PROTOZOA Protozoa may be detined as 'microscopic, acellular animalcules existing singly or in .

colonies without tissues and organs, having one or more nuclei. GENERAL CHARACTERS : 1. The protozoans are small, microscopic animalcules. 2. They are simplest and primitive of all animals with very simple body organisation, i. e., Protoplasmic grade of organisation. 3. They are acellular animals, without tissues and organs . 4. Body naked or covered by pellicle but in some forms body is covered with shell 5. Protozoans are solitary or colonial, in colonial forms the individuals are alike and independent. 6. Body protoplasm is differentiated into an outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm 7. Protozoans may have one or more nuclei; nuclei may be monomorphic or dimorphic 8. Locomotory organelles are pseudopodia, flagella, cillia or none. 9. Nutrition may be may be holozoic(animal-like), holophytic(plant-like), saprozoic or parasitic 10. Digestion intracellular and takes place inside the food vacuoles. 11. Respiration occurs by diffusion through general body surface. 12. Excretion also occurs through general body surface but in some forms through a temporary opening in the ectoplasm or through a permanent pore, the cytopyge 13. Contractile vacuole perform osmoregulation in fresh water form and also help in removing excretory products. 14. Reproduction asexual or sexual; asexual reproduction occurs by binary fission, multiple fission, budding or sporulation and or sexual reproduction is performed by gamate formation or conjugation 15. Life cycle often exhibit alternation of generation.

PORIFERA The Porifera may be defined as "asymmetrical or radially symmetrical multicellular organisms" with cellular grade of organisation without well-defined tissues and organs; exclusively aquatic, mostly marine, sedentary, solitary or colonial animals with body perforated by pores, canals and chambers through which water flows; with one or more internal cavities lined with choanocytes and with characteristic skeleton made of calcareous spicules, siliceous spicules or horny fibres of spongin". GENERAL CHARACTERS: 1. Porifera are all aquatic, mostly marine except one family Spongillidae which lives in freshwater. 2. They are sessile and sedentary and grow like plants. 3. Body shape is cylinder like, asymetrical or radially symmetrical. 4. The body surface is perforated by numerous pores called the ostia through which the water enters the body and through one or more large openings called the oscula, the water passes out. 5. Multicellular body consisting of outer ectoderm and inner endoderm with an intermediate layer of mesenchyme, therefore they are diploblastic animals. 6. The interior space of the body is either hollow or permeated by numerous canals lined with choanocytes. The interior space of sponge body is called spongocoel 7. Characteristic skeleton consisting of either fine flexible horny fibres of spongin, calcareous spicules or siliceous spicules 8. Mouth absent, digestion intracellular,excretory and respiratory organs absent. 9. The nervous and sensory cells are probably not differentiated. 10. The sponges are monoecious; reproduction both by asexual and sexual methods. 11. Asexual reproduction occurs by buds and gemmules

12. The sponges possess high power of regeneration. 13. Sexual reproduction occurs by ova and sperms; fertilization is internal but cross-fertilization occurs as a rule. 14. Cleavage holoblastic,.development indirect through a free-swimming ciliated larva called amphiblastula or Parenchymula 15. The organisation of sponges has been grouped into three main types ,Viz., Ascon type, Sycon type and leuconoid type due to simplicity in some forms and complexity in others. ADVANCED CHARACTERS OF PORIFERA OVER PROTOZOA Porifera possesses some more advanced characters over the Protozoans. 1. Porifera has the multicellular organization . 2. Division of the labour occurs among the cells of the body 3. Because of multicellular organization distinct male and female gametes are formed by this group of animals . 4. Segmantation of the zygote occurs as in other multicellular organisms. 5. Distinct multicellular embryo is formed from the zygote.

COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA) The Coelenterates metazoa or multicellular animals with cellular grade of organization. They are tentacle bearing, aquatic, radially symmetrical diploblastic animals. They may be solitary or colonial, free swimming or fixed to any substratum. The name of the phyllum implies that they are hollow animals and the body cavity is the enteron or gut cavity . In 1847, Leuckhart named these colourful animals as Coelenterata, but he also included sponges and Ctenophores along with them. It was Hatschek (1888) who separated Coelenterata into three different phyla i.e. Spollgiaria, Cnidaria and Ctenophora. But some zoologists consider the phyla Cnidaria and Ctenophora as the subphyla of the phylum Coelenterata while others still agree with Hatschek's view and use the word Coelenterata only for Cnidaria. GENERAL CHARACTERS I. Most of them are marine. Some are fresh water inhabitants eg Hydra. 2. Primitive metazoans having low grade of tissue formation called tissue grade of organization 3. They may be solitary or colonial and sessile or free swimming. 4. Body is radially symmetrical with diploblastic, with an outer layer of ectoderm and an inner layer of gastro-dermis or endoderm. The two layers are separated by a non-cellular jelly like cementing layer of mesogloea. 5. Head is absent. 6. Segmentation is absent. 7. The body wall contains undifferentiated interstitial cells and stinging cells, the nematocysts The stinging cells are used for adhesion, offence, defence and in capturing the food particles. 8. Mouth is situated in a raised portion and short tender tentacles encircle the mouth aperture. The tentacles are used for defence and food capturing.

9. Body wall encloses a central cavity known as gastrovaseular cavity or Coelenteron, as food is digested in this cavity and distributed through it. The enteron may be sac like or branched. The enteron has single opening to the exterior, the mouth, which serves both for intake of food and ejection of waste products as anus is absent. They are carnivorous digestion is extracellular. 10. Coelenterates are acoelomate as there is no definite body cavity. 11. The vascular, excretory and respiratory organs are absent. 12. Skeleton may or may not be present. 13. Locomotion is brought about by smooth muscle fibres of the epithelium. 14. Nervous system is in the form of a network of unpolarised nerve cells in the body wall. 15.Eye spots may be present. 16. Most of the Coelenterates exhibit more than one body form i,e exhibit polymorphism having Polypoid and Medusoid form. 17. Both asexual and sexual reproduction take place. Asexual reproduction occurs through budding and sexual reproduction occurs by thc formation of ova and sperms 18. Cleavage is holoblastic. 19. The larva is called sterogastrula or planula . 20. Alternation of generation is usually present where the asexual polypoid forms alternate with sexual medusoid form. CLASSIFICATION OF COELENTERATA Phylum Coelenterata is divided into three classes Viz. (1) Hydrozoa. (2) Scyphozoa, and (3) Anthozoa or Actinozoa. (1) Hydrozoa. 1. They may be fresh water or marine. 2. They may be solitary or colonial, sessile or free swimming forms. 3. The non-cellular jelly like mesogloea is in between ectoderm and endoderm. 4. They are polymorphic forms. Both polypoid and medusoid stages are found 5. Gastrovascular cavity is without stomodaeum and septa. 6. The nematocysts are absent. 7. Sex cells arc ectodermal in origin and discharged externally, 8. Cleavage is holoblastic. The embryo is ciliated planula. EXAMPLES : Hydra, Obelia, Millepora, Physalia (2) Scyphozoa 1. They are all marine and commonly known as Jelly fish. 2. Cellular mesogloea is present. 3. Medusae are large and umbrella shaped. 4. Gonads are endodermal in origin EXAMPLES: Lucernaria, Aurelia, Rhizostoma (3) Anthozoa or Actinozoa. 1. They are commonly known as sea-anemones, sea pens, sea ferns and stony corals. 2.They are solitary or colonial but exclusively marine. 3. Body is cylindrical with radial or radio-bilateral symmetry. Attached to the suhstratum at one end and free at the other. 4. Only polypoid stage is found in the life history. Medusa stage is absent. 5. Nematocysts are present. 6. Gonads are endodermal and situated on the sides of the mesenteries.

