or folds in the process. The cap of the Suhrawardy had five or twelve-corners. However, BahaudDin Zakariya himself throughout his life wore a turban (dastaar), although disapproved of it for others. Residence: Suhrawardys resided in well-built khanqahs, which were erected for them by the rulers. Admittance into them was meticulously/carefully restricted both in respect of the time of visit and the social status of the visitors. Sheikh Bahaud-Din Zakariya, in particular, could not stand even the sight of qalandars and juwailiqs (this is how wandering dervishes are called in Fawaid al-fuad) and never let them set foot on his threshold. Once the juwaliqs, before whom Bahaud-Din Zakariya had the doors closed, indulged almost in a riot, insisting on alms, and showered stones on the khanqah. After some time the saint came out to meet the brawlers and declared that he held his office not for the sake of profit, but by the will of Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardy, who had sent him to Multan. Having heard the name of the founder of the order, juwaliqs prostrated themselves before the sheikh and went back from where they had come. Feeding the poor/ langars: In Suhrawardy khanqahs, as in a modern European family, only those who had been invited beforehand to partake of a meal were fed. In the majority of cases such invited persons turned out to be the chosen ones (khawaa): well-known mystics musaarin, friendly ulama, merchant-donators, famous men of letters in short, the selected members of the public. Bahauddin Zakariya was extraordinarily fastidious about food, did not partake of meals anywhere outside the limits of his cloister, even in palaces, and being no stranger to Epicureanism, liked to share a meal in the company of his peers.45
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Possessin/accumulation of wealth permissible: Suhrawardys were guided by the dictums of their founder, who considered that neither faqr nor zuhd were an indispensable condition of the life of a dervish, although they brought him closer to fana. What is more, Abu Hafs Umar taught that rigid hostility to wealth is an indication of spiritual debility, fear of dependence on money and material wealth, whereas a true Sufi is not afraid of anything and does not differentiate between wealth and poverty. Bahauddin Zakariya cited the same arguments in his debate with Hamid ud-Din Suwali Nagori.46 Having savings was not prohibited to Suhrawardys, and they gave to the poor a fixed amount of alms, consisting of 20 per cent of each futuh. The Suhrawardys in general did not render services like giving tawidhs and medical aid, people used to visit their khanqahs mostly for esoteric rather than practical purposes. In particular, the Suhrawardys used to interpret dreams and insisted upon a daily detailed account of their dreams from the murids, which, according to them, were an indication of a mystics progress along the Path.47 Nevertheless, indifference to wealth made Bahaud-Din Zakariya one of the most well-to-do people of his time: he bequeathed to the eldest of his sons, Sadr ud-Din, property alone worth 700 tankas, a huge amount for those times.48 Suhrawardys who had repudiated beggary lived on awqaf, i.e. generous grants of land on the part of the government and rich donations of commercial and vocational corporations. The social and ethical value of productive labour and encouragement of personal enrichment were important aspects of their preaching, which attracted the bazaar elite to the ranks of the fraternity.49 Generosity: However, Bahauddin Zakariyas fortune (and, for that matter, even his generosity) is most strikingly characterized by the episode in Fawaid al-fuad in which the governor of Multan appealed to him for assistance in the form of food supply, since no stocks of grain were left in the city. The sheikh gave instructions to issue grains from his granaries and in the middle of the grain a carafe/ flask full of silver coins was found. The honest-minded governor declared: The sheikh has provided us with grain, not this silver. It must be returned to him. Tell them, said the saint to whom the find was brought, that Zakariya knew about this. I intentionally gave you this silver along with the grain. If you give something to somebody, you should give it with a flourish.50 It can be said that possession of property was programmatic for the Suhrawardys. Sheikh Rukn ud-Din (Bahaud-Din Zakariyas grandson), who had been the head of the order for a long time, considered that spiritual preceptors should possess three treasures: Firstly, they should have wealth (maal), in order to satisfy the believers requirements. If a dervish lacks money, how can he gratify a qalandar, when he asks for sherbet? These people will insult him, for which they will be punished on the day of the Last Judgment. Secondly, preceptors should possess knowledge (ilm) in order to carry on learned discourses with the ulama. Thirdly, they should be endowed with mystic state (haal) in order to produce an impression on dervishes.51

