Evidence-based strategies for youth practitioners

WHAT WORKS

K NNG HC TP
Edited by Sandra Kerka

WHAT WORKS
Evidence-based strategies for youth practitioners

K NNG HC TP
Edited by Sandra Kerka
2007

LearningWork Connection The Ohio State University 1900 Kenny Rd. Columbus, OH 43210 614/292-8665 www.learningworkconnection.org

Mc lc
Li gii thiu
Sandra Kerka 1

Vai tr ca siu nhn thc trong vic dy ngn ng th hai

Neil J. Anderson 5

Cc chin lc hc tp ca hc sinh
National Center on Secondary Education and Transition 10

Hng dn chin lc
Pat Beckman

15

Cc k nng hc tp: Tng quan

Elementary and Middle Schools Technical Assistance Center 21

Cc k nng hc tp
National College Transition Network

58

Ti ngh ti lm vic , nhng ti khng th tm ra n: H tr nhng hc Thiu k nng t chc Carolyn Ito 70 Nhng chin lc hc tp
Daniel J. Boudah & Kevin J. ONeill

77

Nng cao nhng k nng nhn dng t bng cch s dng nhng chin thut hng dn mu mang tnh chin lc (SIM)
Christine D. Bremer, Ann T. Clapper, & Donald D. Deshler

82

Gip hc sinh khuyt tt hi nhp c vi gio trnh tan c bn

Cynthia Warger

90

Hun luyn chin thut cho ngi hc ngoi ng

Andrew Cohen 96

Study Skills

Li gii thiu
Sandra Kerka, Writer, LearningWork Connection

V cun sch Hc ci g
Hc ci g d nh cung cp cc thng tin c kim chng cho cc chuyn gia v thiu nin theo o lut u t cho Lc lng Lao ng (WIA) nhm h tr tr t kt qu hc tt. Mi mt cun Hc ci g c mt phn gii thiu ngn xc nh ch quan tm m cc chng trnh dnh cho hc sinh tr trong WIA , v cc ngun thng tin v cc chin lc tng c p dng v mang li hiu qu trong vic nng cao kh nng hc thnh cng ca hc sinh trong tng lnh vc.

V sao cc k nng hc ng vai tr quan trng?

K nng hc l cc chin lc hc tp gip hc sinh t chc, x l, v s dng thng tin mt cch hiu qu. V tr cn c ch dn khng ch v vic hc g m c vic hc th no, nn WIA a ra cc ch dn v cc k nng hc tp, cch km tr hc, ngn nga nguy c b hc, vn l mt trong 10 yu t khng th thiu trong cc chng trnh dnh cho tr. Nhng k nng ny khng ch ng vai tr quan trng trong vic hc trng, m cn c trong cuc sng hng ngy ca tr. Chng s gip tr sng c t chc, tr thnh ngi c kh nng hc tt sut i, bit qun l cng vic, gia nh v ti chnh (EMSTAC, 2001). Cc k nng hc tp c bit ng vai tr quan trng i vi cc tr c khuyt tt trong hc tp, bi nhng tr ny kh nng tp trung km, v d nn lng khi kt qu hc tp cha tt (Beckman, 2002). Khi tr coi l do ca vic hc cha tt l do cc yu t xut pht t bn thn, nh khng c kh nng, hoc do cc yu t tc ng t bn ngoi, nh km may mn, tr d mt t tin, v ngh l d c tht nhiu cng sc cng v ch (Peirce, 2004). Nm vng cc k nng nghin cu v hc tp s gip tr nng cao hiu qu, gip tr c thm ngh lc thay i cch tip cn, cng nh th nghim cc chin lc khc nu mt chin lc b tht bi. Cc du hiu cho thy tr cn c gip pht trin k nng hc tp bao gm: dnh qu nhiu thi gian cho vic hc, ghi chp bi hc trn lp khng r rng hoc sai, tr hon lm cc bi v nh hoc bi tp ln, khng c kh nng pht hin thng tin chnh yu trong mt vn bn, hoc khng c kh nng nh nhng g va c (Cook Counselling Center, 2006; EMSTAC, 2001). Tr v cc thy c c th dng danh mc kim tra do EMSTAC cung cp xc nh xem, tr cn c tr gip nhng khu no nht, v nn gip tr chun b hc nh th no.

Hc phng php hc
K nng hc tp l cc qu trnh siu nhn thc, tc l vic t thc v kh nng t duy v hc tp ca bn thn. Nhng hc sinh c kh nng nh gi li s vic, theo di t duy v kh nng hc hi ca bn thn s c kh nng tm hoc pht hin ra cn
1

phi lm g (Anderson, 2002, p.1). Nghin cu cho thy nhng tr hc c chin lc l nhng tr:
thc c rng c nhiu cch lm cng mt vic; C t trng cao; C trch nhim hn; Ci thin hon thin v tnh chnh xc trong cc cng Tham gia tch cc vo vic hc Ci thin kt qu hc tp.

vic m tr thc hin;

(Beckman, 2002). Nhng tr hc c chin lc thng tm thy chin lc ph hp cho tng mn hc c th. Werger (2002) a ra cc v d v vic hc ton v Cohen (2005) a ra cc v d v vic hc ngoi ng th hai.

Cc loi k nng hc
Cc yu t cu thnh nn qu trnh siu nhn thc bao gm (1) chun b hc; (2) thu nhn, x l, v lu gi thng tin; (3) p dng vo thc t nhng g c hc; (4) theo di v nh gi vic hc v s dng chin lc (Anderson, 2002; EMSTAC, 2001). Mi nhm k nng ni trn bao gm cc k nng m ngi ln c th dy c th cho tr.

Chun b hc
Chun b v lp k hoch cho vic hc bao gm cc kha cnh c v mt vt cht (mi trng hc, cng c hc) v tinh thn (thi , mc tiu, cc u tin). Cc k nng gip tr chun b vic hc bao gm: - T chc gc hc tp bng cch lp lch nhng vic cn lm, s k hoch lm bi tp v nh, v v ghi chp. EMSTAC (2001) v Ito (2005) c cung cp mt s li khuyn v vic s dng cc cng c ny. - Qun l thi gian bng cch xy dng thi gian biu, t u tin cho cc cng vic v s dng danh mc kim tra. EMSTAC (2001), Ito (2005) v Mng li chuyn tip cao ng quc gia (NCTN) a ra cc tng v vic lp thi gian biu. - Sp xp mi trng vt cht, bao gm tm mt gc hc tp tr t b phn tn, v chn khong thi gian trong ngy m tr c kh nng hc tt nht (CCTN, n.d). Ito (2005) gi cc phng php m hc (vin) sinh c th p dng t chc khng gian c nhn cho vic hc.

Thu nhn, x l, v lu gi thng tin

Nhng ngi hc c hiu qu thng thu nhn, x l v lu gi thng tin mt cch c h thng. Nhng ngi ny thng c cc k nng tm kim trn Internet, hoc tm kim ti th vin rt tt (EMSTAC, 2001). V mi c nhn c cc cch hc khc nhau nn cc gio vin cn a ra nhiu chin lc hc a dng cc hc (vin) sinh t tm hiu v la chn phng php no ph hp nht cho mnh.
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- K nng c hiu qu ng vai tr cc k quan trng trong vic thu nhn thng tin. Chin lc nhn dng t (Bremer v nhm tc gi, 2002) l mt k thut gip ngi c gii m v nhn dng cc t l. Phng php SQ3R (iu tra, t cu hi, c, Ngm, n tp) do NCTN (n.d) m t l mt cch tip cn c h thng nhm gip hc sinh khm ph v lu gi cc chnh trong vn bn. - K nng nghe hiu qu trong lp hc cng rt quan trng. NCTN c tng kt cc thi quen nghe c nh hng tch cc v tiu cc n vic hc. - Ghi chp bi cho php hc (vin) sinh n tp v lu li cc thng tin v bi hc lp. Trong s cc li khuyn v vic ghi chp bi do NCTN a ra, li khuyn u tin l vic lng nghe mt cch ch ng, ng thi s dng cc t kha chnh v cc k hiu hnh hc gip vic ghi bi d hiu hn vi tng ngi. - Lp cng v tm tt gip hc (vin) sinh thy c mi quan h gia cc khi nim. Cc phng php t chc ha nh bn khi nim, v cc biu quan h l nhng chin lc m ngi hc theo phng php nhn trc quan s thy d nh hn. EMSTAC (2001) xc nh v a ra cc v d v cc phng php t chc ha. - Cc phng php tr gip ghi nh nh cc mo ghi nh, phng php ghi nh ch ci u li c th ph hp vi nhng ngi a hc qua vic hc thuc (Beckman, 2002). EMSTAC c trnh by cc chin lc gip ghi nh nh LISTS v FIRST. Trung tm quc gia v gio dc v chuyn i h ph thng (National Center on Secondary Education and Transition) (2005) m t rt chi tit v DISSECT, mt phng php ghi nh nm trong M hnh ch dn chin lc dnh cho cc hc (vin) sinh c khuyt tt trong hc tp.

p dng nhng g hc vo thc t

Cc hc (vin) sinh din t v p dng nhng g hc vo vic vit bi, trnh by ming, v thng qua cc bi kim tra. Mt phng php lm bi kim tra tt i hi hc (vin) sinh phi c trang b y c v kin thc ni dung (hiu mng kin thc c kim tra) v kin thc quy trnh (lm bi kim tra nh th no). - Cc chin lc lm bi kim tra nh PIRATES v ANSWER do EMSTAC m t (2001). NCTN (n.d.) a ra li khuyn v vic lm cc dng bi kim tra khc nhau, nh bi lun hay cc cu hi nhiu la chn. - K nng hc cng th hin thng qua kh nng gii quyt vn . Solve it! l mt v d v mt cch tip cn chin lc gii mt bi ton (Warger, 2002).

Theo di v nh gi
Mt qu trnh thay i nhn thc quan trng th hin qua vic t theo di bn thn. Anderson (2002) cho rng, trong khi hc cc k nng hc, hc (vin) sinh nn thng xuyn t hi: Ti ang phn u t c iu g? Ti s dng chin lc ny tt cha? Ti c th lm g hon thnh nhim v ny?

- MARKER, MURDER, v LEARN l cc chin lc lp k hoch v theo di c EMSTAC (2001) m t.

Lm th no dy hc sinh cc k nng hc?

Trung tm quc gia v gio dc v chuyn i h ph thng (2005) m t chui ch dn gm 8 bc: Trc kim tra, Miu t, M hnh ha, Luyn ni, Luyn tp c kim sot, Luyn tp c chm im, Sau kim tra, v Tng qut ha. Boudah v ONeil (1999); Bremer v nhm tc gi (2002) h tr cc gio vin trong vic s dng phng php M hnh ch dn chin lc cho nhng hc (vin) sinh c khuyt tt trong vic hc tp. Beckman (2002) v Anderson (2002) a ra nhng gi sau: 1. Gii thch chin lc v mc ch ca chin lc: v sao chin lc li quan trng, khi no v nn s dng chin lc nh th no? 2. M hnh ha vic s dng chin lc, ch ra cch thc hin chin lc v nhng trng hp p dng chin lc mang li kh nng thnh cng cao nht. 3. To thi gian hc (vin) sinh c th luyn tp c h tr. 4. Khuyn khch hc (vin) sinh t theo di, nhm gip hc (vin) sinh thc c chin lc no hiu qu v chin lc no khng hiu qu vi mnh.

Cc ti liu tham kho

Cook Counseling Center. (2006). Study skill checklist. Blacksburg, VA: Cook Counseling Center, Virginia Tech. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/checklis. html. Peirce, William. (2004). Metacognition: Study strategies, monitoring, and motivation. Text version of a workshop, Prince Georges Community College, Maryland, November 17, 2004. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http://academic.pgcc.edu/~wpeirce/MCCCTR/metacognition. htm.

Vai tr ca siu nhn thc trong vic dy v hc ngn ng th hai

Anderson, Neil J. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning . Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved January 11, 2007, from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0110anderson.html. Trong mt chng trnh pht trn i pht thanh quc gia M thng 3 nm 1999, mt hc sinh lp 6 gii thch v nhng g m c b hc c t vic chi Tr chi th trng chng khon, mt hot ng nhm gip tr lm quen vi cch thc hot ng ca th trng ny. C b ni: Tr chi ny gip ti hc cch ngh (Prakash, 1999). Cu ni ny cho thy, c b hc sinh ny bt u hiu c yu t ct yu ca vic hc tp; c thc s tham gia vo qu trnh siu nhn thc. Siu nhn thc c th c nh ngha n gin l t duy v cch thc suy ngh. Nhng hc sinh c kh nng siu nhn thc thc c cn phi lm g khi h khng bit phi lm g; c ngha l h c chin lc tm ra hoc khm ph ra vic mnh cn phi lm. S dng cc chin lc siu nhn thc kch thch hc sinh suy ngh, v nh vy ci thin kt qu cng nh kh nng hc tp mt cch su sc, c bit l i vi nhng hc sinh ang gp kh khn. Hiu v kim sot cc qu trnh nhn thc l mt trong nhng k nng thit yu m cc gio vin trn lp nn gip hc sinh hnh thnh v pht huy. iu quan trng nht l h dy cho cc sinh vin cc k nng siu nhn thc bn cnh cc k nng v nhn thc. S phn bit gia cc chin lc nhn thc v chin lc siu nhn thc rt quan trng, mt phn v s phn bit ny gip ta nhn bit c, chin lc no ng vai tr quan trng nht trong vic xc nh tnh hiu qu ca vic hc. C v nh cc chin lc siu nhn thc gip hc sinh lp k hoch, kim sot, v nh gi kt qu hc tp ca mnh ng vai tr trung tm, ch khng phi cc chin lc ch nhm ti a ha cc giao tip v thng tin u vo V th kh nng la chn v nh gi cc chin lc ca mt ngi lun ng vai tr trung tm. (Graham, 1997, trang 42-43). Thay v vic tp trung s ch ca ngi c vo vic hc ngn ng, cc gio vin dy ngn ng th hai c th gip sinh vin pht trin t duy v nhng g xy ra trong qu trnh hc. iu ny s gip sinh vin pht trin cc k nng hc tt hn.

Mt m hnh siu nhn thc

Siu nhn thc kt hp cc qu trnh suy ngh c nh hng v phn nh khc nhau. C th chia cc qu trnh ny thnh nm hp phn chnh: (1) chun b v lp k hoch
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hc; (2) chn v s dng cc chin lc hc; (3) theo di vic s dng chin lc; (4) phi hp hi ha cc phng php khc nhau, v (5) nh gi vic s dng v hc chin lc. Cc gio vin nn m hnh ha cc chin lc hc (vin) sinh p dng cho c nm lnh vc nh tho lun di y.

Chun b v lp k hoch hc
Chun b v lp k hoch hc l nhng k nng siu nhn thc quan trng gip ci tin vic hc. Bng cch t chun b v lp k hoch ng thi vi vic t ra mc tiu hc tp, hc sinh s phi suy ngh v nhng mc tiu m h cn hoc mun t c, cng nh lm th no t c mc tiu . Cc gio vin c th y mnh qu trnh phn nh ny bng cch ni r cc mc tiu hc tp c th t ra cho lp hc, ng thi hng dn hc sinh t mc tiu cho ring mnh. Mc tiu cng c trnh by r rng th hc sinh cng d dng nh gi c tin hc tp ca mnh. Gio vin c th t ra mt mc tiu cho c lp nh cc hc sinh phi lm ch c vn t vng ca mt chng trong sch gio khoa. Hc sinh c th t t ra mc tiu cho mnh c kh nng tr li cc cu hi kim tra mc hiu bi cui mi chng.

La chn v s dng cc chin lc hc

Cc nh nghin cu cho rng, dy ngi c s dng cc chin lc hc c th l mt mc tiu c bn trong lp hc c (Anderson, 1999; Cohen, 1998; Oxford, 1990). Kh nng siu nhn thc v vic chn v s dng mt chin lc c th trong mt bi cnh nht nh, nhm mt mc ch c th c ngha l hc sinh c kh nng ngh v a ra cc quyt nh sng sut v qu trnh hc. vic hc c hiu qu, gio vin dy v siu nhn thc cn ch dn r rng cho hc sinh v cc phng php hc khc nhau cng nh khi no nn s dng phng php no. V d, nhng ngi c ngn ng th hai c rt nhiu chin lc chn la khi h gp phi mt t cha bit, nhng li buc phi bit t hiu chnh ca mt on vn bn. Mt chin lc c th dng l phn tch t: v d, chia t thnh phn tip t v gc t. Mt chin lc khc l s dng bi cnh nh mt gi on ngha ca t. Nhng hc sinh phi c ch dn r rng v cch s dng nhng chin lc ny, cng nh cn phi bit rng, khng c chin lc no thnh cng trong mi trng hp. Cc gio vin cn phi ch cho hc sinh cch chn la chin lc c kh nng thnh cng cao nht cho tng trng hp. V d, nhng t l c cc tin t hoc hu t m hc sinh bit (v d anti, hay -ment) l nhng v d v vic s dng chin lc phn tch t.

Theo di vic s dng chin lc

Bng cch theo di vic s dng chin lc, hc sinh c kh nng kim sot cc mc tiu hc tp ca mnh tt hn. Mt khi hc sinh la chn v bt u thc hin c cc chin lc c th, hc sinh phi thng xuyn t kim tra xem mnh c s dng cc chin lc nh d nh ban u hay khng. V d, hc sinh c th c dy rng, mt chin lc vit hiu qu cn phi bao gm vic hng n ngi c, v mc ch vit (vit gii thch, hay thuyt phc ngi c v mt vn no
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). C th dy hc sinh kim sot vic s dng chin thut ny. Khi vit, i lc cn dng li t hi ta ang lm g, ta a ra y cc thng tin c bn cho ngi c cha, v liu cc v d minh ha c hiu qu trong vic h tr t c mc ch vit.

Phi hp hi ha cc chin lc khc nhau

Bit cch phi hp hi ha nhiu chin lc khc nhau l mt k nng siu nhn thc quan trng. Kh nng phi hp, t chc v bit cch tm ra lin h gia cc chin lc c th s dng l mt s phn bit quan trng gia nhng ngi hc tt v cha tt ngn ng th hai. Cc gio vin c th h tr hc sinh bng cch gip hc sinh thc c v cc chin lc khc nhau m h c th s dng - v d, bng cch dy hc sinh s dng c phng php phn tch t v phng php gi nh bi cnh xc nh ngha ca mt t mi. Gio vin cng cn ch cho hc sinh cch nhn bit mt chin lc khng c tc dng, chuyn sang s dng mt chin lc khc. V d, mt sinh vin c th th dng chin lc phn tch t xc nh ngha ca t antimony, v nhn ra c rng anti l tin t c ngha l chng. Nhng chin lc khng p dng c trong trng hp ny. y, anti khng phi l tin t; antimony l mt yu t ha hc kim loi, khng h c ngha chng hay phn i li ci g. Khi hc sinh nhn ra rng, chin lc phn tch t khng gip ch ta tm c ngha ca t, ch ta cn phi bit tm chin lc khc, v d gi t bi cnh, gip tm ra ngha ca t .

nh gi vic hc v s dng chin lc

Cc hc sinh s tham gia mt cch ch ng vo qu trnh siu nhn thc nu h n lc nh gi xem cch hc ca h hiu qu cha. Cc gio vin c th gip hc sinh nh gi mc hiu qu bng cch ngh hc sinh tr li k 3 cu hi sau: (1) Ti ang c gng t c iu g? (2) ti ang s dng nhng chin lc g; (3) ti s dng hiu qu nhng chin lc ny cha? (4) ti c th lm g nng cao hiu qu? Vic tr li 4 cu hi ny bao hm tt c cc kha cnh ca qu trnh siu nhn thc ni trn. N cho php ngi hc ngn ng th hai i chiu thng qua ton b chu trnh hc. Chun b v lp k hoch lin quan n cu hi v nhng chin lc c s dng. Cu hi th ba tng ng vi vic theo di vic s dng cc chin lc. trong khi cu hi th 4 lin quan n kh nng phi hp hi ha cc chin lc. Ton b chu trnh c nh gi trong giai on siu nhn thc ny. V d, khi dy v mt k nng c th l c hiu cc chnh, gio vin c th gip hc sinh nh gi cc chin lc m hc sinh dng bng cch s dng 4 cu hi sau: 1. Ti ang c gng t c iu g? Gio vin mun hc sinh c th trnh by mch lc rng, h ang c gng nhn dng cc chnh ca on vn bn ang c, v h lm nh th v hiu c chnh l s hiu c ton b on vn bn. 2. Ti ang s dng nhng chin lc no? Gio vin mun ngi c bit h c th s dng nhng chin lc no v nhn ra h ang s dng chin lc no nhn dng cc chnh.