EXAMPLES: Gorgonia, Corallium,Fungia etc PRIMITIVE CHARACTERS OF COELENTERATES 1. The coelenterates are diploblastic animals. 2. Definite organs and organ systems are absent. 3. More presence of epitheliomuscular cells. 4. No trace of segmentation in the body. ADVANCED CHARACTERS OVER THE PORIFERA 1. All the animals of coelenterates are having definite form and symmetry of the body. 2. The body wall consists of two distinct layers of cells forming true epithelia. 3. Coelenterates are having muscular tissue. 4. Nervous system and sense organs are present though in primitive form. 5. All coelenterates possess definite mouth and digestive cavity. 6. They possess true germ layers from which gonads develop. UNIQUE CHARACTERS OF COELENTERATES 1. They possess the tissue level of organization of the body instead of organ and organ system organization of higher animals. 2. A special characteristic cell called cnidoblast or stinging cell is present in the body wall of coelenterates. These cells help the animal in capturing the food, offence and defence. 3. The digestive cavity is incomplete and bounded by body wall. 4. The coelenterates possess the epitheliomuscular cells which perform the functions of epithellium and musculature. 5. Presence of simple gonads but do not have the gonoducts. CTENOPHORA Ctenophora are free-swimming, transparant, jelly like, soft bodied, marine animals having biradial symmetry, comb-like ciliary plates for locomotion. GENERAL CHARACTERS: 1. Free-swimming, marine and solitary animals. 2. Body transparent, pear-shaped, cylindrical or flat or ribbon-shaped. 3. Biradially symmetrical body along an aboral axis. 4. Comb-like eight ciliary plates are present on the body for locomotion. 5. Nematocysts are absent 6. Digestive system with mouth, pharynx and stomach; the stomach is highly branched to form a complex system of gastrovascular canals. 7. The digestive system terminates out an anal pore. 8. Colloblasts or Lesso cells are special adhesive cells present on the tentacles which help in food capture. 9. Skeletal, circulatory and excretory systems are absent. 10. Nervous system is diffused type and the arboral end bears a sense organ called statocyst. 11. Organisms are Monoecious and gonads are of endodermal origin and situated on the walls of gastric canals. 12. Body organization is cell-tissue grade. 13. A characteristic larva called cydippid is formed. 14. Alternation of generation is present. Similarity of ctenophora and cnidaria Presence of statocyst.

Absence of organ system . Gonads are endodermal in origin. Presence of lasso cells which are similar to the nematoblasts of the coelenterates . Respiration ad excretion by general body surface . One species of ctenophor has a planula larval stage in its life history.

Differences with Cnidaria Although there may be an evolutionary relationship between the ctenophora and cnidaria based upon their morphological similarities but ctenophores exhibit many differences with cnidarians. These different characters are: 1. Ctenophores are biradial rather than radial. 2. In cnidarians the musculature develop from the gastrodermis. The smooth muscle tissue of ctenophores lack the myoepithelial cells but are present in cnidarian musculature. 3. No ctenophores are colonial and polymorphism is not found. 4. All cnidarians have monociliated cells whereas ctenophore cells are always multiciliated. 5. The mechanism of swimming, the system of maintaining balance, the mechanism and mode of food capture, the means of eliminating solid wastes, the nature of sexuality and several aspects of embryonic development differ greatly in the two groups. 6. The digestive tract of enidarian medusa has single opening which serves as both mouth and anus but in ctenophores four digestive canals extend from the roof of the stomach to the animal's aboral surface and two canals open to the outside through anal pore.

PLATYHELMINTHES Platyhelminthes are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, dorsoventrally flattened, acoelomate flatworms with organ grade of construction without definite anus, circulatory, skeletal or respiratory systems but with protonephridial excretory system and mesenchyme filling the space between the various organs of the body. GENERAL CHARACTERS: 1. Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical and dorsiventrally flattened, triploblastic worms. 2. Body shape generally worm-like but varies from moderately elongated flattened shape to long flat ribbons and leaf-like. 3. The flatworms are small to moderate in size varying from microscopic to extremely elongated forms measuring up to the 10-15 metres. 4. Majority of flatworms are white, colourless, some derive colour from the ingested food, while the freeliving forms are brown, grey, black or brilliantly coloured. 5. Anterior end of the body is differentiated into the so called Head. 6. Ventral surface bearing mouth and genital pores is well marked in tubellariansbut is less marked in Trematodes and Cestodes 7. Presence of great variety of adhesive secretions, organs of attachment and adhesion (e.g., hooks and suckers). 8. Body is covered with a cellular syncytial one layered partly ciliated epidermis ; while in parasitic trematodes and cestoqes epidermis is lacking and the body is covered with cuticle. 9. Exo and endoskeloton are completely absent, hence, the body is generally soft. Hard parts consist of cuticle, spines, thorns, hooks, teeth, etc. 10. Acoelomatei.e., true coelom is absent. 11. Body space between the various organs is filled with a mesenchyme usually called parenchyma