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Excessive Fasting Prohibited: The Suhrawardys considered that the fast in the month of Ramadaan, enjoined by Shariat, was quite enough, and they categorically rejected various ascetic experiments, seeing in them the influence of kars (pagans). Jalal ud-Din Tabrizi advised Sufis to eat three times a day in order to accumulate strength for prayers and for avoidance of sin. External tidiness, khirqa made of fine wool and well-groomed hands, decorated with ngerrings, were the hallmark of Bahauddin Zakariya, his disciples and descendants. Practice of Sama Forbidden: The practice of sama, was forbidden by the Suhrawardys on the basis of their founders declaration that all auditions (sama, hadra) ran counter to religious law. In the central khanqah of the order in Multan this exclusion/prohibition/ban was consistently put into practice. However, the Suhrawardys could not eradicate sama in their ranks. It has already been mentioned that one of the most ardent apologists of musical auditions was Qadi Hamid udDin Nagori, who had to take recourse to all sorts of tricks in order to conduct sama in private houses. The same Qadi Hamid ud-Din Nagori advised Iltutmish to arrange Sama for the dervishes during a long drought in Delhi. The Sultan agreed, and after the sama the rains fell heavily.52 Celibacy/ Single life Negated: The Suhrawardy mystics were excellent family men, it is said that Bahaud-Din Zakariya spent enormous resources on the education of his sons, doted upon his elder grandson Rukn ud-Din, and thought highly of his daughter-in-law Bibi Pakdaman. Nur udDin Mubarak Ghaznavi hired teachers not only for his sons, but also for his daughters, which is something unprecedented in Indian medieval society. Hereditary transmission of Baraka/ the Khiaifah: Differences in the rules of transmission of baraka are also bound up with different attitudes towards family life. Shihab ud-Din Abu Hafs was succeeded by his own son Imad ud-Din Muhammad, who placed himself at the head of his riba (cloister) in Baghdad. Thus, from the very beginning, the post of sajjadanishin amongst Suhrawardys became hereditary, and baraka was transmitted from father to son. Bahaud-Din Zakariya, having seven sons and wanting to ensure a secure future for them, conferred on the post of head of the fraternity to the eldest, and appointed others as khalifas in various cities of Punjab and Sind. The Multani silsila of Suhrawardys and its related chain of succession SurkhBukhari of Uch (with Miran Shahi, Makhdumi and Jalali orders as its branches) were always in the hands of two families the family of Bahaud-Din Zakariya himself and that of his disciple, Jalaluddin Surkhposh Bukhari.53 Conversion by force practiced by the Suhrawardis: The way to Suhrawardy khanqah in Multan was barred to non-Muslims and philanthropy of the order did not extend to them. At the same time there is convincing hagiographic evidence about the missionary activity of Jalal ud-Din Tabrizi, that he converted Bengalis into Islam by force; in particular, with the assistance of the soldiers of Iltutmish he pulled down a Hindu temple in Devatalla (later named Tabrizabad in honour of the saint) and erected a khanqah at its place.54 Observance Worldly Duties: The Suhrawardys regarded guidance of the pillars of state as a part of their mission. The sheikhs of this order regularly visited the palaces of earthly sovereigns, gave them advice and fulfilled missions on their behalf, which, as we have seen, was the custom since the times of Abu Hafs Umar. J. S. Trimingham states: Contrary to the Chishty sheikhs ...
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Baha ud-Din pursued a worldly policy, associating freely with princes, accepting honours and wealth, and building up a large fortune. He and his associates also followed a rigid orthodox line, pandering to the ulama and rejecting sama. Bahaud-Din Zakariya was on friendly terms with Iltutmish (his grandson continued this tradition, having become an adviser to Khalji and Tughluq Sultans) and intrigued successfully in his favour against the ruler of Punjab Nasir ud-Din Qubacha. Sometimes an intervention of Suhrawardys in politics turned out to be a boon for the people: when during yet another invasion of Punjab by Mongols in 1247 the fortress of Multan was captured, Bahaud-Din Zakariya successfully carried out peace negotiations with the Mongol military leader Suli Nuyin, as a result of which the conquerors were content with laying tribute and left Multan. The Suhrawardys appear to have espoused conservatism and selectivity, since they had nothing to do with followers of other religions and did not tolerate syncretism, but they initiated Muslims into their order without any particular restrictions, irrespective of whether a neophyte had a calling for mysticism and possessed the capability to make progress on the Path. In the nal analysis such a realistic approach was beneficial both to the order/silsila, the number of whose members increased swiftly, and to the society, where an atmosphere of new piety gained prevalence.55 In any case the leading position of Chishtys and Suhrawardys in South Asia was determined not so much by attractiveness of doctrine or practice, as by the fact that from the very beginning these orders/silsilas were headed by brilliant, charismatic leaders. Other major maternal orders having their branches in the subcontinent (Kubrawy, Qadiry, Shattary) were not so lucky with their leaders, and their influence was considerably more modest. Such an appointment of services in the camp of South Asian Susm survived till the second half of the sixteenth century, when the so-called Naqshbandy reaction came to the fore-front.56