3. Ti s dng hiu qu cc chin lc ny cha? Gio vin mun hc sinh c th nh gi mc hiu qu ca vic s dng chin lc m h chn, nh gi xem h c thc hin chin lc nh d nh khng, v liu chin lc c gip h t mc tiu khng. 4. Ti cn c th lm g nng cao hiu qu? Nu chin lc ang dng khng gip t c mc tiu (trong trng hp ny l tm chnh), gio vin phi ngh hc sinh nhn dng v s dng cc chin lc thay th khc. Gio vin cn gii thch hc sinh hiu rng, c rt nhiu chin lc c th s dng. Nghin cu cho thy, nhng hc sinh b hng k nng hoc kin thc trong mt s lnh vc nht nh thng nh gi qu cao kh nng ca mnh trong lnh vc (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). Ni cch khc, h cha c kin thc c th t nh gi chnh xc v bn thn mnh. Ngc li, nhng ngi c k nng hoc kin thc tt trong mt lnh vc li thng nh gi qu thp kh nng ca mnh. Nhng ngi c kh nng cao nh th ny thng khng nhn ra phm vi kin thc hoc k nng ca mnh. Nghin cu ca Kruger v Dunning cng ch ra rng, vn c cch dy hc sinh mi trnh nh gi v kt qu hc tp ca mnh mt cch chnh xc hn. Thm vo , nghin cu ny cng ch ra rng, i vi nhng bi tp lin quan n tnh logic v ng php, kh nng t nh gi s c ci thin cng vi s ci thin v cc k nng ang c nh gi.

S tng tc gia cc k nng siu nhn thc

Mi k nng trong s nm k nng siu nhn thc m t ni trn li tng tc vi nhau. Siu nhn thc khng phi l mt qu trnh tuyn tnh, i t vic chun b v lp k hoch n nh gi. Ti mi thi im ca vic hc ngn ng th hai, c th c nhiu hn mt qu trnh siu nhn thc din ra. iu ny mt ln na khng nh rng, vic phi hp cc chin lc khc nhau l mt hp phn quan trng khng th thiu trong vic hc ngn ng th hai. Cho php hc sinh c c hi suy ngh cch thc phi hp cc chin lc khc nhau s to iu kin ci thin v nng cao hiu qu s dng chin lc.

Kt lun
Dy cc k nng siu nhn thc l cch s dng rt tt thi gian dy i vi mt gio vin dy ngn ng th hai. Khi hc sinh suy ngh v cc chin lc hc ca mnh, h s bit cch chun b tt hn, a ra cc quyt nh sang sut v nhng g h c th lm nng cao hiu qu hc tp. Cc k nng siu nhn thc l sc mnh ca nhng ngi hc ngn ng th hai.

Ti liu tham kho

Anderson, N. J. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language . New York: Longman.
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Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing ones own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1121-1134. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury. Prakash, S. (Reporter). (1999, March 19). Market games [Radio series episode]. All things considered . Washington, DC: National Public Radio. This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.

Cc chin lc hc tp ca hc sinh
National Center on Secondary Education and Transition. (2005). Student Learning Strategies. Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, Institute on Community Integration. Retrieved January 20, 2007, from http://www.ncset.org/topics/learning/default.asp?topic=17 Chin lc hc tp l mt cng c hay k thut m hc sinh s dng tip cn nhng tnh hung mi gp phi trong qu trnh hc, v hon thnh cc bi tp trng mt cch c lp. Cc chin lc hc tp c th c s dng ci thin vic hc v hiu v cc k nng hay cc vn bn; phi hp cc thng tin mi c hc vi cc kin thc trc ; cng nh nh li cc thng tin, hoc k nng c p dng trong c cc tnh hung c v mi. Cc chin lc hc tp c th gip hc vin hon thnh tt cc bi tp bng cch tn dng cc th mnh m hc vin mang n trong qu trnh hc cho d hc vin c khuyt tt trong hc tp.

Cc cu hi thng gp
C nhng kiu chin lc hc tp no?
Cc chin lc hc tp c phn loi theo nhiu cch. Mt cch l chia thnh cc chin lc nhn thc v cc chin lc siu nhn thc. Chin lc nhn thc l cc chin lc c s dng cho cc vn kh khn trong khi hc, nh phn on, c li bi, c lng, lm dn bi, hoc on ngha da vo ng cnh. Chin lc siu nhn thc (Flavell, 1976) cp n kin thc v cc quy nh v hnh ng hay qu trnh t duy. Chin lc ny c th bao gm kin thc v bn thn hc sinh, kin thc v nhu cu nhn thc c nhim v phi hon thnh, v kin thc v chin lc nhn thc v siu nhn thc. Cc chin lc hc tp siu nhn thc gm c vic nhn ra c khi no th cn phi s dng chin lc, la chn chin lc, ghi nh hoc n li cc chin lc, v nh gi hiu qu ca chin lc. Borkowski, Estrada, Milstead, v Hale (1999) cho rng, i vi cc hc vin c khuyt tt trong hc tp, qu trnh siu nhn thc c hai kha cnh ng vai tr then cht: qu trnh thc hin (v d la chn cc chin lc ph hp) v nim tin v quan h nhn qu (v d tin l n lc hc tp s mang li kt qu tt).

Nn la chn chin lc hc tp dy nh th no?

Trc tin cn lu qu trnh thc hin chin lc m ngi xy dng chin lc m t. Liu hc sinh c cn c trang b trc mt s k nng c th p dng chin lc hiu qu khng? Cc gio vin c nn gii thiu cho hc vin v chin lc trc khi hc khng? Gio vin nn cp n nhng li ch no m hc vin khi p
10

dng chin lc cn t c? Nn la chn ti liu lin quan n vic s dng chin lc nh th no? V d, ti liu cho chin lc v phng php c nn dng m t hay tng thut l tt nht?

Liu c mt phng php tip cn ti u no trong vic dy cc chin lc hc tp khng?

Schumaker v Deshler (1992) xy dng, v khng nh hiu qu ca chui cc bc ch dn gio vin c th s dng khi dy cc chin lc hc tp khc nhau cho hc sinh. Cc bc l: 1. Trc kim tra: nh gi k nng ca hc vin tham gia hc v yu cu hc vin cam kt s n lc hc tp. 2. Miu t: gii thch cc bc ca mt chin lc, tnh hung nn p dng chin lc, v cch p dng chin lc t c hiu qu tt. 3. M hnh: m t cch s dng chin lc bng cch ni ra suy ngh ca mnh khi p dng chin lc i vi cc ti liu quan trng. 4. Luyn ni: hc sinh ghi nh cc bc ca chin lc v cc yu cu then cht trong vic p dng chin lc. 5. Thc hnh c hng dn: m bo l hc vin nm vng chin lc thng qua vic s dng cc ti liu c n gin ha trong iu kin c gio vin hng dn. 6. Thc hnh cng loi: m bo l hc vin nm vng chin lc trong nhng tnh hung tng t m hc vin c th gp phi trong lp hc gio dc thng thng. 7. Sau kim tra: nh gi k nng hc vin sau khi hc. 8. Tng qut ha: gip hc vin p dng cc chin lc trong cc mi trng gio dc thng thng v khng chnh quy. (Boudah & ONeill, 1999; Ellis, Deshler, Lenz, Schumaker, & Clark, 1991). Cn phi dy cho hc vin nhng k nng tin quyt trc khi hc. Trong qu trnh hng dn chin lc, cn thng xuyn kim tra xem hc vin lm ch cc k nng ny cha. Bn cnh , cc thut nh (cc chin lc h tr vic ghi nh) cng s gip sinh vin nh c cc chin lc hc tp (Xem phn cc cng c h tr ghi nh no c ch cho hc vin?)

Vic dy cc chin lc hc cho bc sau trung hc c s nn c tin hnh nh th no?

Cc tc gi ca trang mng Writing@CSU (http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/ldteach/app8.cfm) (Colorado State University) tho lun v vic dy cch c v vit cho sinh vin cao ng c khim khuyt trong hc tp. Cc tc gi a ra quy trnh tm bc v vic dy mt chin lc mi trong iu kin gio vin dy km tng hc vin. Quy trnh ny c nhiu im tng ng vi quy trnh tm bc do Schumaker v Deshler (1992) m t trnh by trn. Quy trnh ca The Writing@CSU gm nhng bc sau: 1. Gii thiu chin lc v t ra cc mc tiu cn t c
11

2. Pht trin cc k nng c s (gip hc vin hc cc k nng tin quyt) 3. Tho lun v chin lc 4. M hnh ha chin lc 5. Cung cp cc cng c h tr (v d cc phng php h tr ghi nh khi ang hc) 6. Luyn tp 7. Phn hi 8. Thc hin c thm thng tin chi tit v cc bc ny, c th tham kho trang mng ni trn.

Nhng cng c h tr ghi nh no c ch cho hc vin?

Cc chin lc nhm tr gip tr nh, v kh nng ghi nh gi l cc thut nh (neeMON-iks). Rt nhiu thut nh da trn c s to ra mt t hoc mt cm t t ch ci u ca mt s t trong mt danh sch t. V d, mt s ngi ghi nh th t cc hnh tinh trong h mt tri (sao Thy (M), sao Kim (V), Tri t (E), sao Ha (M), sao Mc (J), sao Th (S), sao Hi vng (U), sao Uranus (U)v sao Dim vng) bng cch s dng thut nh sau: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas). Cc thut nh khc c th s dng cc giai iu, cc on nhc, hoc cc thit b khc nhm gip hc vin ghi nh c cc thng tin. C nhiu thut nh rt ph bin, nh thut SQ3R (hc, hi, c, ngm, n tp), do Robinson (1946) xy dng. Trang mng trng i hc Virginia Tech c mt m t hay v thut ny (Nhy chut vo Increasing Textbook Reading Comprehension by using SQ3R) trong mc Online Study Skills Workshops phn gia gc phi trang. Mt s gio vin v nh nghin cu xy dng cc thut nh ring cho cc hc vin c khuyt tt trong hc tp. V d Chin lc nhn dng t trong M hnh dy chin lc (Lenz & Hughes, 1990). Trong chin lc ny, c 7 bc nhn dng mt t mi. Cc bc c ghi nh bng cch ghi nh cc ch ci u tng ng vi tng bc, DISSECT: D: pht hin ng cnh; I: tch tin t S: tch hu t S: xc nh thn t E: kim tra thn t C: kim tra vi bn hc; v T: s dng t in. NCSET Research - to - Practice (T nghin cu n thc hnh), cc chin lc ci thin k nng nhn dng t trong m hnh dy chin lc (Improving Word Identification Skills Using Strategic Instruction Model (SIM) Strategies) c m t chi tit chin lc ny trn trang web http://www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=720. Ngoi ra, mt s ti liu khc cng a ra li khuyn v vic to ra cc thut nh mi, nh ti liu ca Mastropieri v Scruggs, 1991 v Willoughby v Wood, 1995 (xem danh mc ti liu tham kho pha di).

12

C mt s chin lc cha c khng nh qua nghin cu. Vy lm th no bit c chin lc mi c hiu qu hay khng?
Khng phi chin lc no cng hiu qu. Mt s chin lc c th c tc dng song li khng hiu qu v mt thi gian v cng sc b ra. Ellis v Lenz (1987) a ra mt s c tnh then cht nhn dng cc chin lc ph hp vi hc sinh c khuyt tt trong hc tp. Cc c tnh ny gm 3 loi: ni dung (cc bc thc hin chin lc v vai tr ca tng bc trong qu trnh hc); thit k (cc bc c t chc nh th no trong mt tng th); v mc hu dng (kh nng p dng chin lc trong cc tnh hung khc nhau v nhu cu khc nhau). Bi vit c tnh ca cc chin lc hc tt Features of Good Learning Strategies ca cc tc gi Ellis v Lenz (xem lin kt trong mc ti liu tham kho di) m t chi tit c trng ca cc chin lc hiu qu v c tc dng.

Ti liu tham kho

Borkowski, J.G, Estrada, M. T., Milstead, M., & Hale, C.A. (1989). General problemsolving skills: Relations between metacognition and strategic processes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 57-70. Boudah, D. J. & ONeill, K. J. (1999). Learning strategies. (ERIC/OSEP Digest #E577). Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 433 669). Retrieved December 17, 2004, from http://www.ericdigests.org/20002/learning.htm. Colorado State University. (n.d.). Writing@CSU. Retrieved September 6, 2005, from http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/ldteach/app8.cfm. Ellis, E. S., & Lenz, B.K. (1987). Features of good learning strategies. Retrieved March 6, 2002, from http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/teaching_techniques/ellis_strategyfeatures. html. Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Mastropieri, M. A. & Scruggs, T. E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. Robinson, F. P. (1946). Effective study. New York: Harper & Row. Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1992). Validation of learning strategy interventions for students with learning disabilities: Results of a programmatic research effort. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Contemporary intervention research in learning disabilities: An
13

international perspective (pp. 22-46). New York: Springer-Verlag. Sturomski, N. (1997).Teaching students with learning disabilities to use learning strategies. NICHY News Digest, 25. Retrieved May 2, 2002, from http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/newsdig/nd25txt. htm. Willoughby, T. ,& Wood, E. (1995). Mnemonic strategies. In E. Wood, V. E. Woloshyn, & T. Willoughby (Eds.), Cognitive strategy instruction for middle and high schools (pp. 5-17). Cambridge, MA: Brookline. NCSET is a partnership of six major organizations and is funded by the U.S. Department of Educations Office of Special Education Programs,

National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, 6 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis MN 55455; ncset@umn.edu; 612-624-2097 (phone); 612-624-9344 (fax)

14

Hng Dn chin lc
Beckman, Pat. (2002). Strategy Instruction. ERIC Digest. Reston, CA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Council for Exceptional Children. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/strategy.htm Hn hai thp k qua, c v s cng trnh nghin cu c lin quan n hng dn v chin lc. V cn bn, a s cc cng trnh nghin cu ny ch tp trung vo nhng hiu qu khi hng dn chin lc cho nhng tr c khuyt tt trong hc tp. Cc nh nghin cu hin nay ang tm cch lm th no vic hng dn chin lc c th tc ng n ton th ngi hc.

Chin lc l g?
Nhn chung, mt chin lc l mt cng c, mt bn k hoch, hoc mt phng php c s dng hon thnh mt nhim v. Di y l mt s thut ng khc c s dng trong hng dn chin lc. Mt vi thut ng trong s s c tho lun trong ti liu ny: Chin lc nhn thc: mt chin lc, mt nhm chin lc hoc nhng phng php gip hc sinh hon thnh bi tp hoc gip h nng cao k nng x hi. Thng thng, s c vi chin lc nhn thc c dng cng cc chin lc khc, ty theo hc sinh v gin hc tp ca h. Trn thc t, cc cng trnh nghin cu cho thy rng nhng hc sinh thnh cng thng s dng ng thi nhiu chin lc. Mt s trong nhng chin lc ny bao gm: hnh dung trong tr c, din t thnh li, lin h vi nhng iu bit, tch thnh tng on cho d nh, t cu hi, lt qua ton bi, gch di, tm gi , s dng thut nh, c to ln, v t kim tra cng nh theo di. Gi : Nhng gi mang tnh hnh tng hoc ngn t c th gip cho hc sinh nh li nhng g hc hoc cung cp cho h mt c hi hc iu g mi. Nhng gi cng c th c dng nhc hc sinh s dng mt chin lc. Hc sinh c lp, gii chin lc: Hc sinh, nhng ngi s dng gi v chin lc trong gin hc tp ca h, s t ra nhng cu hi yu cu gii thch r vn , lng nghe, kim tra v theo di cng vic cng nh hnh vi ca mnh, ng thi ra nhng mc tiu c nhn. Mt hc sinh c chin lc s bit gi tr ca vic s dng nhng chin lc c th no da vo kinh nghim c nhn, v kht khao hc nhng chin lc c ch khc. Chin lc hc tp: l mt h thng cc bc hon thnh mt bi tp c th, chng hn nh lm bi kim tra, c hiu, v vit mt cu chuyn. Thut nh dng ch ci u thng c s dng gip hc sinh tun theo tng bc ca chin lc. Siu nhn thc v t iu chnh: l kin thc m mt ngi c c v vn lm th no c th hc tt ( gin hc tp c nhn), bao gm nhng chin lc c s dng hon thnh bi tp v qu trnh m nh vo hc sinh c th quan st v
15

theo di cch s dng cc chin lc ca mnh. Thut nh: Mt cng c ghi nh, chng hn nh nh bng cch vit nhng ch ci u: PLAN (gm 4 ch ci u ca 4 phn: Tp trung vo gi -Pay attention to the prompt, Ln danh sch cc chnh-List main ideas, Thm vo nhng ph Add supporting ideas, nh s cc ca bn -Number your ideas) (theo DeLaPaz, Owen, Harris, & Graham, 2000).Thut nh bng nhp iu, bt vn, nhc iu v t kho cng l nhng cng c gip tr nh rt hu hiu. Hng dn chin lc: Dy hc sinh v chin lc, dy h lm th no v khi no s dng chin lc, gip hc sinh nhn ra nhng chin lc c th mang li hiu qu cho c nhn, v khuyn khch h a nhng hnh vi mang tnh chin lc vo gin hc tp ca mnh. Gin hc tp: Nhng h thng, hoc nhng phi hp ca nhng chin lc m tng c nhn s dng mt cch bn nng th hin, tin hnh, giao tip, hoc hc tp. C th mt nhiu nm hnh thnh c mt gin hc tp.

Hc c nhng g v tnh hiu qu ca ging dy chin lc?

Kh nng hc ca nhiu hc sinh c gia tng thng qua vic hng dn mt cch ch ng nhng chin lc siu nhn thc v nhn thc. iu ny c bit ng i vi nhng hc sinh c vn trong hc tp- hng dn chin lc s cc k quan trng i vi h. Ngi ta thy rng nu dy chin lc cho nhng hc sinh gp kh khn, c v h nhit tnh, tch cc phn hi, v cho h thy c hi s dng chin lc, th nhng hc sinh ny s ci thin c kh nng x l thng tin, dn n ci thin c vic hc tp. Vic a s dng chin lc vo gin hc tp ca mnh khng phi l d dng i vi mi hc sinh, nn cn c hng dn chin lc ring bit i vi nhng hc sinh cn h tr v ch dn chu o v c th hn nhng hc sinh khc.

Ti sao dy tr em gii chin lc li quan trng?

o Lut Gio Dc Dnh Cho Ngi B Khuyt Tt (The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ban hnh nm 1997 v o Lut Khng Tr Em No Tt Hu (the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act) ban hnh nm 2001 tp trung ci thin thnh tch cho mi hc sinh. IDEA bt buc rng ton b hc sinh phi c nhn v hc theo mt gio trnh gio dc ph thng. iu ny bao gm c hc sinh khuyt tt, hc sinh hc anh ng, v hc sinh nng khiu. NCLB thit lp nhng mc tiu thc hin cho cc trng cng n lc hng ti, c bit l t c s thnh thc trong cc mn x hi v ton cho ton th hc sinh trc nin hc 2013-2014. Nhng kt qu c lit k di y gip hc sinh m bo theo c tin trnh. Thm vo , khi hc sinh tr thnh nhng ngi hc thnh tho chin lc v c lp, h cng s tr thnh nhng ngi hay ch v hc hiu qu trong sut cuc i.