12. Digestive system is totally absent in Acoela and tapeworms but in other flatworms it consists of mouth, pharynx and blind intestine (anus is absent), 13. Respiratory and Circulatory systems are absent. 14. Excretory system consists of single or paired Proto-nephridia with flame cells or bulbs. In Acoela the protonephridia are absent. 15. Nervous system is primitive. The main nervous system consists of a pair of cerebral ganglia or brain and one to three pairs of longitudinal nerve cords connected to each other by transverse commissures. This type of nervous system is called Ladder type of nervous system. 16. Sense organs are of common occurrence in Tubellariabut these are greatly reduced in parasitic forms. Chemoreceptors are commonly occur. 17. Sexes are united, i.e., Hermaphrodite with very few exceptions. 18. Reproductive system is highly evolved or complex in most of the forms. 19. Asexual reproduction by fission occurs in many freshwater 20. In majority of forms eggs are devoid of yolk but provided with special yolk cells and are covered by egg shell. 21. Cross-fertilization in trematodes and self-fertilization in cestodes is very common. Fertilization is internal 22. Life cycle complicated involves one or more hosts. 23. Parthenogenesis and Polyembryony commonly occur in trematodes and tapeworms. 24. The flatworms are either free-living or ecto or endocommensals or parasites ASCHELMINTHES Aschelminthes are pseudocoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, unsegmented, vermiform, organ-system grade of construction with complete digestive tube. GENERAL CHARACTERS: 1.Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented worms. 2.Triploblastic and Pseudocoelomate animal with organ-system grade of body organization 3. Body size mostly small, some microscopic, while others from few millimetres to a metre or even more in length. 4. Body usually worm-like cylindrical or flattened. 5. Cuticle usually present and cilia absent. 6. Alimentary canal straight,and complete with mouth and anus, pharynx muscular and highly specialized. 7. Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent. 8. Excretory system includes a system of canals, protonephridia present in some forms for osmoregulation. 9. Nervous system simple and consists of a circumenteric nerve ring having anterior and posterior longitudinal nerves. 10. Sense organs are in the form of pits, papillae, bristles and eye spots. 11. Sexes separate, i.e., diocious and reproductive organs relatively simple, 12. Asexual reproduction does not occur. 13.Egg shelled, cleavage determinate and spiral, life cycle simple or complicated usually with no special larval stages. 14. Heterogeneous group inhabiting aquaticand terrestrial environment; many are well known parasites.

MOLLUSCA Molluscs are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, coelomate animals; usually shelled having a mantle, ventralfoot, anterior head and a dorsal visceral mass GENERAL CHARACTERS