11. The Decline of Sufism:

The Sufi orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence, but their spirituality gradually declined as they concentrated on saint-worship, miracle working, magic and superstition. The external religious practices were neglected, morals declined and learning was despised. In many areas Sufi orders ruled the ignorant masses through a well organized and power hungry hierarchy. Their local saints were revered by the populace and worshipped after their death as mediators and intercessors. Pilgrim's flocked to the saints tombs, willing to pay for a share in the sheikh's baraka. The orders became rich and powerful, and both politicians and theologians feared to oppose them and preferred to share in the profits. In Arabia the Wahabi puritan revival was extremely anti-Sufi, seeing their practices and doctrines as later pagan additions to pure Islam. Colonialism, nationalism and secularization had a negative impact on Sufism in the 19th and 20th centuries. The modern revival of Islamic learning was accompanied by a violent reaction against the superstitions of Sufism. It was accused as being the cause of the Islamic world's backwardness compared to the West. The two great Muslim reformers of the 19th century, Jamal

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al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad 'Abduh, both campaigned successfully against Sufi orders helping to diminish their influence. In Turkey, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk abolished the Sufi orders in 1925 and confiscated their lands and property. He saw them as corrupt and backward forces that hindered the modernization of Turkish society. In other countries too post-colonial independent central governments were often suspicious of the orders. They were suspected of being cells of political unrest and revolution that held the loyalty of the masses by their superstitions, religious emotionalism and outmoded power structures.57 Despite religious and political attempts to eliminate them, the Sufi orders continued to exist, often underground. With the resurgence of fundamental Islam in the second half of the 20th century came also a Sufi revival. Sufism still flourishes in North Africa, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Central Asia, Pakistan, India and Indonesia. In Soviet Central Asia their underground networks helped Islam survive until the reforms of the late eighties. The disintegration of the Soviet Union has allowed them to return to full public activity in the new republics. Sufism today is still a formidable force in the Islamic world. It still touches and transforms the lives of Muslim people, giving them meaning and emotional support in a world that is increasingly unstable and full of economic woes, suffering and confusion.

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12. Conclusion:
Sufism in its earlier stages was recited and meditated from the Quran. Dedicating their whole being to the Absolute, the Sufis in the Indian Sub-Continent achieved their spiritual goal through intuition, esoteric knowledge, and experience of the mystical world. Theirs was naturally the anti-thesis of the solely intellectual experience promoted by some of the philosophers. Some Suhrawardy leaders and other dervishes played an important role in the power struggle of the ruling classes and aristocracy and pressured the government into taking a very narrow view of Islam. However, the large number of eminent Sufis whose vision of Islamic spiritual life was broadly based gave moral courage to the people by awakening in them spiritual values and reliance on God during calamities such as drought, floods, and panic due to protracted wars and foreign invasions. From the above it may be concluded that the Suhrawardy silsila which was introduced into the sub-continent in the thirteenth century soon spread into the north-east and north-west of India and the main reason of its rapid success was that besides a few practices it was closer to the Islamic Shariah. However, the extreme respect and reverence paid to these Spiritual guides and pirs or their tombs by the followers of each silsila and further the incompetent successors and their corrupt practices have contributed a lot to the downfall of each of these Sufi orders.