16

Kt qu nhn c khi hc sinh thnh tho v chin lc

C th hy vng nhng kt qu sau: - Hc sinh tin vo suy ngh ca mnh. - Hc sinh bit c rng c nhiu cch lm cng mt vic. - Hc sinh nhn thc c li ca mnh v c sa. - Hc sinh nh gi c kt qu v hnh vi ca mnh. - Nng cao kh nng nh. - Ci thin c vic hc. - Nng cao lng t trng. - Nng cao thc v nng lc. - Tng tinh thn trch nhim. - Ci thin mc han thnh v tnh chnh xc ca cng vic. - Hc sinh pht trin v s dng mt tin trnh hc tp c thit k cho ring mnh. - Hc sinh bit cch c gng. - Thi gian dnh cho lm bi tp tng ln; hc sinh hm h hn trong hc tp.

Nhng chin lc no quan trng nht cn c dy?

Vic ny c quyt nh phn ln da vo nh gi nhng g m cc hc sinh thnh cng tri nghim. Thc t cho thy cc hc sinh ny s dng nhiu chin lc cho cc mn hc v bi tp, chng hn nh nhng "chin lc nhn thc" ni trn. H bit khi no cn s dng chin lc v dng chng cho mc ch no. Khng th bit c cc chin lc quan trng nht no m hc sinh cn phi hc. iu ny ph thuc vo nhu cu ca hc sinh, v yu cu ca chng trnh hc. Tuy nhin, hc sinh no s dng nhng chin lc di y thng s ci thin c kt qu hc (danh sch ny khng bao gm tt c): Tnh ton v gii quyt vn : din t thnh li, hnh dung trong tr c, tch thnh tng on cho d nh, lin tng vi nhng iu bit, s dng cc g . Nh: Hnh dung trong tr c, din t thnh li, thut nh, to s lin kt gia nhng iu bit, tch thnh tng on cho d nh, v vit.
17

Nhng chin lc ny thng s hiu qu hn khi dng kt hp Nng sut: din t thnh li, t theo di, hnh hnh dung trong tr c, s dng nhng gi . c chnh xc v tri chy: D ngn tay hay di theo dng ch, c ln nhng t mi, t cht vn v chnh xc, tch thnh tng on cho d nh, v s dng nhng gi trong ng cnh. c hiu: Hnh dung trong tr c, t cu hi, c li, on trc. Vit: Tho k hoch, n li, t cu hi, s dng gi ,din t thnh li, hnh dung , kim tra v theo di.

Dy hc sinh s dng chin lc th no?

Hng dn chin lc sao cho hiu qu l mt phn thit yu trong bi ging ca bt k ni dung ging dy no; khng phi l mt mn hc c thm vo. Trong m hnh hng dn nhng chin lc giao dch (TSI), vic hng dn chin lc din ra trong sut nm hc khi gio vin a ra nhng li gii thch v lm mu. Cc gio vin lun biu dng hc sinh s dng cc chin lc v tn dng mi thi gian trng tho lun v chng. Hc sinh c khuyn khch gip bn b ca mnh thng tho chin lc hn.

C cc bc c bn no trong vic dy s dng chin lc?

Cn tun theo trt t ca cc bc sau: -M t chin lc: Hc sinh c c s hiu bit v chin lc v mc ch ca nti sao chin lc quan trng, s dng khi no, v s dng ra sao. -Lm mu khi s dng: Gio vin lm mu chin lc, gii thch cho hc sinh lm th no thc hin n. - Dnh nhiu thi gian thc tp c tr gip: Gio vin theo di, cung cp gi , v a ra phn hi. Thc hnh dn n mc thnh tho m hc sinh khng phi ngh n cch s dng chin lc . -Thc y hc sinh t theo di v nh gi nhng chin lc s dng cho ring c nhn. Hc sinh thng dng chin lc no tt cho h; v chin lc s tr thnh mt phn trong gin hc tp ca hc sinh. -Khuyn khch s dng lin tc v khi qut ha chin lc. Khuyn khch hc sinh th nghim chin lc trong nhng tnh hung hc tp khc nhau.

18

Vic Hng Dn Chin lc ang din ra trong cc lp hc mc no?

Hin nay, c qu t d liu c th c xem xt c bao nhiu gio vin dy nhng k nng hc tp (theo) chin lc, c bao nhiu gio vin nhn thc c s tn ti ca chin lc, v c k nng dy chng. Ch mt s t gio vin c th minh ho cho hc sinh cch s dng chin lc cho ring mnh. Ni chung, gio vin hin nay khng nhn thc c tm quan trng ca nhng k nng ny. Tht ra th vi t d liu nh th tm kt lun c rng vic hng dn chin lc khng c ph bin cc lp hc ph thng. Sau y l vi li gii thch cho tnh trng ny: - Cng trnh nghin cu ban u v hng dn chin lc c hon thnh ch yu trong nhng cng ng khuyt tt v hc tp. Chng trnh gio dc ph thng khng ph cp nhng kt qu nghin cu ny cho ton th ngi hc. - Hc sinh hc nh th no thng khng quan trng bng hc ci g . Gio vin cho rng hc sinh phi t mnh bit cch hc, hoc hc vi nhng hng dn trc tip t gio vin, hoc hc bng cch thc tp. - Khi nim ly hc sinh lm trung tm vn cn qu s khai. - Nhng nh gio dc qu ti cng l mt yu t. Gio vin, ngi chu nhiu p lc v trch nhim vi s tin b ca hc sinh, cm thy khng cn thi gian hc thm bt k iu g, c bit l vi nhng g h cha tin l s ci thin vic hc cho hc sinh. - Rt nhiu cc nh nghin cu vn cn ang gip cc nh gio dc p dng nghin cu v cc chin lc vo thc tin. Con s cc gio trnh hng dn chin lc cn ang gia tng, c bit l trong tp c v vit.

Ti liu tham kho

Beckman, P., & Weller, C. (1990). Active, independent learning for children with learning disabilities. TeachingExceptional Children, 21/22, 26-29. Cornford, I. R. (2002, 7 December). Learning-to-learn skills for lifelong learning: Some implications for curriculum development and teacher education. Paper presented at the AARE annual conference, Sydney, Australia. De La Paz, S. (1999). Self-regulated strategy instruction in regular education settings: Improving outcomes for students with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 14, 92-118. De La Paz, S., Owen, B., Harris, K., & Graham, S. (2000). Riding Elvis motorcycle: Using self-regulated strategy development to PLAN and WRITE for a state writing exam. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 15, 101-109.

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Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., Lenz, B. K., Bulgren, J. A., Hock, M. F., Knight, J., & Ehren, B. J. (2001). Ensuring content-area learning by secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 96-108. Hamman, D. (1998). Preservice teachers value for learning-strategy instruction. Journal of ExperimentalEducation, 66, 209-222. Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self- regulation. Cambridge: MA: Brookline Books. Keene, E. O., & Zimmermann, S. (1997). Mosaic of thought. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Logan, J.W., Olson, M.W., & Lindsey,T. P. (1993). Lessons from champion spellers. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 13, 89-96. Meichenbaum, D., & Biemiller, A. (1998). Nurturing independent learners. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Pressley, M., & Woloshyn,V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves childrens academic performance. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

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Cc k nng hc tp: Tng quan

EMSTAC (2001). Study Skills: An Overview. Washington, DC: Elementary and Middle Schools Technical Assistance Center, American Institutes for Research. Retrieved December 10, 2006, from http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/studyskillsoverview.htm

Gip tr em ngh v cch hc ca mnh

Tr em la tui t 7 n 11 bt u sp xp ngh ca chng thnh cc h thng v phn loi. Cc h thng v phn loi ny gip chng pht trin cch thc gii quyt vn . Gio vin v cc bc ph huynh c th h tr qu trnh ny bng cch gip tr em pht trin cch thc hc tp,hay ni chung hn, l cc k nng hc tp. Nghin cu cho chng ta thy rng trong khi s tin tin v kh nng hc gip ci thin vic hc tp th s thiu t tin li cn tr vic hc. Cc sinh vin s dng cc k nng hc tp hiu qu th c c s hn tin rng h c th hc tp. V th, h c kh nng thnh cng hn. Cn nhiu iu chng ta cha bit v b no ca con ngi. Trong khi nghin cu tip tc khm ph v cch no b ca chng ta x l v lu gi thng tin, chng ta c th tm ra mt s cch thc hc tp, trn thc t, hiu qu hn chng ta tng ngh ti trong khi nhng cch khc km hiu qu hn. Pht hin mi ny s thc y s pht trin cc chin lc hc tp mi. Hin nay, ngi ta thng s dng nhiu chin lc hc tp da trn nghin cu khc nhau. Phn tng quan ny s c gng trnh by thng tin v chin lc hc tp da trn nghin cu m v ang c s dng rng ri v tt nht cho n hin nay.

K nng hc tp l g?
K nng hc tp l cc chin lc hc sao cho vic x l thng tin tr nn d dng (lm n gin ha qu trnh x l thng tin). Cc k nng hc tp gip chng ta t chc v x l thng tin. Chng gip chng ta ghi nh nhng g chng ta hc. Cc k nng hc tp pht huy tt nht khi chng ta nhn thc c qu trnh t hc ca mnh. V d, khi chng ta mun cng c cc ghi nh v bi hc lch s m chng ta hc trong lp, chng ta nn c lt qua cc ghi ch ca mnh gip nh li bi hc v nhn thc c nhng im cn ch trng. Qu trnh nhn thc v t duy v hc tp ny ca chng ta c bit nh l qu trnh siu nhn thc. K nng hc tp bao gm mt lot cc hnh vi m hc sinh c th thc hin trc, trong v sau khi hc tp gip h duy tr v p dng cc thng tin c trnh by trong lp hc hay nh. iu quan trng l gio vin hay ph huynh phi thc y v gim st s pht trin ca cc k nng ny, v cc k nng hc tp tr nn hiu qu nht khi sinh vin s dng cc k nng ny t ti cch thc ring ca h trong vic t chc vic hc.

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Qu trnh chun b hc: K lut c nhn, t qun l, k nng t chc, thi tch cc i vi vic hc, v kh nng t gim st l nhng k nng hc tp s gip ch cho sinh vin trong qu trnh chun b hc. X l v lu gi nhng g c hc: Ghi ch, phc tho, lng nghe, hc hi thng tin t mt vn bn, v k nng tham kho th vin l nhng k nng hc tp gip sinh vin trong vic lm th no c c kin thc. Th hin v p dng nhng g c hc: ghi nh hoc gi nh li t tr nh, k nng lm bi kim tra, v th hin s hiu bit bng li hoc thng qua bi vit l nhng k nng gip sinh vin p dng tri thc ca mnh. Mt s cch h tr ghi nh thng dng bao gm cc bn cu chuyn hoc khi nim v cc quy tc d nh. Mt bn cu chuyn hay khi nim sp xp thng tin trong cu chuyn hay on vn nh l nhn vt, s st t, s kin ni bt v ch - gip sinh vin tp trung vo cc yu t quan trng. Nu sinh vin vit mt bn khi nim cho tng cu chuy h c, h gn nh l nh c nhng cu chuyn . Cui cng l, hu ht sinh vin s c th xc nh cc yu t chnh ca truyn trong khi c, m khng cn c gng g nhiu. Cc quy tc d nh, hay cc cch h tr ghi nh, c th gip sinh vin ghi nh cc khi nim kh. Ly v d t ranidae, tn Latinh ca h ch. Nu bn ngh n vic m t nghe ging nh th no, bn c th ngh n t ngy ma (rainy day). Nu bn nh km mi lin h ny vo mt bn h tr ghi nh trc quan no y, bn c th gi nh n bng mt bc tranh con ch trong ma. Kt hp vi nhau, t lin h v hnh nh trc quan c th s gip bn nh rng ranidae l i din cho h nh ch.

Ti sao chng ta dy k nng hc tp?

Cc k nng hc tp c th p dng i vi bt k trng thi hc tp no tnh hu ch ca chng khng ch gii hn trong lp hc. Vi t cch ngi ln, chng ta s dng k nng t chc v lng nghe ca mnh hng ngy qun l cng vic, nh ca v ti chnh ca chng ta. Kh nng duy tr thng tin ca chng ta c vn khai thc thng xuyn. Kh nng ny gip chng ta ghi nh cc thi hn trong cng vic chng ta c th hon thnh cng vic kp lc; kh nng ny nhc chng ta xng cho xe nn chng ta khng b ht xng gia ng. Hu ht cc nh nghin cu tn ng rng cc k nng hc tp cn thit cho s thnh cng trong trng hc, nhng gio vin, di p lc phi t c cc tiu chun v yu cu ca chng trnh ging dy, c xu hng tp trung vo ni dung ch khng phi l vo ging dy k nng cho hc sinh gip h hp th nhng ni dung . Cc gio vin c th tng rng cc ph huynh phi dy con h cc k nng hc tp trong khi ph huynh li cho l cc k nng hc tp c dy nh mt phn ging dy trn lp. Kt qu l, nhiu hc sinh tht bi trong qu trnh pht trin cch thc hc tp cho hiu qu, nht l i vi nhng hc sinh c vn v hnh vi hay hc tp hoc khim khuyt hc tp nh. Nhng hc sinh ny, nhng ngi thng gp rc ri trong vic t kim sot v tun th s t chc, c l c th t c li ch nht t vic hng dn k nng hc tp.
22

Cc nghin cu ni bt
Hng dn k nng hc tp l g?
Hng dn k nng hc tp lin quan n vic dy cho hc sinh cch s dng qu trnh suy ngh v t duy, thng thng theo tng bc. iu ny i hi hc sinh nhn bit, nh li , v thc hin cac bc c th trong cch thc hay k nng hc tp. Bng cch nm vng cc k nng ny, sinh vin c trang b cc cng c "hc cch hc". iu ny c gi l siu nhn thc (megacognition). Cc k nng hc tp K nng hc tp bao gm cc kh nng tip thu, ghi nhn, t chc, tng hp, ghi nh v s dng thng tin v tng. K nng hc tp bao gm nhiu hnh vi lin quan n cc tnh hung a dng ca mi lin h nh trng gia nh Nhng k nng ny bao gm qu trnh chun b hc (v d k lut c nhn, k nng t chc, thi , kh nng t kim sot), cch ngi hc tip thu kin thc (v d nh lng nghe, ghi nhn, phc tho, v t chc), v p dng kin thc (v d lm bi kim tra, vit, ghi nh, v t gim st).

Ti sao Hng dn k nng hc tp li quan trng?

Cc nh nghin cu gio dc nh Gordon Alley, Candace S. Bos, and Donald Deshler, tm ra rng cc hc sinh t thnh tch trong lp hc, h phi s dng cc cch thc hiu qu trong vic hc v lu gi thng tin. Khng c g ngc nhin khi cc hc sinh c vn v hnh vi v hc hnh thng kh pht trin cc k nng ny. H thng s dng mt s gii hn cc cch thc, thiu linh hot trong cch tip cn ca h i vi hc tp, v thng tht bi trong vic s dng cc k nng hc tp hiu qu t c thnh tch trong hc tp. Rt thng thy cc hc sinh t n bc trung hc vi ni lc rt hn ch, h thng thiu kh nng hc, lm th no hc. Cc hc sinh c cc k nng hc tp hiu qu c kh nng cm thy thnh tho v t tin vo kh nng hc tp ca mnh. iu ny dn n thi tch cc hn trong cc cng tc trng hc. Cc k nng hc tp gip hc sinh trong vic hc trn c ng i ch khng ch trong vic hc tp mt cch hn lm. Cc k nng c bit nh t chc, lng nghe, v lu gi thng tin c th c ng dng trong cc tnh hung v s thit lp khc nhau, nh khi p dng i vi mt cng vic hay lp k hoch cho cc vic vt. V th iu quan trng l gio vin phi to cho hc sinh thc v cc dng khc nhau ca k nng hc tp v li ch ca cc k nng .

Hc sinh no c th c li t Hng dn k nng hc tp?

Nhng hc sinh cn s h tr v k nng hc tp nht l nhng hc sinh in hnh c vn trong hc tp hoc mt kh nng dng nh. Cc hc sinh ny thng gp
23

kh khn trong vic kim sot thi quen hc tp ca mnh v tun th t chc. Cc hc sinh chuyn cp vo Trung hc c s hay trung hc ph thng v phi iu chnh theo khi lng cng vic mi. H c th nhn thy cc k nng dng trc y khng p ng cc mc tiu hc tp mi ca mnh. Cc hc sinh c th c khuyn khch s dng cc k thut t nh gi ging nh phn t phn tch hc sinh trong Bn k K nng hc tp (xem trang k tip).

Nhng tr ngi no khin cc k nng hc tp khng c dy r rng?

Tht tr tru l, cc gio vin bc trung hc c s phi i ph vi cc thch thc v qun l thi gian ca mnh khi h mong mun lng ghp cc hng dn lin quan n k nng hc tp hoc cch thc hc tp vo trong lch dy qu bn rn ca mnh. Thng cc gio vin phi chu sc p trong vic t c cc mc tiu v tiu chun v chng trnh ging dy ca Qun v Quc gia, m nhng mc tiu v tiu chun li c khi khng c hng dn k nng hc tp. C th thng cm c rng, nhiu gio vin ch trng vo ni dung ging dy hn l cc cch thc, v hy vng hay tin rng hc sinh ca h hoc l c trang b nhng k nng , hoc l chng s t hc bng cch no khi tip thu bi ging. y l mt kh nng kh him hoi. Nhiu gio vin v ph huynh c tng rng hc sinh c c k nng hc tp hiu qu l t chng c cn khng l thng qua trng hc. Khng may rng, trong khi hu ht cc nh nghin cu cho rng cc k nng hc tp l iu kin tin quyt cho thnh cng trong tng hc th cc k nng ny li ch c kt hp mt cch khng thng xuyn vo trong mt chng trnh ging dy c cu, chnh thc ha.

T nh gi ca hc sinh bng bn k cc k nng hc tp

Bng k ny gip cc hc sinh nh gi h hc tp nh th no c hiu qu nht. Cc gio vin nn qun l cc bn k ny cho hc sinh ca mnh h c th gip hc sinh ca mnh xc nh chng c th ci thin phng php hc hin ti ca chng nh th no.

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Hu ht Lun lun 1. Ti c hiu cc ch dn c a ra trong lp khng? 2. Ti c ghi ch nhng g hu ch khng? 3. Ti c t cu hi khi khng hiu iu g khng? 4. Ti c hiu bi ging v cc tho lun khng? 5. Ti c theo kp cc cng vic c giao khng? 6. Ti c cm thy thiu trt t (ri tung) hu ht thi gian khng? 7. Ti c tham gia vo cc cuc tho lun trn lp khng? 8. Ti c thy kh khn khi hon thnh cc bi tp khng? 9. Ti c cm thy lun sn sng mi lc khng? 10. Ti c qu kh khn tm t vng khi c khng? 11. Ti c mt ni thng thng m ti hc khng? 12. Ti c mt a im thng thng hc khng? 13. Ti c lp dn hay tm tt nhng g c khng? 14. Ti c tun th lch kim tra hay bi tp khng? 15. Ti c thng xem li bi hc v nhng ghi ch khi c khng?

i khi

Rt Him khi

25

Cc nghin cu cho chng ta bit g v Hng dn k nng hc tp hiu qu?

Cc nh nghin cu pht trin mt s cc cch thc gip hc sinh nng cao cc k nng hc tp ca mnh. Cc cch thc ny c th p dng 3 cp hc tp: chun b hc, nm bt tri thc, v ng dng kin thc. Hn na, cc gio vin c th dng cc nguyn l v cc b quyt m c phc tho ra trong ti liu ny gip hc sinh nh gi k nng ca mnh, lp k hoch v kim sot cc mc tiu, v pht trin mt h thng nhm ci thin thi quen hc tp. iu quan trng l gio vin phi cung cp hng dn r rng lin quan n cch thc hc v k nng hc tp cho cc hc sinh c s ri lon trong vic hc v trong hnh vi. Hng dn nh vy c th c ci vo cc bi hc ni dung c bn. Cc cch thc hiu qu nht cho cc hc sinh ny l tng qut, c th p dng vo phm vi tng i ph qut ca bi cnh hc tp, v trc din.