1. Molluscs are essentially Acuatic mostly marine, few freshwater and some terrestrial forms. 2. The body is soft, unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical and consists of Head, Foot, Mantle and Visceral mass 3. The body is clothed with one layered often ciliated epidermis. 4. Body is commonly protected by an exoskeletal calcareous shell of one or more pieces, secreted by the mantle. 5. Head is distinct, bearing the mouth and provided with eyes, tentacles and other sense organs except in Pelecypoda and Scaphopoda. 6. Ventral body wall is modified into a muscular flat or plough-like surface, the Foot which is variously modified for creeping, burrowing and swimming 7. Mantle or Pallium is a fold of body wall that leaves between itself and the main body mass called the mantle cavity. 8. Visceral mass contains the vital organs of the body in a compact form . 9. Body cavity is homocoel.The true coelom is generally limited to the pericardial cavity and the lumen of the gonads and nephridia. 10. Digestive tract is simple with an anterior mouth and posterior anus but in gastropods, and cephalopods the intestine becomes U-shaped bringing the anus to an anterior position. 11. Pharynx contains a rasping organ the redula except in Pelecypoda. 12. Circulatory system is open except in cephalopods which shows some tendency towards a closed system. 13. Respiratory organs consist of numerous gills or ctenidia usually provided with osphradium at the base. Lung is developed in terrestrial forms. Respiratory pigment is usually Haemocyanin 14. Excretory system consists of a pair of Metanephridia which are true coelomoducts and communicate from pericardial cavity to the exterior by nephridiopore. 15. Nervous system consists of paired cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia joined by longitudinal and transverse connectives and nerves. 16. Sexes usually separate (dioceous)but some are hermaphroditic. 17. Fertilization is external or internal. Development is either direct or with metamorphosis through the trochophore stage called Veliger larva PHYLUM ANNELIDA General Characters : 1. Body is externally divided into segments called metameres or somites by ring-like grooves called annuli, so called segmented worms. 2. These have organ-system organization and bilateral symmetry. 3. These are triploblastic animals and true-coelomate (schizocoelic in origin) animals. Coelom is with a watery coelomic fluid which acts as hydraulic skeleton and helps in locomotion. In leeches, the coelom is reduced by botryoidal tissue which is probably excretory in function. 4. Body wall is formed of cuticle, single-layered epidermis and smooth muscle fibres 5. They show metameric segmentation (external division of body corresponds to internal division of coelom by septa). 6. Alimentary canal is straight and complete so these have tube-within-a-tube body plan. 7. Excretion occurs by segmentally arranged coiled organs, nephridia which are micronephric (in earthworm) or macronephric (in leech). The aquatic forms are ammonotelic while the terrestrial fotms are ureotelic in excretion. These nephridia may be ectonephric (release wastes directly to outside) or enteronephric (release wastes in alimentary canal). 8. Nervous system is formed of circum-pharyngeal nerve ring and a ventral and ganglionated nerle cord. 9. Circulatory system. These are the first animals to have generally closed circulatory system.

10. Colour of blood is red due to the presence of haemoglobin or erythrocruorin in plasma. Leeches have open circulatory system, commonly called haemocoelomic system and has red coloured coelomic fluid, called haemocoelomic fluid. 11. They always show cutaneous or skin respiration e.g., earthworm. Some have branchial (gill) respiration (e.g. ; Amphitrite). 12. Organs of locomotion are setae or unjointed appendages called parapodia or suckers. This forms the basis of classification of Annelida. 13. Reproduction. Sexes may be unisexual (e.g., Nereis) or bisexual (e.g., Earthworm, Leech) Fertilization is generally cross and may be external (e.g., Nereis) or internal (e.g., Leech) Development is direct (Earthworm, Leech) or indirect (Nereis) and includes a free-swimming trochophore larva. Unique features of Phylum Annelida : Phylum Annelida includes about 9,000 living species. (a) Metameric segmentation. (b) First animals to have circulatory system. Haemoglobin is dissolved in blood-plasma. (c) Nephridia for excretion and osmoregulation. (d) Presence of schizocoelic true-coelom. (e) Both circular and longitudin.al smooth muscles in the body wall Classification. Annelida is divided into three classes on the basis of organs of locomotion : (A) Class Oligochaeta (i) Locomotion is by setae which are a few per segment. (ii) Development is direct. (iii) Permanent clitellum is present. (iv) These are hermaphrodites. e.g., Earthworm (Pheretima posthuma) (B) Class Polychaeta. (i) Locomotion is by many setae present on unjointed leaf-like parapodia, one pair per segment. (ii) Development is indirect with trochophore larva (ill) Citellum is absent. (iv) Sexes are unisexual and gonads are temporary e.g., Nereis. (C) Class Hirudinea (i) Locomotion is by suckers. (ii) Development is direct. (iii) Clitellwn is temporary and is developed only during breeding season. (iv) These are hermaphrodites. (v) Coelom is reduced due to well developed botryoidal tissue (excretory in function). (vi) These are mostly parasitic and sanguivorous. Their saliva has an anti-coagulant called hirudin e.g., Hirudinaria (Leech).