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13. References:
Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs with a new preface by Walid Khalidi (New York: Palgrave Macmillan Ltd., 2002), 432. John P. Brown, The Darvishes or Oriental Spiritualism edited with introduction and notes by H. A. Rose (London: Frankcass and Company Ltd, 1998) 1-3. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Living Sufism (London: George Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd., 1972), 57.
4 5 3 2 1

P. K. Hitti, 432.

Sufism, Religions and Religious Thoughts of India (Online). Date accessed December 19, 2011 at: http://www.culturopedia.com/religions/sufism.html R. Upadhyay, Sufism in India: its origin, history and politics, SAAG (Online). Date accessed December 20, 2011 at http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers10%5Cpaper924.html
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http://www.culturopedia.com/religions/sufism.html

Reynold A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 390. The way of Life: Sufism, Sufi saints in India-1(Online). Date accessed January 2, 2012, at: http://shahul-thewayoflifesufism.blogspot.com/
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http://www.culturopedia.com/religions/sufism.html R. A. Nicholson, 385. Sufism (Online). Date accessed on December 23, 2012 at:

http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/SUFIMYSTIC.HTML

(Anna Suvorova, Muslim Saints of South Asia: the eleventh to fifteenth centuries, tran. By M. Osama Faruqi (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), 133.
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Silsila-e-Suhrawardiya, Shaikh ul-Islam: JanasheenMuhaddith al-Azam al-Hind

(Online). Date accessed January 1st, 2012 at: http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm

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A. Suvorova, 133.

http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm

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17 18 19 20 21 22

A. Suvorova, 134. A. Suvorova, 133. http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm A. Suvorova, 133. A. Suvorova, 134. http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm Ibid. John P. Brown, 158. Ibid., 159. A. Suvorova, 133.

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24 25 26 27

Syed Abdul Quddus, The Cultural Patterns of Pakistan (Lahore: Ferozsons (Pvt) Ltd, 1989), 144.
28

http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm

Sufism, Sufism in India (Online). Date accessed December 22, 2011 at: dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm
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29

http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm A. Suvorova, 134. Ibid., 135. dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm A. Suvorova, 143. Ibid., 144. S. A. Quddus, 144. dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm S. A. Quddus, 144. dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm
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31 32

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34

35

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37

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39

40

S. A. Quddus, 144. dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm

41

Dara Shikoh, Safina tul-Awliya tran. Muhammad Ali Lutfi (Karachi: Nafees Academy, 1959), 148-155.
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

42

A. Suvorova, 133. Ibid., 136. Ibid., 137. Ibid., 140. Ibid., 138. Ibid., 140. Ibid., 141. Ibid., 140. Ibid., 141. Ibid., 138. Ibid., 139. Ibid., 140. Ibid., 142. Ibid., 143 http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/SUFIMYSTIC.HTML

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Inter-net Bibliography:
The way of Life: Sufism, Sufi saints in India-1(Online). Date accessed January 2, 2012, at: http://shahul-thewayoflifesufism.blogspot.com/

Sufism (Online). Date accessed on December 23, 2012 at:

http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/SUFIMYSTIC.HTML

Silsila-e-Suhrawardiya, Shaikh ul-Islam: JanasheenMuhaddith al-Azam al-Hind (Online). Date accessed January 1st, 2012 at: http://www.islam786.com/silsilaesuhrawardiya.htm Sufism, Sufism in India (Online). Date accessed December 22, 2011 at: dargahsharif.com/SUFISM_SUFISM%20IN%20INDIA.htm Sufism, Religions and Religious Thoughts of India (Online). Date accessed December 19, 2011 at: http://www.culturopedia.com/religions/sufism.html R. Upadhyay, Sufism in India: its origin, history and politics, SAAG (Online). Date accessed December 20, 2011 at http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers10%5Cpaper924.html

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