Mc tiu ca vic ging dy K nng hc tp v Hng dn cc cch thc khc l g?

Vic hun luyn chin lc trong cc k nng hc tp s gip hc sinh x l cc thng tin. C 4 mc tiu cn t c m gio vin nn ghi nh khi ging dy v s dng nhng cch can thip ny.

Ci thin kin thc c bn

iu ny s gip ch cho hc sinh v mt cu phn ch yu trong qu trnh hc l kt ni cc tng mi vi nhng iu bit. Mt hc sinh cng quen thuc vi mt ch hay khi nim th cng c nn tng ln xy dng cc kin thc mi. Ngoi ra, hc sinh cng gii phn nh cc kin thc sn c ca mnh th cng tch cc hn trong qu trnh hc tp.

Pht trin hay nng cp cc gin

y l mc tiu s gip hc sinh thng qua vic h tr h xy dng cc khun kh v c cu cho vic hc tp. Nhng phng php hc tp c t chc ny gip hc sinh thu nhn kin thc bng cch trao quyn cho hc sinh to ra khng gian cho cc thng tin mi m nhng thng tin ny kt ni vi cc khi nim trc y v kinh nghim ca hc sinh. Bng cch ny, cc thng tin tr nn r rng v d dng hn khi x l.

Nng cao cc quy tc d nh

iu ny s gip hc sinh tr nn nng ng v nht qun trong vic t hc ca mnh, bng cch tham gia vo vic lp k hoch, gim st, v kim sot qu trnh hc tp. Hc tp l vn c nhn, v hc sinh phi suy ngm v th mnh v im yu ca mnh vi t cch l mt hc vin pht trin cch thc hiu qu ci thin qu trnh hc. (Wood, Woloshyn, & Willoughby, 1995).
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Thc thi cc chin lc hc tp

Hc sinh s c c li ch nhiu nht t cc k nng hc tp v cc phng php hng dn chin lc khi h c c hi p dng nhng iu ny vo vic hc tp ca mnh trng cng nh nh. Hc vin phi khi qut vic s dng cc chin lc hc tp qua mt lot cc mi trng v cc tnh hung nu h mun tr thnh ngi hc ch ng v c lp.

Hng dn trong lp hc v cc m hnh

Phn ny tp trung vo cch gio vin c th gip hc sinh hc hiu qu hn bng cch trnh by cc k thut khc nhau s dng trong lp hc. d hiu hn, cc k thut ny c th c t chc vo cc nhm hu ch nht khi hc sinh: 1. chun b hc, 2. trong qu trnh tip thu kin thc mi, v 3. c hi v p dng nhng g m hc sinh bit. Chun b cho bi hc i hi hc sinh pht huy thi tch cc i vi vic hc v tr thnh thnh tho trong k lut c nhn, lp k hoch, t chc, t kim sot v t nh gi. Khi t c cc k nng lp k hoch, t chc v qun l kin thc, hc sinh c th chu trch nhim v cm thy t ho vi vic hc tp ca mnh. Khi hc sinh sn sng tip thu kin thc mi, h phi s dng cc k nng khc hiu v ghi nh nhng g c hc.Thng qua vic ging dy hp tc, hc tp mt cch cng tc, v hng dn h tr, cc sinh vin thu c cc k thut hc v nghin cu nng cao kh nng hc tp ca mnh. Sau hc sinh s dng mt lot cc k nng biu hin p dng cc kin thc mi. Nhng k nng ny bao gm ghi nh, chin lc lm bi kim tra, v cc k nng th hin ni v vit. giai on ny, hc sinh tp trung vo vic lm th no p dng v chng minh s hiu bit v nhng g c hc. xy dng cc k nng m hc sinh s dng trong qu trnh chun b hc v qu trnh tip thu kin thc mi, hc sinh gi cn phi (1) chng minh s hiu bit v nhng g c hc, v (2) p dng qu trnh hc tp trn mt lot cc thit lp v cc tnh hung. Mc d cc k thut c phn nhm nh vy, vn rt c kh nng c mt vi k thut c dng cho c 3 mc ch. Mt vi im quan trng cn nh: Nhng hc sinh hc km (thiu/t kh nng hc - LD) nhn chung gp vn vi x l thng tin v phi pht trin / ci thin cc k nng trong cc lnh vc ny, tuy nhin, cc chin lc hc tp / nghin cu cung cp khng ch l hu ch cho sinh vin LD, chng cng c th em li li ch rt ln cho cc hc sinh khng c vn LD. Nhng hc sinh c chin lc hc tp v nghin cu hiu qu l nhng ngi hc
27

tch cc bit nhn thc v kim sot vic hc ca mnh.Thng th hc sinh LD quen vi vic hc tp th ng, v c th thiu k nng theo di qu trnh hc tp ca mnh. Mc tiu ging dy k nng hc tp l lm cho sinh vin c trang b tt hn vi cc chin lc hc tp hiu qu, iu ny s tng cng s chuyn i hc vin t th ng sang tch cc.

Qu trnh chun b hc
Thng qua s pht trin k nng trong vic lp k hoch, t chc v qun l thi gian, hc sinh c th t mnh chun b tt hn hc tp. Phn ny bao gm cc v d v chin lc v cc cng c c th hu ch cho hc sinh giai on ca qu trnh hc tp.

Qun l thi gian

iu quan trng i vi hc sinh l pht trin cc thi quen v kim sot thi gian ca mnh. Chng trnh, danh sch vic cn lm, hp ng v t gim st l tt c cc cng c hu ch trong vic pht trin ca k lut t gic.

Lp k hoch. Hc sinh c th to ra phn b qu thi gian (time budget

accounting) v thi gian dnh cho cc vic cn lm. Bos & Vaughn (1998) cung cp nhng gi m hc sinh c th s dng qun l mt lch trnh. Cc gio vin c th cn gip hc sinh hc cch t tin tng bc ti u ha cht lng hc tp. Vic gi nhp thch hp c th lin quan n vic hc cc th theo khi (chunks), iu ny ngc vi vic x l mi th cng mt lc, v kt hp nhng lc ngh ngi vi vic hc trnh kit sc. Nhp c th l mt kt qu t nhin ca mt lch trnh hp l.

Qun l thi gian (Bos & Vaughn, 1998)

1. Lp k hoch thi gian hc tp thng thng. 2. Lp k hoch t nht l mt gi cho mt vic trong khi hc. 3. Lp k hoch cho cc bi tp s lm trong thi gian hc. 4. Dnh 5 pht u ca mi hot ng hc tp xem xt li nhng g bn lm v nhng g hc, v ln k hoch nhng g s hon tt trong hm nay. Vic ny gip thc y qu trnh hc lu di v thc hon tt. 5. Khi hc lu hn 1 gi, ln k hoch ngh v c nh thi gian cho php ngh ngi. 6. S dng thi gian ban ngy hoc chiu ti hc nu c. Hu ht mi ngi hot ng km hiu hiu qu vo bui ti. 7. Gii quyt c ch hc ba nht ca bn vo lc bn minh mn (lanh l) nht. 8. Phn b vic hc ca bn hn l hc go cho bi kim tra. (vd. Bt u hc cho bi kim tra sm hn hai tun).
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9. Cn bng thi gian ca bn gia vic hc v cc hot ng khc. Dnh thi gian cho cc hot ng gii tr. 10. T thng cho mnh bng cch nh du thng qua lch trnh ca bn mi khi bn hon thnh mt d nh trong lch trnh v bng cch gch cho mc bn hon thnh trong danh sch nhng vic cn lm.

Danh sch vic phi lm, danh mc kim tra, hp ng

Danh mc kim tra: Mt k hoch hng ngy / hng tun cho lch trnh hng ngy, v lch hoc k hoch hng thng cho lch trnh di hn. Nhng cng c ny cung cp mt cu trc t nhin to ra danh sch vic cn lm, danh sch kim tra, v lch trnh lm bi tp v nh, cc d n, kim tra, v bi vit, v cc nhim v khc lin quan n trng hc. Cng c qun l thi gian nh vy khng cn phi mua; chng c th c to ra mt cch c nhn. Tuy nhin khi lc s dng nhng cng c ny, iu quan trng l hc sinh s dng chng thng xuyn, c ngha l, hc sinh nn s dng k hoch ca mnh, v d, cho tt c cc nhim v ca mnh trong tt c cc lp hc (khng ch trong lp ting Anh), v nn cp n n hng ngy theo di tin cng vic, cp nht cc bi tp mi, v kim tra cc nhim v hon thnh. Hp ng. Mt hp ng hc tp/ nghin cu l mt l mt nhc nh c tnh vt cht cho s t gim st v lp k hoch mc tiu. Khi mt hc sinh tham gia vo hp ng, c ta/ anh ta ng hon thnh mt mc tiu trong mt thi gian nht nh v s c khen thng khi hon thnh c mc tiu ng hn, cng nh b pht khi khng p ng cc mc tiu. Vic xy dng trong cc tnh nng v quy trnh c th p ng cc mc tiu nu trong hp ng, chng hn nh cc bc cn phi c thc hin p ng mc tiu (phn tch cc nhim v cn phi lm c kt qu), cc ti liu / cng c cn thit t cc mc tiu, mt lch trnh ca cc tiu thi hn t ti thi hn cui cng, s tng cng hp ng tt hn v ng vai tr nh l mt "k hoch tr chi" ton din hn i vi hc sinh. Hp ng cn c thit lp gia hc sinh v gio vin v s c cng c chc chn hn vi s ng gp ca ph huynh hc sinh. Mt s tnh nng v quy trnh c th ca mt hp ng ton din , mt k hoch tr chi cho hc sinh bao gm: 1. Cc bc cn thc hin t mc tiu (phn tch cc nhim v cn hon thnh c kt qu cui cng); 2. Cc cng c/ ti liu cn thit t mc tiu; v 3.Mt lch trnh cc tiu thi hn (mini-deadlines) hon thnh ng thi hn cui cng.

T gim st v cng c h tr. MARKER, MURDER, v LEARN l cc cng

c hu ch gip hc sinh hc cch qun l thi gian ca minh v t gim st.

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MARKER
M (Make) = To mt danh sch cc mc tiu, lp th t thc hin, nh ngy thc hin. A (Arange) = Sp sp mt k hoch cho tng mc tiu v d nh thnh cng ca bn. R (Run) = Thc hin k hoch ca bn cho tng mc tiu v iu chnh nu cn. K (Keep)= Ghi chp li qu trnh thc hin ca bn. E (Evaluate) = nh gi qu trnh tin ti mc tiu ca bn. R (Reward) = T thng cho bn chi t c mc tiu, v lp mc tiu mi. (Bos & Vaughn, 1998, taken from Van Reusen & Bos, 1992)

MURDER
Tm trng (Mood): Thit lp mt tm trng tch cc cho mnh i vi vic hc. Chn thi im, mi trng v trng thi thch hp. Hiu bit (Understand): nh du bt k thng tin no m bn khng hiu trong mt bi hc c th; Gi tp trung vo mt bi hc hay mt nhm cc bi tp c th qun l c. Nh li (Recall): Sau khi hc mt bi hc, dng li v t nhng th bn hc c vo theo cch ni ca bn. Nghin ngm (Digest): Tr li nhng g bn khng hiu v xem xt li cc thng tin. Lin h vi cc ngun chuyn gia bn ngoi (v d, cun sch khc hoc ngi hng dn) nu bn vn cha th hiu n. M rng(Expand): Trong bc ny, t 3 loi cu hi lin quan n ti liu hc: Nu c th ni chuyn vi tc gi, ti s hi g hoc a ra nhng ph bnh g? Ti s p dng ti liu ny vo iu ti quan tm nh th no? Ti c th lm cho thng tin ny th v v d hiu i vi hc sinh khc bng cch no? Xem xt (Review): Xem li ti liu bn dng. Xem xt nhng iu m cc chin lc gip bn hiu v/ hoc lu gi thng tin trong qu kh v p dng chng cho cc hc tp ca bn hin ti.

HC (LEARN)
L = Lng nghe cc gi , manh mi, v cc thng tin quan trng. E = Kim tra sch, bo v cc ghi ch ca bn. A = p dng cc chin lc ghi nh v hc tp.
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R = R sot (xem xt) li mi ti. N = Chc chn khi lm bi kim tra! (Day & Hackett, 1996)

Cch t chc sp xp vt dng/thng tin Cch t chc sp xp v ghi chp. iu quan trng i vi hc sinh l t
chc sp xp cc ti liu hc tp v v ghi ca c ta/cu ta sao cho c ta/ cu ta c th nh li c v s dng cc thng tin mt cch hiu qu v d dng. Sau y l v d v cch gio vin c th gip hc sinh trong t chc sp xp cc v ghi ch ca h:

Cc quy trnh ging dy:

Cnh bo ph huynh v vic s kim tra cch cu to v ghi chp ca con h, v gi v nh danh sch vt dng cn c, bao gm cc th sau: V ghi chp 3 cng c th thm trang d dng Cung cp cp v cc vt dng trng hc nh: bt mc, bt ch, ty, cc a my tnh, my tnh, my c l, gi th tp tin, thc k Ti ng chia ngn c dn nhn mt ngn cho mt loi, cng vi nhng th khc c dn nhn "Tin v Lch", "Thng tin tham kho", "T in ghi chp," "Danh sch t c nhn", "Giy ghi ch"," Giy v th "," giy cho my tnh." Lm cho hc sinh nhn vo v ghi ca chng xc nh cch chng sp xp t chc nhng thng tin thnh tng loi, cc bi tp, lch tin , v cc vt dng ca chng. Lm vic vi hc sinh t chc sp xp v ghi chp ca h, s dng cc ch dn sau: Phi bao gm mt lch hc k, thi kha biu tng tun, v danh sch cc vic phi lm trong tng lch tin v lch hc k. Sau khi phn nhm, sp xp cc vt dng, ti liu vo tng nhm (bt u vi nhm u hay chng trnh hc). Ghi ch ngy v sp xp theo th t. Trong danh mc t c nhn, lit k theo th t ch ci cc t thng pht m sai (Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 1997, p. 494) Ngi t chc sp xp nng cao to nn mt cu trc kt hp nhng g hc sinh bit vi nhng g gio vin nh cho hc sinh hc. V d v cc t chc sp xp nng cao bao gm nhng khng gii hn nh t chc ha, hng dn nghin cu v phc tho mc. (Xem v d a ch http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/definitions/advanceorganizers.htm.)

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 T chc ha l mt loi t chc sp xp nng cao. Mt t chc sp xp ha trnh by nhng g hc sinh bit v cc ch hoc tp trc bi hc, ch ra nhng g mong mun hc sinh tm hiu v nm bt nhng g hc sinh hc c phn cui ca bi hc. V d v cc t chc ha bao gm nhng khng gii hn l bn cu chuyn, mng tho lun v biu mi quan h. (Xem v d ti http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/definitions/graphicorganizers.htm.) Cc bn khi nim, cn c gi l s khi nim, bn ni dung, bn cu chuyn, s ng ngha, hoc bn ng ngha, thng c s dng u tin nh mt cng c khi ng hc tp. Mt bn khi nim nm bt mt cch trc quan nhng g hc sinh bit v ch cn tm hiu (xem cc v d cho), v bng cch vn dng tr tu tp th (brainstorming) c thm tng v ch t hc sinh, bn ny bt u cung cp mt bi cnh trong hc sinh c th suy ngh v ch . Bn ny sau c th dng nh l mt cng c phc v mt hot ng ang din ra v l mt vt h tr trc quan sng ng cho hc sinh tip tc hc tp v tm hiu cc ch , v cui cng l mt cng c r sot li gip hc sinh chc chn rng c ta/cu ta hiu r v ch (Xem v d ti http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/definitions/conceptmaps.htm.) Cc biu mi quan h. Mt cng c v chin lc ging dy phn tch cc tnh nng ng ngha, cc biu mi quan h c tnh nng tng t bn khi nim; n cung cp mt cch hin th trc quan c t chc cc khi nim, t vng lin quan v kin thc nn ca hc sinh v cc ni dung hc tp trong 1 bi ging, chng hay bi hc c a ra (Bos & Vaughn, 1998). c trng trong cc biu mi quan h l cc v d (l lm ni bt nhng g hc sinh nn bit v mt khi nim) v phn v d (lm ni bt nhng g hc sinh thng hiu sai v mt khi nim) ca mt ch hc tp, lm ni r ch tch cc, tiu cc, hoc cc mi quan h khng tn ti gia cc khi nim v t vng lin quan. Bos & Vaughn (1998) cung cp mt bn gii thch chi tit v cch s dng mt biu quan h trong lp hc. (Xem cc v d: http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/definitions/relationshipmaps.htm.)

Cc hc vin tip thu kin thc nh th no?

tip thu cc kin thc mi, hc sinh cn phi to thc vi cc thng tin mi. Thng th hc sinh cn cc k nng c th m c th gip chng lm iu . Cc k nng ny hay chin lc hc tp (vd., cc k nng ghi ch, phc tho, hc cc thng tin t mt on vn, tham kho th vin) l cc phng php k thut hc tp m gip chng ta x l, v lu gi mt cch c bn, cc thng tin (Bos &Vaughn, 1998, ly t Lock, 1981, t. 305). Hc sinh cng c hng li t s can thip ca gio vin v vic hng dn theo m hnh c s dng cc chic lc hc tp v gip thng tin mi d tip cn hn i vi hu ht hc sinh. Cc gio vin c th s dng cc k thut hng dn c b sung cc chin lc cho cc hc sinh ang hc cch t s dng cc chin lc . Cch tip cn kt hp ny s cng c cc khi nim v nui dng s t tin cho tt c hc sinh ang cn tip tc hon tt cc thch thc trong hc tp m chng phi i mt.
32

Bng cch no ti c th thay i hng dn ca mnh cho ph hp gip cc hc sinh tip thu kin thc mt cch hiu qu?
C mt s bin php m gio vin c th thay i cch hng dn hoc lm cho ph hp gip cho cc hc sinh km hoc nhng hc vin khc nhng ngi cn s h tr hc cch hc. Thng thng, cc k thut ny l s m rng hay bin th da trn kh nhiu thc tin ging dy m gio vin thng xuyn s dng. Cc k thut khc c th i hi nhiu cc hot ng ln k hoch v cn nhc hn v pha gio vin, nhng kt qu l cc chgn trnh ging dy c cu trc v d tip cn hn cho tt c hc sinh. Mt cac tip cn tng qut cho vic dy mt chin lc hc tp cho hc sinh bao gm cc bc sau: 1. Kim tra ban u i vi hc sinh v chin lc v lm cho hc sinh quan tm n chin lc hc tp; 2. M t chin lc; 3. a ra mu chin lc; 4. Thc tp chin lc; 5. Cugn cp cc phn hi; v 6. Nng thnh tng qut ha (ngha l, tm ra nhiu c hi v khc nhau cho hc sinh s dng chin lc, thng qua cc mi trng v lp hc khc nhau. (Sturomski, 1997, pp. 7-10) Sau y l cc phng php ging dy tng qut m c th s dng cng nhau hay ring l. Cn nh l iu hu ch l kt hp cc tip cn ny vi mt s chin lc hc m bn ang dy cho hc sinh dng trong lp hoc t hc sinh s dng. Hng dn nng - Scaffolded instruction (nng trung gian hoc nng nhn thc): Nng l mt phng php c tnh cu trc s dng cc th tc, (ngha l cc bc theo th t), cc nhim v xc nh, v ch tr c nhn. S nng bt u vi s h tr tp trung v cu trc, sau thu hp li khi a tr tr nn thnh tho hn trong vic s dng cc th tc hc tp. C ngha l cc gio vin nn b dn cc h tr c tnh hng dn khi hc sinh t c cc k nng, pht trin n hiu c cc phc tp ca ni dung, v tr thnh nhng hc vin t nh hng v tch cc hn. Cc nhc nh v ch dn ( nhc hc sinh s dng cc k thut hay cng c hc tp m chng n c dy cch s dng) l mt v d v cc cng c nng m gio vin c th s dng sau khi loi b cc h tr nhiu tng khc. Cui cng, khi vic hc tr nn t nh ng, gio vin c th tuyn b ngng kim sot. Cc v d v hng dn nng bao gm cc bi hc m bt u vi cc tng v khi nim n gin m hc sinh c th xy dng trn cc tng v lin tng
33

chng vi cc ni dung thch thc hn thng qua t cu hi nhm hoc c nhn v cc h tr ha hoc h tr khc. Cc gio vin lm vic nng l ngi cn trng trong vic lin quan n iu mi hoc kt hp cc tng vi cc kinh nghim hc sinh c trc y, hoc cho hc sinh c hi lm quen vi mt l thuyt m chng cha tng c kinh nghim cn thit. Bos & Vaughn (1998) m t cc chng trnh c th trong c hng dn nng , nh l Hng dn Chin lc Nhn thc trong vit lun (Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing -CSIW) (Englert, Raphael, Anderson, Anthony, & Stevens, 1991) v D n c vit u tin (ELP) (Englert et al., 1994; 1995). Hc tp hp tc - Cooperative learning. Cng c coi l vic cng hc, hc tp hp tc l hnh thc khng ch sp xp mang tnh th cht cc hc sinh vo mt nhm thc hin mt bi tp. N l phng php hng dn m i hi s tham gia tch cc v trc tip ca hc sinh trong vic tip thu kin thc bng cch lm vic hp tc v tc ng ln nhau trong mt nhm 4-6 ngi. Trong mt s m hnh hc tp hp tc, hc sinh c th lm vic theo tng cp. Cc gio vin ch dn hc sinh theo cc th tc hc tp hp tc v to c hi thip thu v thc hnh cc k nng m gip t n s tng tc nhm thnh cng cng nh cc k nng hc tp thnh cng, nh l cc k nng to ghi ch, lp th t u tin, sp xp thng tin, giao tip vi i tc, v bm theo thi gian biu. Theo Johnson & Johnson (1990a), vic hc tp hp tc nhm n vic pht trin v luyn cho thnh tho t nht trong 5 lnh vc sau:

1.S ph thuc ln nhau tch cc ( thnh cng ca c nhn ph thuc vo s thnh cng ca tp th); 2.Tng tc tch cc trc din (v d: chia s, hiu bit v pht trin kin thc nhm); 3.Trch nhim gii trnh c nhn; 4.Cc k nng nhm nh v gia cc c nhn vi nhau (v d: truyn t thng tin, gii quyt mu thun, ra qyt nh); v 5. S phn nh li (c hai qu trnh hc thut v x hi) (Trch t Wood, Woloshyn, & Willoughby, 1995) Gio vin cn cho hc sinh cc c hi s dng cch hc hp tc trc khi nm vng ni dung ging tt. Hn na, cc mc k nng ca hc sinh trong nhm cn c nh gi (tt c hc sinh trnh trnh by cng trnh , hoc c phi y l mt nhm khng ng nht ?). Mt khuyn co khc l thng bo hay cung cp cc kt qu mong mun ca nhm. iu ny gip hng dn v gi hc sinh thc hin theo nhim v t ra. Cc hat ng c bit lm ni bt nm yu t Johnson & Johnson trn c tham kho trong cc bi bo khc ca Johnson & Johnson trong Tham kho ging dy M hnh&Phng hc (Models & Classroom Instruction References) Ging dy cng tc.Cng c bit nh l ging dy hp tc v cng ging dy, ging dy cng tc xy ra khi mt gio vin gio dc hc c bit lm vic cng tc vi mt gio vin gio dc hc thng thng dy mt nhm hc sinh a dng trong mt phng hc c rnh ring. V d, mt gio vin gio dc hc c bit c th lm vic cng tc chun b v phn pht bi hc vi mt gio vin khoa hc, ngi gn lin vi lp hc ca cc hc sinh c khim khuyt v hc tp. Theo Bos & Vaughn
34

(1998), vic dy hp tc bao gm cc bc sau: 1. Cc gio vin v gio dc hc c bit v thng thng lm vic cng vi nhau vch k hoch i th cc mc tiu v kt qu mong mun cho lp hc ni chung v /hoc cho cc hc sinh c bit trong lp. 2. Cc hc sinh xem cc gio vin gio dc hc c bit v thng thng l nhng ngi c quyn nh nhau trong cng tit dy v khng lit mt gio vin no nh gio vin cho cc hc sinh c bit 3. Mc d mt gio vin thnh thong c th dy chung c lp, nhng thng thng gio vin lm vic vi cc nhm nh hay vi hc sinh ring l. 4. Trong mt lp hc khng ng nht, ngi gio vin gio dc hc c bit lm vic vi rt nhiu hc sinh bao gm c nhng hc sinh nhn c gio dc c bit v cc tr gip lin quan. Cn phi lu rng, ngi gio vin ny s khng b hn ch ch lm vic vi cc hc sinh gio dc c bit, m cn lm vic vi cc hc sinh gio dc thng thng. 5. ng ging dy bao gm cng vch k hoch v ging dy. C hai gio vin gio dc hc c bit v thng thng xc nh r ti liu b xung v cc hat ng hc tp tr gip, da trn cc mt mnh ca h nh nhng ngi tr gio trong phm vi quy trnh v ni dung ring bit. V d, mt ngi gio vin c th em n s tinh thng trong mt ni dung c bit v ngi gio vin khc c th em n s tinh thng trong vic t chc hoc s dng cc phng tin tr gip phn pht ni dung .

Hc sinh lm th no t c cc k nng gip h thu c kin thc mt cch c lp

Cc hc sinh c th hc cc chin lc nghin cu v cng c hc tp c thit k y mnh vic hc tp v gi li c kin thc. V d v cc chin lc y c lit k bn di

p dng kin thc

Mt khi cc hc sinh c c kin thc mi, h s c yu cu p dng n vo bi tp, cc ti v thi c. giai on ny, hai cu hi c bn c cp : (1) Cc chin lc hiu qu no c th c ngi hc sinh s dng cho vic nh li cc thng tin ? v (2) Ngi hc sinh lm bi kim tra hiu qu nht nh th no? gip ci thin trnh by ca cc hc sinh, gio vin v ngi thc hnh (practitioner) c th cung cp cho hc sinh mt ti cc th thut nh sau:

35

Nh li thng tin
Cc k nng siu nh (metamemory) cho hc sinh nhn bit c cc chin lc nh li cc thng tin cng nh kh nng s dng tt c cc chin lc m h c.

Thut nh c th c s dng gia tng tr nh. Mt cng c thut nh n

gin bao gm s lin kt v gp nhm. V d, c th kh khn cho hc sinh nh mt chui cc t chng hn nh gu trc, Mexico, tai, Canada, tc v h m khng c to nhm bng cch phn lai t. Gio vin c th hng dn hc sinh quan st thy hai t l ng vt Chu (Asian animals) hai t l cc b phn trn mt, v hai t l cc nc Bc M. iu ny khng ch gip chng gii quyt ngay nhim v nh su t, nhng, quan trng hn, thm mt qu trnh tr gip cho ti th thut ca hc sinh.

Acronym T cu to bng nhng ch u ca mt nhm t (acronym) l th

thut tr gip tr nh m hc sinh c th s dng nh li thng tin. Mt th thut hi tin b hn l s dng t c to ra bi cc ch ci u dng ca mt bi vit hay bi th no (acrostic). gip hc sinh la chn thut nh v to ra cc t cu to bng ch ci u ca mt tn hay mt nhm t (acronym) v cc t to ra bi cc ch ci u dng (acrostic), chin lc LIST v chin lc thay th FIRST t ra hiu qu. Cc chin lc y gip hc sinh c lt ti liu ca cc mc c th kim tra c, gp nhm cc mc, v chuyn t liu vo th danh mc d s dng

LISTS
LIST l mt chin lc tng hp cho vic gp nhm cc mc v chun b phng tin tr gip tr nh (Nagel, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1986). Xem u mi (Look)., tm kim danh sch thng tin quan trng cho vic hc trong cc ghi ch trn lp v sch gio khoa. t tn hay u cho mi mt danh sch. Kho st (Investigate) cc mc. Quyt nh mc no s c a vo danh sch La chn (Select) mt phng tin tr gip tr nh s dng chin lc FIRST xy dng thut nh Chuyn (Transfer) thng tin vo th. Vit thut nh (mnemonic) v danh sch trn mt mt ca th v tn ca danh sch trn mt mt khc ca th. T kim tra (Self-Test). Hc bng cch nhn tiu s dng tht nh nh li danh sch

FIRST
S dng chin lc ph thit k mt t cu to bng mt dy nhng ch ci u hoc mt phn ca mt t (acronym) hoc mt t to ra bi cc ch ci u dng ca mt bi vit chng hn nh bi th (acrostic). To (Form) mt t. S dng ch ci vit hoa vit ch ci u tin ca mi mt t
36

trong danh sch; xem t to ra bng cc ch ci u mt t c th nhn din hoc v ngha c to ra hay khng. Chn (Insert) ch ci. Chn mt hay nhiu ch ci xem mt t c th c to ra hay khng. Bo m s dng ch ci thng nu ch ci chn vo khng miu t mt mc trong danh sch. Sp xp li (Rearrange) cc ch ci xem mt t c th c to ra hay khng. nh hnh (Shape) thnh mt cu. S dng ch ci u tin ca mi mt t trong danh sch, c gng xy dng mt cu (an acrostic). C gng (Try) kt hp cc bc nh vy to ra ci tr gip tr nh (mnemonic).

Hnh dung (Visualization) l mt th thut tt gip hc sinh trong vic nh

vn cng nh cc kiu nh li thng tin khc. Trong chin lc ny, hc sinh khp mt li v nh xem t hoc khi nim l nh th no. Chin lc tr nh ny i hi cc hc sinh to ra trong tr c ca anh ta / c ta mt bc tranh ca ci cn phi nh. Chin lc ny c th bao gm mi ci t vic to ra mt hnh nh nhn thy ca s vt c thc cn nh, hoc thm ch t trng nh th no.

Phng php t then cht (keyword method) l mt chin lc hnh

dung kt hp cc bc tranh t c t vng mi hoc cc khi nim khc. Hc sinh c th xy dng mt bc tranh minh ha nh ngha ca chng. Chin lc tr nh ny i hi cc hc sinh to ra mt bc tranh trong tr nh ca mnh v ci cn phi nh. Chin lc ny c th bao gm mi ci t vic to ra mt hnh nh nhn thy ca s vt c thc cn nh, hoc thm ch t trng nh th no. Mt chin lc tr gip nh nhanh n gin l s

nhc li bng li ni

(verbal rehearsal). Chin lc n gin ny l mt hc sinh lp li thng tin cho

anh ta hoc c ta. Chin lc ny thnh cng nht khi c mt qung thi gian gii hn gia cc bc ngi hc sinh phi t c, nh li, v p dng cc thng tin. Rt kh khn s dng chin lc ny tr phi s cc mc nh l khng nhiu.

Chun b tin hnh kim tra

Cc thay i hin ti trong chnh sch gii trnh (accountability) dn n mt s ln hn bao gi cc hc sinh gio dc c bit tham gia vo nh gi. Tin hnh kim tra i hi cc hc sinh c c mt s k nng v kin thc: (1) h phi hc v hiu ni dung kim tra; (2) h phi bit p dng kin thc ca h nh th no; v (3) h phi c cc k nng c bit t kim tra. Nhiu hc sinh khim khuyt cn c cc ch dn r rng cho k nng thc hin kim tra. Tuy nhin, nhng ch dn nh th khng th thay th vic nm vng ti liu. Do , mt phn quan trng ca vic chun b kim tra l ch gip cc hc sinh nghin
37

cu hiu qu v t c tim nng ln nht ca chng thng qua cc nm hc tp ph thng, i hc v xa hn. Cc chin lc c cp n trong phn chun b hc v t c kin thc. Cc li khuyn cho vic dy k nng thc hin kim tra: - Ln lch cc khang thi gian nh k r xot. Lch trnh mu ny c th cung cp mt v d c th cho hc sinh cch phn phi thi gian nh th no. - To ra cc hng dn hc tp lm thun li vic r xot li. Cc hc sinh c th to ra cc hnh nh cc t ch cht, th khung (xem nh ngha), v cc thut nh khc to thun li cho qu trnh hc tp. - Mt hc sinh cng cn t mnh chun b bng cch suy ngh ti a v kim tra ca gio vin. Trong khi gio vin lun khng th chia x mi th v kim tra, hc sinh c th thy hu ch khi hi : o nh dng ca kim tra o cc kiu cu hi

K hoch hc tp
Tn: Th i gia n 6-7 7-8 8-9 91011121-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9o Kim tra nh gi th no
38

Tun: TH HAI TH BA TH T TH NM TH SU TH BY CH NHT

o Ngy kim tra o Thi gian phn phi cho kim tra o Sch hay cc ghi chp c php hay khng (kim tra sch m- i nghch vi ng- ) o Thng tin c che y o Khuyn bo ca gio vin v hc ci g v hc nh th no Trong cc bui tho lun ng vin hc sinh d on kim tra c th hi ci g. iu ny to ra mt bi luyn tp tt cho cc nhm cng tc . Mi mt nhm c yu cu c mt danh sch cc cu hi m h ngh s c trong kim tra . Sau cc nhm c th trao i cu hi v c gng tr li chng Gip hc sinh pht trin s t tin. iu quan trng l cc hc sinh c suy ngh tch cc v cc kh nng ca chng trc lc bt u v trong khi thi. Mt khi gio vin truyn t mt lat cc k nng lm kim tra, thy hoc c cn bo m c rng hc sinh d dng s dng cc k nng trong thi c v h thnh cng khi p dng cc k nng. Mt cch lm iu ny l cung cp tht nhiu c hi cho hc sinh thc hin thnh cng cc kim tra thc t. Nhn mnh cho cc hc sinh bit rng h cn phi s dng ht ton b chin lc m mnh c trc lc xc nh mnh khng th gii c cu hi kim tra. Chin lc PIRATES c cho thy l hu hiu c bit cho cc kim tra khch quan. Bos v Vaughn thy rng cc hc sinh c khim khuyt hc tp s dng chin lc ny tng im trnh by ca chng t 20 n 40% s im.

PIRATES
Chun b (Prepare) thnh cng
a tn ca bn v PIRATE vo bi kim tra Phn phi thi gian v trt t cc trng mc Ni li khng nh Bt u trong 2 pht

Xem xt k (Inspect) cc hng dn

c cn thn cc hng dn Gch di ci phi lm v u cn tr li Ghi ch cc yu cu c bit

c (Read), nh (Remember), gim bt (Reduce)

c tan b cu hi Nh ci bn hc Gim bi cc la chn ca bn

Tr li (Answer) hoc t b (Abandon)

39

 Tr li cu hi T b cu hi trong chc lt

Quay li (Turn back) nh gi (Estimate) tr li ca bn

Trnh cc iu khng nh Ly cc la chn chi tit nht hoc di nht Lai tr cc la chn tng t nhau

Nghin cu (Survey)
Nghin cu bo m tr li c tan b cc cu hi Kt thc cu hi chi khi no anh chc chn i vi cc bi kim tra tiu lun t thng xuyn n, c th s dng chin lc TR LI

TR LI (ANSWER)
Phn tch (Analyze) tnh hnh
c cu hi cn thn Gch di cc t ch cht nh r thi gian m bn cn

Nhn xt (Notice) cc yu cu
c nhanh v nh du cc phn ca cu hi Hi v ni yu cu ci g T khng nh bn s vit mt cu tr li cht lng

Thit lp (Set up) mt cng

Thit lp cc chnh nh gi chng c p ng cu hi hay khng nh du cc thay i nu cn thit

Lm (Work) chi tit

Nh ci bn hc Thm cc chi tit vo cc chnh s dng cc ch vit tt Ch ra trnh t Quyt nh nu bn sn sng vit

Xp t (Engineer) tr li ca bn
40

 Vit mt an gii thiu Tham kho cng Vt cc cu ch Trnh by cc chi tit cho mi mt cu ch Tn dng cc v d

R xot li (Review) tr li ca bn
Cn thn xem xt bn tr li tt c cc phn ca cu hi cha Xem xt k lng bn gp tt c cc chnh v chi tit cha Sa qua cu tr li ca bn

Ln k hoch lm vic: Mt hat ng k nng hc tp cho hc sinh

Khi ng vin hc sinh ln k hoch v s dng lch trnh, iu quan trng cho gio vin l gii thch cho hc sinh v tm quan trng ca vic qun l thi gian. Mt gio vin cng c th bo hc sinh vit ra cc hat ng nht nh cn bao nhiu thi gian v suy ngh cch m mt lch trnh c th gip hc sinh han thnh nhim v. Anh c th ch ra rng lch trnh nh th c th gip hc sinh v: 1. B m c th khng ng n anh (Get off your back) khi bn c thi gian hc u n 2. Vit ra nhng ci cn phi lm cho bn t phi nh v tp trung nhiu nng lng nhn thc hn vo nhim v lin quan. 3. Khi bn t a ra mt khong thi gian lm mt vic, bn s tp trung nhiu hn 4. Vi mt lch trnh a ra, bn t kh nng ko di s ngh ngi c trong lch trnh 5. Bn cm thy tha mn hn khi kim sot c cuc sng ca mnh v bit ci bn hoch nh lm v khi no th lm 6. Vic sp xp thi gian ca bn gip cho bn c chun b sn sng khi n lp 7. Hoch nh thi gian ca bn l mt cch thng minh lm vic nu bn mun c nhiu thi gian gii tr v vi bn b 8. Hoch nh thi gian gip phn phi vic hc theo thi gian v ngn chn vic hc nhi nht . Hc theo thi gian gip bn nm vng v gi li nhiu thng tin hn Cc hc sinh c th s dng bng theo di cng vic trong trang 26 hoch nh lch trnh theo tun v xy dng Danh mc cn lm. Hat ng ny rt thch hp cho tr trng trung hc c s hoc cao hn, nhng c th gip cc hc sinh t tui hn nm c qu trnh siu nhn thc (metacognition), t chc theo nhim v v cc chin lc gii quyt vn .

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Gio vin cn c danh sch hc sinh vi cc thi hn cho nhim v giao, cc bi kim tra, v cc hat ng trng hc khc. Gio vin cng cn ng vin cc hc sinh tnh n c cc hat ng ngai kha v cc ngha v nh. Lc , hc sinh c th s dng gin ln k hoch thi gian hc tp chun b cc bi tp v kim tra. Thi gian hc tp c ln lch trnh t nht cho tng gi. Thi gian hc tp s c ln lch vo ban ngy hc sm ti nu c th, v cc bi tp kh c a vo lch trnh thi im hc sinh tnh to nht. Hc sinh cn ln k hoch r xot li thi gian v d tr gi ngh ngi trong cc phm vi b tr lch trnh hc tp rng. Hc sinh c th bit c mc hon thnh cng vic khi xa i cc hng mc lm xong trong Dang sch cn lm. Lc u hc sinh c th tm tt cc hat ng trong Danh sch cn lm sau a chng vo lch trnh, hoc ngc li.

Cc cu hi thng hay c
Cu hi (Q): Ti sao vic dy k nng hc tp trong lp l quan trng
Tr li (A): Cc k nng hc tp thng c gi nh l cc qu trnh trc gic cho hc sinh. iu ny him khi nh th. Tt c hc sinh, c bit cc hc sinh c khim khuyt c th c li t vic hng dn chun ha v h thng trong cc phng php v quy trnh k nng hc tp. Trong vic dy k nng hc tp, ngi gio vin lm cho cc hc sinh ca h nhn thc c ci cch m hc sinh c th tip cn gii quyt vn cng nh cch cc hc sinh c th p ng thi hn mt cch hiu qu. Dy hc sinh hc nh th no s cho h kh nng tip cn trng thi hc tp mi ca tt c cc loi. y l nguyn tc ca vic hc qu trnh nhn thc (metacognition), mt phn c bit ca quy trnh hc cho hc sinh ca tt c cc ngnh hc.

Q: Bng cch no ti bit c khi no hc sinh ca ti cn mt s can thip k nng hc tp

A: Cc hc sinh khim khuyt bao gm c cc hc sinh c nng khiu (gifted), thng thng cn gip tip nhn cc k nng hc tp v cc chin lc hc tp khc. Cc tn hiu m sinh vin cn s gip trong lnh vc ny c th gm : 1. Thiu t chc trong mt hoc nhiu cc mn hc; 2. Ghi chp km ; 3. Trnh by hc thut km; 4. Thiu ng c trong cc ti i hi nhiu giai an, t chc cc tng
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phc tp, v lp k hoch (chng hn nh cc bi bo nghin cu); 5. S tr hon v cc ti hoc nhim v ln; 6. Cch i x cu ton v lo lng (ngha l khng thch th thch mt ci g hn l c hon thnh mt nhim v v ri tht bi v n); 7. Cch c x t tht bi chng hn nh trnh cng vic trong mt ch nht nh, s tr nn suy nhc, v ; 8. Thiu s hiu bit v quan h hay kt ni trong mt h thng cc thng tin, chng hn cc s kin lch s

Q: ti sao mt s hc sinh dng nh c th p dng cc k nng nghin cu v chin lc hc tp mt cch t ng, trong khi mt s khc li khng th ?
A: Rt nhiu hc sinh c v khng c cc khim khuyt, cn c hng dn nghin cu hc nh th no. Cc hc sinh c cc khim khuyt nh thng c trong nhm ny v cc hc sinh c khim khuyt hc tp v cch c x ri lon thng b xao lng hoc l ngi hc th ng, ngha l h khng tham d mt cch tch cc vo cng vic trng theo cch cho php cc hc sinh ny t gim st s hiu bit v tin b ca h. i khi s th ng ny l do thiu ng c v cc hc sinh khim khuyt thng c s tri nghim tiu cc trng. Mt s kh khn c th quy cho l do khim khuyt. V d, hc sinh c s ln xn thiu ch c th c kh khn tp trung trong nhng khong thi gian ko di. Mt s kh khn c th n gin l do thiu s hng dn m nhiu hc sinh khim khuyt nhn c, hoc do vic tham d nhiu cc bui hc khc nhau v thng khng nhn thy cc yu t c trng ca cc mn hc, c bit vic c hiu su. Cc hc sinh khim khuyt thng c gng hiu cc khi nim hoc han thnh cc nhim v v n lc ny c th li lm h thoi ch hc tp. C gng hiu nhim v cng c th lm cn tr ngi hc hnh dung cc cch thay th khc nhau tip cn ti liu Phn ln hc sinh c th hng li t vic nghin cu qu trnh nhn thc n i hi s phn x v gim st vic hc tp, nhng hc sinh vi cc khim khuyt nh c th hng li nhiu hn t cc hat ng v h c kh khn truyn thng khi tip nhn s dng cc chin lc mi v cc k nng khc c cc hc sinh khng c khim khuyt thng pht trin cho chnh h. Cc hc sinh c kh khn vi qu trnh nhn thc cn c cc chin lc cho php h t chc, cu trc v hon thnh cng vic ca h tt hn. Nhng chin lc s gip hiu bit tt hn cc khi nim v cc s kin chnh.

Q. Bng cch no ti c th gip b m v cc gio vin khc

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hiu nhng chin lc v k nng c th c s dng nh th no nh v trong cc lp hc khc

A. Cc chin lc v k nng hc tp c khuyn co trong ti liu ny c th c p dng vo cc ch v mi trng hc tp khc nhau. iu then cht l dy hc sinh xc nh khi no anh hay ch cn p dng chng v bo m rng anh hay ch theo n cng. Gp b m trong cc bui gp g IEP (k hoch gio dc c nhn) hoc cc b tr sp t khc r xot li cc chin lc l rt quan trng v vy b m v gio vin c th ng vin hc sinh s dng chng nh, vi s tng cng h tr ca b m. iu quan trng l b m hiu cc k thut ny v khi h thnh tho nht, l lc h c th gim st mt cch hiu qu bi tp nh, cc ti, v vit bi bo. Trnh by cc tng vi ng nghip c th ng vin cc gio vin khc chp nhn cc phng php tng t. Cng c th c ch khi xy dng cc nhm hoc cc quan h vi cc nh gio dc thng thng trong lp hc. Cc k thut hnh mu cho cc ng nghip c th l mt cch hiu qu chng minh s thnh cng ca cc k nng hc tp bao gm c mi trng hc tp. Cng nh vy, cc k thut chng hn nh ng ging dy cho php cc gio vin gio dc hc c bit cng lm vic vi cc gio vin gio dc hc thng thng to thun li tip cn chng trnh ging dy gio dc thng thng, trong khi cng ch tm n tr gip c nhn v hng dn chin lc cn thit khc

Q: Lm sao ti c th bit khi no p dng cc chin lc khc nhau ?

A: Thng thng cc k thut k nng hc tp c kh nng p dng nht lc hc sinh c yu cu c c cc thng tin khi h trong cc lp nghin cu x hi hay khoa hc. Nhn thc kiu hc ca hc sinh, cc im mnh, im yu l rt quan trng. V d, mt s hc sinh c th hng li t vic s dng cc cun s lu gi h thng ha v bn cc khi nim, v mt s khc li t bng nghe ca bi ging trn lp r xot li. Mc d cc cch tip cn nhiu hng c th hu ch, nhng c th hiu qu hn cho mt s hc sinh ny hn l cho mt s hc sinh khc. Mt s chin lc c th c s dng cng vi nhau to ra mt mi trng hc tp d s dng v tp trung hn cho hc sinh. V d, mt gio vin c th mun s dng mt s k thut dy mt ch mi: tp trung vo tng chnh; s dng cc k thut gin gio (scaffold) lm trung gian cho qu trnh hc khi cc khi nim tr nn phc tp hn; cung cp cc h tr tm thi v lai b dn cc h tr khi hc

44

sinh t c s t tin; s dng cc k thut nh, xy dng cc mi lin kt, hoc cc k thut phn tch. Hc sinh x l thng tin trong mt s cch khc nhau. Mt s c th thy kh khn khi t chc sp xp cc khi ni hoc vit v mt s khc c th c kh khn khi s dng cng thc v p dng chng cc thi im thch hp. Mt s c kh khn khi nghe cc bi ging v mt s khc c th thy ghi chp kh khn trong khi nghe. iu quan trng l hiu c bn cht s khim khuyt ca hc sinh khi p dng cc chin lc khc nhau, v gim st lin tc hc sinh tin b nh th no khi s dng chin lc .

Q: Ci g s xy ra nu hc sinh ca ti khng bm theo cch hc v lch trnh hc tp?

A: Nu mt hc sinh c kh khn thc hin lch trnh hc tp do anh ta hoc c ta lm, c th l do anh ta hoc ch ta c gng han thnh qu nhiu trong khang thi gian cho, hoc c th do lch trnh khng c cc bc cn thit han thnh nhim v cn cha r. Cc hc sinh c khim khuyt khng ch cn mt lch trnh cho cc cng vic cn lm, m cng cn mt mt k hoch hnh ng c nh hng v kh thi, ci m cc hc sinh c th sp t mt cch linh hat. Ln danh sch cc thi hn kt thc v ti liu c th gip h tr cho hc sinh. Cc gio vin c th cn hng dn mt s hc sinh qua cc hot ng u tin ca nhim v hoch nh gi lch trnh tin trin, v sau gim dn h tr v tham gia ca h. Nhim v trong lch trnh cng rnh mch, lch trnh cng hu ch,

nh ngha cc k nng hc tp
Thut ng k nng hc tp thch hp S lu gi h thng ci tin. Mt cng c hc-trc cung cp ng cnh cho
ni dung hc. S tay lu gi h thng ci tin cung cp ni dung hc trong mt cu trc hoc phm vi kt hp iu m hc sinh bit vi iu m gio vin d nh cho hc sinh hc. Cc v d S tay lu gi h thng ci tin bao gm, nhng khng gii hn, S tay lu gi h thng ha (graphic organizers), cc ch dn hc tp v phc tho cc chng t lai ny l s kt hp cc ch ci c to ra d nh. Mi mt ch ci tng ng mt qu trnh trong mt dy cc qa trnh theo trt t thi gian, chng hn nh acronyms LISTEN (nghe cu chuyn nh th no) hoc HOW (t chc mt bi bo gn gng nh th no), hoc mt kin trong mt dy cc kin lin quan, chng hn nh trong NEAT (nh ci g khi anh cm t bo trn tay hoc

Acronym. Cc

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FRIENDS (cc cch ng x thch hp).

Acrostic. Cc t lai ny l cc cu c to ra ch ci u tin ca mi mt

t trong cu cung cp mt u mi v ci cn nh. Hai v d l MI MT CU CON TRAI TT XNG NG KO MM (EVERY GOOD BOY DESERVES FUDGE ) ( nh cc ng trong kha- G trong cc bn nhc) v NGI M Y THAM VNG CA TI VA PHC V CHNG TI CHN BNH PATE ( MY VERY EARGER MOTHER KUST SERVED US NINE PIES) ( nh trt t cc hnh tinh t mt tri quay ngai cng)

c qua nghe (Aural reading). Mt cch m a tr c khim khuyt hc tp

c th thu c kin thc t cc sch in khi nghe ni dung c c cho n. y l mt s cch c bit: 1. Bng nghe. Ngi ln (v d b m v cc thnh vin gia nh khc, gio vin) v cc hc sinh c th tnh nguyn c mt s chng t sch hoc t cc ti liu c khc vo mt bng nghe. Cc hc sinh sau s c quyn s dng cc ti liu c trong nh dng nghe (audio format) ci c th c nghe trng hay nh 2. c to ting cho tr em. Gio vin hoc b m c th c to cho tr em v ng vin n theo di mt cch yn lng. Thng xuyn dng li t cc cu hi cho php anh bit tr em theo c ci ang c c hay khng. 3. Ghp cp ngi c k nng c vi mt ngi c t k nng c hn. Ngi c k nng c s c to ni dung ti liu v c hai cng nhau c c kin thc.

Cc tng ln/Bc tranh to (Big Ideas/Big Picture). Cc

tng ln l nhng thng tin c bit nht m cc hc sinh phi bit cui bi hc, nhm bi hc, hoc mt chng trnh Kameenui & Simmons (1999) m t tng ln nh mt nguyn tc thit k mn hc da trn khi nim [hoc] cc nguyn tc chng lm thun li cho vic t c cc kin thc mt cch hiu qu v ln nht. Thng thng, mt hc sinh uc mong i kt ni nhiu cc mnh thng tin ring bit to thnh kin thc chung ca mt khi nim. Nm bt c kin ln hoc bc tranh to c ngha rng hc sinh nm c cc chi tit quan trng nht ca mt bi hc v c th kt ni cc chi tit c bit thu c t bi hc thnh tng chung m gio vin mun hc sinh c s dng sau ny. s dng cc tng ln cho vic thit k mn hc v hng dn, theo cc ch dn sau: Tp trung vo cc kt qu hc tp c bit;
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 Nm bt cc quan h phong ph gia cc khi nim; Cho php ngi hc p dng ci m h hc trong nhiu trng thi khc nhau; Gp cc kin, khi nim, nguyn tc, v cc quy tc tp trung vo suy ngh trt t cao hn To c s cho s khi qut ha v m rng (Kameenui & Simmons, 1999) Mt v d v tng/bc tranh ln n th no oc s dng trong mt lp hc c th nh sau: mt gio vin nh hnh mn hc v hng dn trong lp hc khoa hc ca anh ta sao cho tng ln ca mi mt bi hc kt ni thnh tng ln ca mt nhm cc bi hc (unit), ci m nguc li s dn n hiu bit rng hn mt khi nim da trn hc sinh c mong i chng minh kin thc tin n trnh cao hn.

cng ca mt chng. Dn bi ca mt chng trong mt cun sch

gio khoa. cng ca chng sp xp ni dung ca chng vo cc an v phn an, nu bt cc kin chung quan trng v cc chi tit m hc sinh cn phi hc. cng ca chng c th xem nh l mt kiu hng dn hc v ngc li.

Danh mc kim tra. Mt cun sch ghi chp vic cn lm tun/ngy cho ln lch
trnh tng ngy, v mt cun sch ghi chp vic cn lm trong thng cho vic ln lch trnh di hn. Nhng cng c ny cung cp mt cu trc t nhin cho vic to ra danh sch phi lm, cc danh mc kim tra, v ln lch cho cc cng vic nh, ti, bi kim tra, v cc bi bo, v nhng phn cng khc lin quan n trng hc. Cc cng c qun l thi gian nh vy khng phi c mua bn; chng c to ra bi tng c nhn. Trong vic s dng cc cng c nh th, tuy nhin, iu quan trng cho hc sinh l s dng chng thng xuyn; l, hc sinh cn s dng ghi chp lch trnh ny, v d, cho tt c cc phn cng nhimv trong tt c cc lp hc ca hc sinh (khng ch trong lp ting Anh ca hc sinh), v cn tham kho n hng ngy gim st tin cng vic v cp nht cc nhim v mi, v kim tra nh du cc nhim v han thnh.

Bn cc khi nim. Bn khi nim cng c xem nh biu khi

nim, biu ng ngha (semantic), hoc bn ng ngha, thng c s dng u tin nh l mt cng c hc tp trc (prelearning) . Mt bn khi nim nm bt bng th gic ci m hc sinh bit v ch hc (xem v d cho), v bng cch lm hc sinh ng no tip theo v ch hc, bn sm cung cp mt ng cnh trong hc sinh c th ngh v ch hc. bn sau c s dng nh mt hat ng ang xy ra v l mt cng c tr gip nhn sinh ng cho hc sinh tip tc hc, nghin cu ch v cui cng nh mt cng c r xot li cho hc sinh bo m rng anh hay ch hiu bit k lng ch
47

Hp ng. Mt hp ng hc tp/nghin cu l mt s nhc nh t nhin cho vic

t gim st v hach nh cc mc tiu. Khi mt hc sinh tham gia vo mt hp ng, anh hay ch ta ng p ng mt mc tiu trong mt khang thi gian nht nh v s c thng nu t c mc tiu theo ng thi hn. Xy dng trn cc iu kin v qu trnh c bit p ng mc tiu tho ra trong hp ng, chng hn nh cc bc cn thc hin p ng mc tiu (phn tch cc nhim v cn c dn n han thnh sn phm), cc vt liu/ cng c cn c p ng mc tiu, mt lch trnh ca cc thi hn nh dn n thi hn cui cng, s lm tng gi tr hp ng hn v s dng nh mt k hoch tr chi tan din hn cho hc sinh. Hp ng c to ra gia hc sinh v gio vin v s c gi tr ln hn vi cc ng gp ca b m hc sinh.

Mng tho lun (Discussion webs). Mt mng tho lun (Bos & Vaughn,
1998, ly t Alvermann, 1991) kim tra cc k nng suy ngh quan trng ca hc sinh v lm gia tng nhng k nng bng cch t chc v hin th thy c c hai mt ca mt cuc tho lun. Mt mng tho lun c th hu ch, v d, khi mt hc sinh nghin cu s ng h v chng i vic hp php ha cn sa, h cng nghin cu xem c tri on cn b cm khng, hoc vic xem xt o c c bao hm sinh sn v tnh khng

Hng dn k lng. Tng t nh s tch hp chin lc, hng dn k

lng (cng c gi s cht vn k lng) cng yu cu kin thc c bn ca tr em hc cc thng tin mi. Khng nh tch hp chin lc, tuy nhin, hng dn k lng c s dng u tin hc mt dy cc s kin v an vn ca thng tin thc t thng qua mt lot cu hi ti sao (v d, ti sao tuyn b ny c ngha ? ti sao tuyn b ny l s tht) (Wood, Woloshyn&Willoghby, 1995). s dng chin lc hc tp ny, hc sinh phi c trc kin thc thch hp i vi khi nim c hc. Hc sinh c nhc nh s dng kin thc c trc tr li ti sao mt tuyn b thc t l ng n. Hng dn k lng c s dng trong khoa hc (mt nghin cu v thc vt Woloshyn, Paivio, & Pressley, 1994), cc nghin cu x hi (danh sch cc s kin ca cc ch ging v a l, (Pressley et al., 1988), v cc an vn ngn khng h cu (Wood, Willoughby, Kasper, & Idle, 1994).

Th nh. C nhiu cch s dng th nh (to ra t cc th ch ghi mc v

trng) hc hi v gi li kin thc. Sau y l hai v d c lin quan n vic s dng th nh

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S ha (T chc sp xp bng s ). Mt loi sp xp tin b, s

ha hin th nhng g cc hc sinh bit v ch hc trc khi bi hc bt u, ch ra nhng g hc sinh d kin tm hiu, v nm bt nhng g hc sinh c hc phn cui ca bi hc. Cc v d v s ha bao gm bn cu chuyn, mng tho lun v biu mi quan h.

X l thng tin. Cch

m con ngi lnh hi, nhng s bin i, rt gn, chi tit ha, ct gi, khi phc, v s dng Thng tin (Bos & Vaughn, nm 1998, ly t Atkinson & Shiffin, nm 1968; Neisser, 1976; Swanson, 1996). Nhng g con ngi lm vi thng tin.

Siu nhn thc. "Qui nh vic nng cao nhn thc v thc c suy ngh v
hc tp ca bn thn" (Wood, Woloshyn & Willoughby, 1995). Cch thc m ngi hc ln k hoch, theo di, gim st v iu khin suy ngh ca h. Chin lc siu nhn thc c s dng khi ngi hc a ra k hoch vit mt bi bo hoc hc tp cho k kim tra, anh ta dng li v t hi bn thn mnh "Mnh c hiu nhng g ang xy ra?" khi c, hiu ra mt cch khc gii quyt vn nu cc chin lc anh ta ang s dng c v nh khng hiu qu .

Quy tc d nh. Quy tc d nh l mt cng c h tr b nh gip

tng cng vic gi nh li thng tin. Theo Bos & Vaughn (1998), chin lc ghi nh "c th c nhm li thnh ba loi: Cu to v mi lin h, trc quan hoc lin tng hnh nh, v s nhc li "(trang 318). Cu to v mi lin h cp n cch chng ti phn loi v t thng tin trong tm tr. Nu chng ti nhn c mt danh sch ngu nhin cc t, v d, chng ta s phn chng thnh cc loi c ngha gip chng ti c th gi nh chng chnh xc. Ch u v t vit tt l cc chin lc khc c lin quan n cu to v mi lin h ca thng tin. Hnh dung hoc lin tng hnh nh thng c s dng khi hc t vng hay ghi nh thi gian hoc cc s kin c bit. Trong trng hp hc t mi, hc sinh c th hnh dung s tng quan gia cc khi nim v nh ngha.Trong trng hp ghi nh thi gian ca mt s kin c bit trong lch s, hc sinh c th hnh dung mt hnh nh m hiu ngay n cc s kin v sau gn cho mt hnh ng din t bng hnh nh khc m c th nh li thi gian ca s kin. V d ghi nh : LEARN, MARKER, MURDER (xem trang 19.).

Biu quan h. Biu quan h (cng c bit n nh l mt bn mi

quan h) tng t nh bn cu chuyn , n cung cp mt trnh by trc quan c t chc ca cc khi nim, t vng lin quan v kin thc c bn ca hc sinh ni
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dung hc tp trong mt chng, mt bi thuyt trnh, hoc mt bi hc (Bos Vaughn, nm 1998). Ni bt trong cc biu quan h l nhng v d v khng c v d ca ch hc tp, cho thy r c hay khng quan h tch cc hay tiu cc hay khng c quan h no gia cc khi nim v t vng lin quan. Bos & Vaughn (1998) a ra mt li gii thch chi tit vic mt biu mi quan h c s dng trong mt lp hc nh th no.

S . Cu trc kin thc c t chc trong tr nh (Wood, Woloshyn,

Willoughby,1995) cung cp mt phm vi x l thng tin. Nhn thc c nhn gip thit lp thng tin mi. Khi mt ngi c mt cu chuyn, anh ta xp xp cu chuyn trong mt phm vi m anh ta quen thuc. V d, nu ngi ta ang c v mt ngi i mua thc phm, ngi c c th gi ln kinh nghim mua sm hng ha va ri ca mnh.

n gin ha vn bn. Nu mt hc sinh c kh nng c xa di mc ca

sch gio khoa hay ni dung ti liu c s dng trong lp hc, Schumm & Strickler (1991) khuyn nh sau: 1. Xy dng phin bn rt gn ca ni dung sch gio khoa hoc s dng phin bn rt gn ca nh xut bn. 2. Cung cp cho sinh vin cng hoc bn tm tt chng. 3. S dng tip cn nhiu ti liu nhiu cp .

SQ3R(Survey! Question! Read! Recite! Review!). Phng php SQR3

l kho st, t cu hi, c, c thuc lng, n li. Kho st. Hc sinh c th chun b ngh ca h, hoc nhn bit nhng kin thc mi bng cch c lt cc vn bn, nhn t in m, tiu , v cc cu hi cui chng. Kho st thng tin da trn cc tiu , hnh nh, v biu . t cu hi. Hc sinh t hi nhng ch g bao gm khi h c. Nhng tng chung g ? iu ny lin kt nh th no vi ci h bit v ch ? C g mi? c. Hc sinh nn lu cc tng chnh. iu ny c th kh, nhng h nn c gng tng tng im quan trng nht tc gi c gng a vo. Vic ny c th luyn tp v i khi d hn khi thc hnh vi bn hc. c li cc phn kh (v khng) hiu. Tra cu cc t khng quen thuc v ghi li ngha ca chng khi s dng trong on vn. c thuc lng. Khng nhn vo thng tin, hc sinh nn c gng tr li cc cu hi m h nu ra trn. R xot li . Hc sinh nn kim tra cc cu tr li c ng khng bng cch xem tr li ton b ti liu v tp trung vo cc phn kh. Hc sinh nn xem li cc chnh,
50

lm th no chng c lin quan vi nhau, v lin quan n nhng iu mnh bit. SQR3 l mt k thut c th c s dng mt mnh hoc rt hiu qu trong cc cp hoc cc nhm nh. S dng k thut ny trong mt nhm hp tc, v d nh, c th tng cng s hiu bit ca hc sinh bi c hi tng thm c nhiu quan im v tho lun thng tin lin quan n cc tng khc nh th no. iu quan trng l hc sinh tham gia tng giai on ca SQR3 v a ra ti liu ni ln tng v suy ngh ca mnh.

M rng (Tch hp) chin lc . M rng chin lc c m t l "kim

sot cn thn s kt hp ca nhng g hc sinh bit vi nhng g h phi tm hiu nh vy mi quan h gia hai yu t ny c sng t v a ra kt qu mi hoc hiu bit hon chnh hn"(Kame'enui Simmons, 1999). Vic s dng ph hp m rng chin lc kt hp thng tin mi vi kin thc c trc ca a tr, m bo rng cc kt ni quan trng c thc hin gia tn ti t trc v cc thng tin mi m khng gy nhm ln cho a tr. Mt s cc c trng quan trng ca vic gio dc c bn ny bao gm: 1. S dng cc phng php suy ngh m con quen thuc tm hiu thng tin mi ; 2. Tng cng hoc cht lc kin thc ca tr; 3. Sp xp thng tin mi vi cc khi nim c bit, thng tin c ngha, c lin quan, v phng php t nhin; 4. Kt ni thng tin quan trng (cc tng ln) qua cc bi hc khc trong chng trnh ging dy. (Kame'enui & Simmons, nm 1999)

Cc hng dn hc tp. Mt cng c hc tp v nghin cu thng c s

dng lm ni bt cc tng quan trng la chn c v gim st nhn thc ca hc sinh trong vic la chn . Hng dn hc tp thng i km vi mt chng trong sch gio khoa v c s dng thng xuyn cho hc sinh chun b bi kim tra cho mt chng, hoc mt bi . N c th l mt lot cc cu hi v/hoc cc hot ng m hc sinh hon thnh khi chng c cc chn. Hng dn hc tp tng cng cc ti liu c, nhng khng thay th n.

Lm ni vn bn. Mt s hc sinh gp kh khn trong vic phn bit cc thng

tin quan trng t thng tin khng quan trng trong mt cun sch gio khoa hoc ti liu c. Nhn mnh hoc lm ni bt cc im chnh c th hng cc hc sinh tp trung vo cc chi tit ph hp v thch ng.

51

Ti liu tham kho

Nghin cu cc chi tit ni bt, hng dn lp hc v cc m hnh, cc danh mc siu nhn thc Alley, G., & Deshler, D. (1979). Teaching the learning disabled adolescent: Strategies and methods. Denver: Love. Bos C.S., & Vaughn, S. (1998). Teaching students with learning and behavior problems (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Deshler, D. ,& Schumaker, J. (1986). Learning strategies: An instructional alternative for low-achieving adolescents. Exceptional Children, 52, 583-590. Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. E., Anderson, L. M., Anthony, H. M., & Stevens, D. D. (1991). Making strategies and self-talk visible: Writing instruction in regular and special education classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 337-372. Englert, C. S., Garmon, A., Mariage, T., Rozendal, M., Tarrant, K., & Urba, J. (1995). The early literacy project: Connecting across the literacy curriculum. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 253-277. Englert, C. S., Rozendal, M. S., & Mariage, M. (1994). Fostering the search for understanding: A teachers strategies for leading cognitive development in zones of proximal development. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 187-204. Gettinger, M., & Nicaise, M. (1997). Study skills. In G. Bear, K. Minke, & A. Thomas (Eds.), Childrens needs II: Development, problems, and alternatives (pp. 407-418). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Hayes, Z. (1995). Strategies for students with learning disabilities. In E. Wood, V. Woloshyn, & T. Willoughby (Eds.), Cognitive strategy instruction for middle and high school students (pp. 259-277). Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1990a). What is cooperative learning? In M. Brubacher, R. Payne, & K. Rickett (Eds.), Perspectives on small group learning (pp. 80-96). Oakville, Ontario: Rubicon Publishing Incorporated. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1990b). Cooperative classrooms. In M. Brubacher, R. Payne, & K. Rickett (Eds.), Perspectives on small group learning (pp. 80-96). Oakville, Ontario: Rubicon Publishing Incorporated. Kameenui, E. J., & Simmons, D. C. (1999). Toward successful inclusion of students with disabilities: The architecture of instruction. In ERIC/OSEP Mini-library, Adapting curricular materials: Vol. 1. An overview of materials adaptations. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
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Lazarus, B. (1996). Flexible skeletons: Guided notes for adolescents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28, 36-40. Lenz, K., & Schumaker, J. (1999). Adapting language arts, social studies, and science materials for the inclusive classroom (Vol. 3: Grades six through eight). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Martin, D. J. (1994). Concept mapping as an aid to lesson planning: A longitudinal study. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 6, 11-30. Nagel, B. R., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1986). The FIRST-letter mnemonic strategy (Learning Strategies Curriculum). Lawrence, Kans.: Edge Enterprises. In C. S. Bos & S. Vaughn (1998). Teaching students with learning and behavior problems (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Pressley, M., Symons, S., McDaniel, M., Snyder, B., & Turnure, J. (1988). Elaborative interrogation facilitates acquisition of confusing facts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 268-278. Schumm, J. S., & Strickler, K. (1991). Guidelines for adapting content area textbooks: Keeping teachers and students content. Intervention in School and Clinic, 27 (2), 7984. In C. S. Bos & S. Vaughn (1998). Teaching students with learning and behavior problems (4th ed.). Allyn & Bacon: Needham Heights, MA. Sedita, J. (1995). A call for more study skills instruction . Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Disabilities Association, Orlando, FL. Sturomski, N. (1997, July). Teaching students with learning disabilities to use learning strategies. NICHCY News Digest, 25, 2-12. Towle, M. (1982). Learning how to be a student when you have a learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 90-93. Vaughn, S., Bos, C. S., & Schumm, J. S. (1997). Teaching mainstreamed, diverse, and at-risk students in the general education classroom . Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Wehmeyer, M., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (1998) Teaching self-determination to students with disabilities: Basic skills for successful transition . Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Co. Willoughby, T., & Wood, E. (1995) Mnemonic strategies. In E. Wood, V. Woloshyn, & T. Willoughby (Eds.). Cognitive strategy instruction for middle and high school students. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Woloshyn, V., Paivio, A., & Pressley, M. (1994). Use of elaborative interrogation to help students acquire information consistent with prior knowledge and information inconsistent with prior knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 79-89.
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Wood, E., Willoughby, T., Kasper, V., & Idle, T. (1994). Enhancing adolescents recall of factual content: The impact of provided verses self-generated elaborations. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 40, 57-65. Mind Tools. http://www.mindtools.com/ Provides information (including specific strategies and commercial products) on how to optimize ones thinking. Metacognition Bibliography Background Article: Hacker, Douglas J. Metacognition: Definitions and empirical foundations. http://www.psyc.memphis.edu/trg/meta.htm

Tham kho
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2). New York: Academic. Belmont, J. M., & Butterfield, E. C. (1969). The relations of short-term memory to development and intelligence. In L. C. Lipsitt & H. W. Reese (Eds.), A dvances in child development and behavior, Vol. 4 (pp. 29-82). New York: Academic. Berardi-Coletta, B., Dominowski, R. L., Buyer, L. S., & Rellinger, E. R. (1995). Metacognition and problem solving: A process-oriented approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 205-223. Bisanz, G. L., Vesonder, G. T., & Voss, J. T. (1978). Knowledge of ones own responding and the relation of such knowledge to learning: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25, 116-128. Borkowski, J. G., Carr, M., Rellinger, E., & Pressley, M. (1990). Self-regulated cognition: Interdependence of metacognition, attributions, and self-esteem. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 53-92). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Borkowski, J. G., & Muthukrishna, N. (1992). Moving metacognition into the classroom: Working models and effective strategy teaching. In M. Pressley, K. R. Harris, & J. T. Guthrie (Eds.), Promoting academic competence and literacy in school (pp. 477-501). San Diego, CA: Academic. Bracewell, R. J. (1983). Investigating the control of writing skills. In P. Mosenthal, L. Tamor, & S. Walmsley (Eds.), Research on writing (pp. 177-203). New York: Longman. Brown, A. L. (1978). Knowing when, where, and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. In R.
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Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1977). Training strategic study time apportionment in educable retarded children. Intelligence, 1, 94-107. Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245-281. Butterfield, E. C., & Belmont, J. M. (1975). Assessing and improving the executive cognitive functions of mentally retarded people. In J. Bailer & M. Sternlicht (Eds.), Psychological issues in mental retardation (pp. 277-318). Chicago: Aldine. Butterfield, E. C., & Ferretti, R. P. (1987). Toward a theoretical integration of cognitive hypotheses about intellectual differences among children. In J. G. Borkowski & J. O. Day (Eds.), Cognition in special children (pp. 195-233). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Butterfield, E. C., Nelson, T. O., & Peck, V. (1988). Developmental aspects of the feeling of knowing. Developmental Psychology, 24, 654-663. Carr, M., Alexander, J., & Folds-Bennett, T. (1994). Metacognition and mathematics strategy use. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 583-595. Cavanaugh, J. C., & Borkowski, J. G. (1979). The metamemory-memory connection: Effects of strategy training and maintenance. The Journal of General Psychology, 101, 161-174. Cavanaugh, J. C., & Perlmutter, M. (1982). Metamemory: A critical examination. Child Development, 53, 11-28. Corsale, K., & Ornstein, P. A. (1980). Developmental changes in childrens use of semantic information in recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 231245. Corsini, D. A. (1971). Memory: Interaction of stimulus and organismic factors. Human Development, 14, 227-235. Davidson, J. E., Deuser, R., & Sternberg, R. J. (1994). The role of metacognition in problem solving. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 207-226). Cambridge, MA: MIT. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215-251. Flavell, J. H. (1963). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget . New York: D. Van Nostrand. Flavell, J. H. (1971). First discussants comments: What is memory development the development of? Human Development, 14, 272-278.

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Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Flavell, J. H. (1977). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitivedevelopmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911. Flavell, J. H. (1981). Cognitive monitoring. In W. P. Dickson (Ed.), Childrens oral communication skills (pp. 35-60). New York: Academic. Flavell, J. H., Freidrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970). Developmental changes in memorization processes. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 324-340. Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail, Jr., & J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Glasersfeld, E. V. (1984). An introduction to radical constructivism. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality: How do we know what we believe we know? Contributions to constructivism (pp. 17-40). New York: Norton. Hagen, J. W., & Kingsley, P. R. (1968). Labeling effects in short-term memory. Child Development, 39, 113-121. Hart, J. T. (1965). Memory and the feeling-of-knowing experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 208-216. Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books. Kluwe, R. H. (1982). Cognitive knowledge and executive control: Metacognition. In D. R. Griffin (Ed.), Animal mindhuman mind (pp. 201-224). New York: Springer-Verlag. Markman, E. M. (1977). Realizing that you dont understand: A preliminary investigation. Child Development, 48, 986-992. Miller, G. A. (1953). What is information measurement? American Psychologist, 8, 311. Moynahan, E. (1978). Assessment and selection of paired-associate strategies: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 26, 257-266. Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J. (1991). The delayed-JOL effect: When delaying your judgments of learning can improve the accuracy of your metacognitive monitoring. Psychological Science, 2, 267-270. Nelson, T. O., Leonesio, R. J., Landwehr, R. S., & Narens, L. (1980). A comparison of three predictors of an individuals memory performance: The individuals feeling of knowing versus the normative feeling of knowing versus base-rate item difficulty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 279-287.
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Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: a theoretical framework and new findings. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 26). New York: Academic. Newell, A., Shaw, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review, 65, 151-166. Nicholls, J. G., & Miller, A. T. (1984). Development and its discontents: The differentiation of the concept of ability. In Advances in motivation and achievement, Vol. 3 (pp. 185-218). Greenwich, CT: JAI. Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 15-51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind . London: Hitchinson. Schneider, W. (1985). Developmental trends in the metamemory-memory behavior relationship: An integrative review. In D. L. Forrest-Pressley, G. E. MacKinnon, & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance, Vol. 1 (pp. 57-109). New York: Academic. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1987). Whats all the fuss about metacognition? In A. H. Schoenfeld (Ed.), Cognitive science and mathematics education (pp. 189-215). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Wellman, H. M. (1977). Tip of the tongue and feeling of knowing experiences: A developmental study of memory monitoring. Child Development, 48, 13-21.

Trung tm h tr k thut cho cc trng tiu hc v trung hc c s(EMSTAC) l hp ng 5 nm gia vin nghin cu v b gio dc ca Hoa K, vn phng cc chng trnh gio dc c bit(OSEP). c ti tr t 1997-2001. EMSTAC, 1000 Thomas Jefferson St., NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20007; Tel: (202) 944-5300; TTY: 1-877-334-3499; Fax: (202) 9445454.

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K NNG HC TP
National College Transition Network. Study Skills. (n.d.) Boston, MA: National College Transition Network, New England Literacy Resource Center, World Education, Inc. Retrieved December 10, 2006, from http://www.collegetransition.org/counseling/studyskills. html. Reprinted with permission. iu phn bit sinh vin i hc thnh cng vi nhng sinh vin khng thnh cng lin quan trc tip ti kh nng ca h trong vic ghi chp li ni dung trng tm, xc nh ch chnh, ghi nh thng tin, qun l thi gian v nhiu kh nng khc. Nhng kh nng ny thng c cp ti nh l cc k nng hc tp. Nhng phn sau y cung cp thng tin su v cc k nng hc tp c th:

B quyt qun l thi gian

1. Xc nh thi gian tt nht trong ngy hc v hc vo lc 2. Lm vic ngay lp tc. u tranh vi s tr tr. Tm ra nhng yu t cu thnh s tr tr v ph v chng 3. T t thi hn hon thnh cho bn thn mnh 4. Vit ra cc mc tiu trc mt v di hi cho mnh 5. Tp trung vo mt vic ti mt thi im 6. S dng thi gian xem TV nh mt phn thng, sau khi hon thnh vic hc 7. Ln k hoch ngh 10 pht sau mi mt ting hc, v 5 pht sau mi na ting hc 8. Chia mt bi tp ln thnh cc thnh phn nh c th lm tng phn vo mt thi im nht nh 9. C mt danh sch tp hp cc vic phi lm, v lp mt danh sch cc vic phi lm hng ngy 10. Hy linh hot khi bn thy chn vi cc ni dung ang hc no , hy thay i ch 11. Hc a bn thn mnh vo k lut v cm thy d chu vi vic 12. Vit li tt c cc bi tp phi lm v thi hn hon thnh trong cun s qun l thi gian ca mnh 13. Ln k hoch t sng (hoc t m hm trc) nhng u tin cho ngy hm 14. Hc cch ni KHNG vi nhng vic lm gin on vic hc ca bn. Phn cch thi gian hc vi thi gian chi. 15. To mt khu vc hc tp c t chc m bn c th tp trung c

58

16. T cho php mnh c thi gian ngh ngi v nhng phn thng c bit khi hon thnh nhng cng vic quan trng 17. Ln k hoch thi gian hc trc khi ln lp v ngay sau bi ging nu c th 18. Cn thn vi s cu ton qu. iu c th lm gim mc hiu qu ca bn. Lun lm vic vi tp trung cao nht vi mc kh nng tt nht ca bn hy thc t 19. Hc hiu bit bit hn, khng phi vt v hn 20. Pht trin ln t thnh cng. Tn dng t tht bi. Hc hi t sai lm

Phng php SQ3R trong vic hc sch gio khoa

Phng php SQ3R l mt quy trnh hc tp hay cng r rng c th p dng vi hu ht cc sch gio khoa trng i hc. Phng php ny rt hu ch v n gip bn pht hin nhng tng v s kin quan trng trong cc bi tp c ca bn. N gip bn lm ch v ghi nh nhng thng tin bn chun b sn sng cho cc k thi. Tn ca phn k nng hc ny, SQ3R, c vit tt c th ghi nh d hn tng bc lin quan. Kho st> t cu hi (Question)> c (Reading)> Din t li (Recite)> r sot (Review)

Kho st
c nhng mc sau: Tiu ca chng sch Cc on dn nhp v tm tt Tt c cc tiu in m Tt c cc bng biu v ch gii Vic xem xt s b ny s tn khng hn 10 pht. Mc ch ca n l to ra mt nim chung v cch cc ch nh c chia tch th no v bn s mt bao nhiu thi gian c cc chng.

t cu hi
Bin mi tiu in m thnh mt cu hi bng cch s dng cc t hi: ai, ci g, u, khi no, ti sao v bng cch no. Mc ch ca vic t cu hi t mi tiu ny l xc nh l do cho vic c ca bn. Ri bn s c tr li cho cu hi
59

m bn t ra cho bn thn mnh.

c
c phn vn bn i km vi tiu tm cu tr li cho cu hi ca bn. Cu tr li thng s c a ra t nhng chnh ca on vn v cc chi tit b tr. Ch nh du v gch chn nhng thng tin ny. Mc ch ca vic c sau n gin l tm cu tr li cho cu hi.

Din t li
Din t li cu tr li cho cu hi ca bn. C gng din t cu tr li bng t ng ca mnh hoc din gii li t ng ca tc gi. Mc ch ca vic ny l nhm gip bn suy ngh v hiu nhng g bn c. Nu bn vit li hoc ni li nhng g bn c, vic ny s h tr cho vic c hiu.

R sot li
Trong khi kim tra , c li cu hi v cu tr li ca bn. Sau che phn cu tr li v hi li cu hi . Mt khi bn nm chc cu tr li, nh du hon thnh phn . Mc ch ca vic xem li l gip bn chun b cho k thi cui cng. NH RNG t ngi c sch gio khoa v yu thch; chng ta c sch gio khoa thu nhn thng tin v ghi nh v p dng thng tin vo cc tnh hung khi lm bi kim tra. Vic n tp s h tr vic ghi nh thng tin. Ngun Web: SQR3 Graphic Organizer, http://www.freeology.com/graphicorgs/orgframes/sq3r_frame.html

Nghe hiu qu
Nghe ging l mt hot ng cn tp trung. C gng d on nhn xt ca ngi ging v xc nh cu trc bi ging. gip nng cao k nng nghe, bn c th thc hin mt s bc tch cc sau:

Chun b nghe
Chun b cho bui ln lp nu bn chng trnh hc c k mt bi c v ch no cho ngy hm , hy m bo l bn hon thnh vic c trc khi vo bui hc. Nhiu khi hc sinh coi cc bi ging l h tr cho vic hc sch gio khoa, nhng trn thc t, vic nghe trn lp thc ra cng l mt hnh thc hc! Hn na thi ca bn trong vic tham d vo lp hc l rt quan trng. Nu bn cm thy mt lp hc no thng gy lng ph thi gian, bn s khng c tm trng no m
60

nghe ging. Hy xc nh trc khi ln lp rng thi gian nghe ging s c s dng tt; quyt tm bin n thnh mt kinh nghim hc tp.

Quan st ngi ging bi

ng ri mt khi ngi ging bi khi bn nhn i ch khc, bn s d b mt tp trung vo nhng th m bn nhn thy v iu ny s nh hng ti s ch ca bn. Bn cn nghe bng mt v c bng tai. Xy dng mt nhn thc v phong cch ring ca ngi ging bi. C ch ca ngi ging bi b sung cho nhn xt ca h. Nhng g ngi vit vit vi du chm than, in m, cc tiu v in nghing, ging vin s th hin qua vic ln xung ging v c ch ngn ng c th. Tt c ngi ging bi u giao tip bng c th cng nh li ni. Hy quan st khi bn nghe.

Nghe ly dng thc thng tin

Nghe tp trung vo ch , cc chnh v cc chi tit b tr. T hi bn thn: y c phi l ch khng? c phi im chnh khng? nhng chi tit no lin quan n chnh ny? Nghe tm nhng t th hin kt cu c sp xp ring cho bi ging . Nhn tm nhng gi bng hnh nh v nghe tm nhng gi bng li ni (ngi ging bi ghi nhng g ln bng, v khi no th ging ca ng y/b y thay i).

Ch cc cu hi
Mt thi sn sng t cu hi to iu kin thun li cho vic hc. Nghe k cc cu hi c t ra trong lp. Khi ngi ging bi hi mt cu hi, hy ch tht k - ng y/ b y ang tho lun mt ci g quan trng v h mun bn hiu v ghi nh im . Ngoi ra, ch n cc cu hi ca nhng ngi khc trong lp chng cung cp cho ngi ging bi nhng phn hi gi tr, v cho php ng y/ b y lm r hn na cc vn quan trng. Thng th cng l nhng cu hi ca bn! Cu tr li ca ngi ging bi cho cc thc mc ca hc sinh c th cung cp cho bn nhng phn hi v mc hiu ti ca bn. Nghe mt cch sng to Trong sut bi ging, bn cn ch ng tham gia vo ni dung ca bi hc . Bn nn nh gi v sp xp cc t ng ca ngi ging bi. Nu bn ngi b ng, ging nh mt ming mt, i hp th kin thc, bn ch ang nghe mt na. nghe hon ton, bn phi tng tc bn phi tr c hat ng . C gng d on ni dung sp c a ra; ni cch khc, hy ngh trc v c gng xem xt ti liu t quan im ca ngi ging bi. suy ngh ca bn theo cng hng. Ngoi ra, ng cho php s ch ca bn b phn tn
61

nu bn thy mnh b mt tp trung hoc b tr c b xm chim bi nhng vn khc (thng l nhng vn lin quan ti cc tnh hung ngoi lp hc), hay ghi ch nhanh vn vo giy s ghi ch ca bn, v quay li tham gia tch cc vo lp hc ngay lp tc! Hy qun l s mt tp trung ca bn bn khng lm ngn tr vic hc. Thnh cng ca bn trng i hc s ph thuc rt nhiu vo vic bn nghe ging lp tt th no. Nhng gi ny c th nng cao kh nng ca bn mt cch ng k trong lnh vc sng cn ny.

Nhng im chnh:
Chun b trc khi n lp L mt ngi nghe ging ch ng bng cch on trc cc im chnh L mt ngi nghe ging sng to v c gng kt ni ni dung bi ging vi nhng g m bn bit T xc nh mnh phi thnh cng: ngi pha trn ca lp hc v qun l s mt tp trung ca bn thn nh gi mc hiu bit ca bn bng kh nng v li nhng g ang c tho lun Hy hi v bt k ci g trong bi ging hoc bi c m bn khng hiu Trch t ti liu ca UMs New Student Program v Amarillo Colleges TASSL/Access Center. Maine Educational Opportunity Center 96/sd Mt nh thng thi tng ni rng nghe l vic kh nht trn i. Nghe sai dn n hiu sai, v tt c chng ta u bit iu t s tri nghim vi nhng vn m vic hiu sai c th gy ra. Trong ngnh cng nghip, hng triu la b tht thot hng nm do vic nghe khng tt. hu ht cc cng ty ln, vic giy trng mc en tr thnh mt tp qun quy chun. V Xerox, mt cng ty hng u, xy dng v gi y bn ra th trng cho cc ngnh khc cc kha hc nng cao k nng nghe ca mnh. trng, hc sinh khng nghe mt cch y nhng ch dn v sau mi k thi chng ti u c nghe v nhng trng hp b mt tn ch v khng theo nhng ch dn ny. Mt game chi trong nh c a thch mt vi nm trc lin quan ti vic truyn ti mt cu chuyn t mt ngi ti nhng ngi tip theo. V iu bun ci l khi ngi cui cng trong hng nhc li ni dung, thng l khng th nhn ra c ni dung m ngi u tin a ra.

62

Nhng sai lm khi nghe

Nghe sai c rt nhiu nguyn nhn chng khng tch ri nhau . Nhm mc ch tho lun chng ta c th phn loi chng nh sau:

1.

M gia ban ngy

y c l l li nghe thng gp nht bi v n nh hng ti tt c mi ngi. Thng thng, din gi s cp n cng mt ngi hoc mt vt m khi gi nn mt k c trong tr no chng ta v th l chng ta lc hng. Khi chng ta quay li thc ti v bt u nghe tip, ta nhn thy rng ngi ta ang gii thiu n im th 3 v rng chng ta chng thu nhn c t no v im th nht v im th hai. C hi cho vic m gia ban ngy l rt nhiu bi v tc ni chm hn rt nhiu so vi tc ca ngh. V vy, khi mt ngi ang ni vi tc 125 t mt pht, tr c bn s t do ngh vic khc. C cc cch khc phc xu hng t nhin ca vic m gia ban ngy, v chng ta s tho lun sau.

2.

Tnh bo th

Sai lm ny thng xy ra bn ngoi lp hc hn l trong lp, v c bit l khi chng ta tranh lun. Chng ta thng t chi nghe mt quan im i nghch khi chng ta quyt nh mt quan im khc. Chng ta cm thy rng chng ta bit tt c nhng g cn bit, v th nghe cng chng c tc dng g. Thc t, y l mt sai lm thuc v ng x tri thc hn l vn v nghe. Bt c khi no chng ta khng nghe vi mt thi ci m, chng ta lm hi chnh mnh v c ngi ni chuyn vi mnh. Nu quan im ca chng ta l ng, nhng tranh lun i lp s ch gip cng c v khng nh nim tin. Mt khc, nu quan im ca chng ta l sai, t chi lng nghe s khng lm cho quan im ca chng ta thnh ng c. Bo th cng xy ra trong vic hc trn lp. V d, bn c th trng thnh trong mt gia nh m cc thnh vin ln tui ng h hoc chng cng on mnh m. V th, khi lp hc kinh t ca bn tho lun cc cuc m phn gia ngi thu lao ng v ngi lm thu, xu hng u tin ca bn c th l quay lng li vi nhng s kin m chng khng ph hp vi nim tin t trc ti nay ca bn. S nh gi cng bng cc s kin thc t c th s mang li vic hiu bit tch cc hn v r rng hn i vi ton b khi nim.

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3.

Ch gi to

y l mt cng c t v m thnh thong mi ngi u vin n. Khi chng ta khng thc s thch th vi nhng g m mt ngi no ang ni, chng ta gi v nghe. Chng ta gt u v thnh thong a ra nhng nhn xt chng c ngha g nhm to n tng l chng ta ang chu , trong khi thc t, u c ta cch xa hng ngn dm. Ngi-nghe-gi- i khi khng c la chn no khc; mt ngi nhm chn c th c tai nghe ring ca h v anh ta khng th b i c. C th anh ta ngi ti bn hoc trong phng vi h hng khi mt vn gy n tng xut hin trong u. Mt cch tin li, anh ta vn c th nm vng ang nghe ci g, thm ch i khi a ra mt nhn xt, trong khi s ch thc s ca anh ta hng n mt vn khc c u tin hn. S nguy him l khi chng ta cho php s cn thit thi thong ny tr thnh mt qu trnh hng ngy: mt k nng p dng bt c khi no c mt vn g m chng ta khng thy thch th lm. Vic ny s khng tt cho vic hc; ng bn thn bn hnh thnh thi quen ny.

4.

S tht vng v l tr

Vic nghe i lc c th kh khn. trng i hc, bn phi ngi nghe nhiu bi ging v cc ti kh hiu. Hy lng trc vic ny; v l l do bn i hc i hc: hc nhng g m bn khng bit. i khi, bn c th cm thy thi thc mun u hng, mun b cuc. Bn ni vi bn thn: D ti c c gng n u chng na, ti cng khng nm c n. Ti c l l phi i din s tht: ti ch l khng th hc c ci . Vi kiu suy ngh ny, rt d t b vic c gng. R rng, bn s khng bao gi hiu nu bn b cuc. Vic cn lm l phi nghe k lng hn bao gi ht; t cc cu hi khi thc hnh; v, rt quan trng , tho lun v ti liu vi mt bn cng lp. Tn cng vn ngay khi n xut hin; c gng ng hng tun tri qua trc khi i tm kim s gip . Hon thnh ngay lp tc v bn s cm thy t c xu hng chp nhn thi lm vic khng hiu qu.

5.

Ghi nh

Mt s ngi nghe c gng ghi nh mi t c din gi ni ra. Nhng ngi ny cng ging nh nhng sinh vin b cng thng v qu lo lng. Khao kht nghe tt, h phm sai lm khi nghe v cui cng th nh c t hn. Bn khng th nh c tt c nhng g m mt din gi ni; iu ny l khng th. Khi bn c gng, bn b l tinh thn ca bi ging v iu ny l ti t nht. Mt sinh vin mc sai lm ny s lm nh vy v cu y khng bit c cch no khc. Cu y khng c dy cc k thut nghe hiu qu.
64

6.

Tnh cch ngi nghe

Vic ngi nghe thm nh v nh gi mt din gi ch l mt vic rt t nhin; l iu m tt c chng ta u lm. Tuy nhin n tng ca chng ta khng nn nh hng ti vic nghe. Ni dung phi c nh gi trn thnh tu ca chnh n. V d, bn c th thin v vic khng ch ti mt din gi do v ngoi ca anh ta. Nu mt ngi hng dn n mc li thi v c b ngoi cu th, bn c th kt lun rng nhng g anh ta ni khng ng nghe. Hy trnh nhng cm d; ng cm gic c nhn ca bn gy cn tr. Thm ch nu bn c thuyt phc rng anh ta l mt k ngc, hy nh rng anh ta cng c bng cp nht nh . Hy qun i cm gic ca bn v nghe nhng g anh ta ni. Thng tin ny c trch t ngun ca TASSL/Access Center, Amarillo College, Amarillo, Texas.

B quyt ghi chp

Phn ln nhng g bn cn hc hon thnh tt kha hc s c cung cp trn lp. Mt cch thu nhn c phn ln ni dung ca mi lp hc l ghi chp tt. Vic ghi ch tm tt s gip bn tp trung vo cc khi nim v cc im quan trng, hoc chnh. Vit li cc chnh s gip bn hc v nh chng, v khi u cho qu trnh chun b cho vic thi c

Hy nh l mt ngi nghe ch ng
Ngi khu vc pha trn ca lp hc bn c th nghe v nhn thy nhng g ang din ra; c gng hiu v nhng g m ging vin ni; c gng kt ni nhng g m ging vin ni vi nhng g m bn bit; xem bn c th v li trong tm tr nhng g ang c ni khng; dnh phn ln thi gian ca bn nghe, khng phi vit; v hy nghe tm nhng t kha quan trng, chuyn tip, v cc im nhn. Ch ng tham gia vo lp hc v t cu hi.

Ghi chp ti lp
Dnh mt trang u tin ca quyn v ca bn ghi chp cc ch hng ngy v ghi ngy ca cc ghi chp mi ngy Dnh ch trng in vo nhng phn m bn c th b b qua trn lp ng c vit li mi t m ging vin ni. ng vit nhng on thng tin ch ghi ch thi S dng t vit tt v cc k hiu bng biu bt k khi no c th Tm nhng cm t mi hoc quan trng m ging vin dng lp i lp li. V d v nhng th c vit li:
65

+ Ging vin vit g trn bng hoc bo bn ghi li nhng g + Nhng t m ging vin s dng lp i lp li + Bt k iu g m ging vin dnh thi gian nhn mnh Vit ghi ch cho bn thn mnh l v vit L khi bn cm thy b b l thng tin Chp li nhng ghi ch theo tng bi ging, vit nhng ghi ch di dng dn , v ch s dng mt mt giy c bi hng ngy bn bit v ch s c tho lun Xem li cc ghi ch trong vng 24h, v lm cc bi n tp ngn hng tun. R mt bn cng lp trao i v nhng ghi chp, vic ny s mang li ch cho c hai. Nghin cu ch ra rng 2 tun sau bi ging, bn s qun mt 80% nhng g bn nghe, v sau 4 tun l 95%, v th hy ghi ch, chp li v n li nhng ghi chp .

B quyt c
Vic tn dng ti a phng php SQ3R thng dn n vic hiu su v ghi nh sch gio khoa cng nh cc bi c b tr. i khi bi c phc tp hoc khng r rng mt cch bt thng. Sau y l mt s gi : Sam, hy c li. Vic c li khng phi lc no cng l lng ph thi gian, c bit cc bi vit chuyn ngnh nh thng thy trong khoa hc. Sau khi c, n y ng qun trn . Khi bn quay tr li bi c, hy xem n vi con mt hon ton mi. Hy l mt nh thm t t ng - tm nhng t c bn. B ht tt c cc tnh t v trng t trong u v c cu m khng c nhng t . Tm nhng t quan trng, thng l ng t v danh t. Thc hin mt bi n tp nh. Dng li tng on v nhc li, bng t ca bn, nhng g bn va c. (Hoc, vit tm tt l ca vn bn) To mt s m thanh. c to mt cu vn vi ln, mi ln nhn mnh mt phn khc nhau ca cu . (Tng tng rng bn l tc gi ang ni). Thay i knh . Hy xem liu bn c th tm thy mt on vn thay th trong th vin khng. i khi cng mt khi nim c th c hiu r hn nu bn tm thy mt cch din t khc Tr thnh chuyn gia. Gi v rng vn r nh ban ngy v t gii thch vi mnh. Vit li li gii thch ca mnh v hy ngc nhin v nhng g m bn thc s bit. Hy ng ln. Th ng khi bn c mt cu kh: vic nghe thy t ng thng lm cho chng d hiu hn; i i li li c th gip tp trung hn. Tn dng ging vin ca bn. Duy tr vic cp nht nhng bi c trn lp c th nhn thy nhng gii thch chi tit c a ra trong bi ging.Nu cc bi c khng c r xat li, hoc cc cu hi cn nguyn, hy hi gio vin gii thch chng. K l l bn khng phi l sinh vin duy nht c cu hi v cu hi ca bn cung cp cho ging vin nhng phn hi quan trng.

66

 Tham gia vo mt nhm hc tp, kim mt gia s, hoc gp mt nh t vn. Trch t ti liu University of Maines New Student Program v Becoming a Master Student, College Survival Inc. ca D.B.Ellis

Mi b quyt hc tp tn ti ..
1. Hy thng xuyn ngh gii lao khi hc Ngh 3-5 pht sau mi khong thi gian hc 20-30 pht. Nu bn lm vic trong thi gian di m khng ngh, khng phi l mt cch s dng hiu qu thi gian hc ca bn: Nng lng gim, s nhm chn bt u, p lc v cng thng ca c th tng ln, v s ch ca bn vo ti liu gim dn xung 2. Hoch nh nhiu khong thi gian hc ngn hn l ch lm cho mt thi gian di. 30 pht l mt khong thi gian tt cho tr no ca bn x l thng tin. V hy tn dng thi gian (ngoi 30 pht ) rnh ri hon thin! 3. Tm mt ni xc nh khng b mt tp trung hc Hc thng xuyn tng cm gic thoi mi trong mi trng ca bn. S tp trung vo cng vic ang lm s to ra nhng kt qu tt hn. 4. Ln k hoch thi gian biu c th hc Vic ny s u tranh vi s tr tr v c th bn s lm quen vi n. 5. Ghi ch li khi bn c Kt hp tay - mt gip bn bn rn v kch thch tr no 6. Ghi li nhng cu hi khi bn c ti liu Hy hi ging vin ca bn - nhng cu hi sai duy nht l nhng cu hi khng c hi. 7. Chp li nhng ghi ch ca bn v bi ging hng ngy v th hin chng bng t ng ca bn. Bn c th lin tng ti ti liu tt hn khi bn t tnh c nhn ca mnh vo n. 8. n li nhng ghi chp trn lp hng ngy. Gi chng lun mi trong tr c bn. 9. Chun b trc cho cc k thi Hc nhi nht c th gip bn t trnh khi thi, nhng bn s khng nh g v ti liu v lu di. 10. Hc nhng mn kh nht hoc t yu thch nht ca bn trc tin Qun l thi gian hc mt cch hiu qu bng cch lm vic vi cc ti liu kh trc, khi bn khe khon v s ch ca bn ang mc tt nht. Ln k hoch cc hot ng c u tin cao vo nhng thi gian bn c nhiu nng lng nht v dnh li
67

nhng mn yu thch ca bn hoc mn d hn hc sau nh l mt ng c sau ny. V ng qun thng cho mnh - ln k hoch gii lao v cc hot ng x hi sau nhng thi gian hc tp. Trch t UMs New Student Program and METS Dozen Study Tips, Maine Educational Opportunity Center 6/96SD

Chun b cho cc bi kim tra

Mt phn tr thnh mt ngi lm tt bi kim tra l chun b t trc cho bi kim tra. Tm hiu s l kiu k thi no: bi lun, cu hi ngn, trc nghim, in vo ch trng, c m sch hay mang v nh lm. Xem li nhng ghi chp ca mnh, sch gio khoa v nhng ghi chp t vic c bn ngoi. Lu tr cc ghi chp theo trt t logic. Xem li nhng tm tt bi hc v tr li tt c cc cu hi mu trong bi. ngh ngi hng dn xc nh nhng phn cn tp trung nhiu hn. Xem li cc k thi trc hoc cc k thi mu trong th mc th vin. T to cho mnh cc cu hi lin quan n k thi v xem xt chng. Xy dng cc cng c hc tp: mt bng danh sch hc tp, danh sch t vng, thi gian biu, mt b th ghi ch v mt chng trnh cc ti liu lin quan. Hnh thnh mt nhm hc tp hoc tho lun.

Lm bi thi
- Ni chung, n sm, xem xt ton b bi thi trc khi bt u, c hng dn cn thn; ghi ra nhng m s, biu , chi tit h tr tr nh ca bn - Ghi tn vo bi thi - Lm ch cuc thi: c tt c cc cu hi trc khi bn bt u tr li v v nh du cc cu hi bng (*) d, (**) d nhng mt thi gian, (x) kh v (?) khng tr li c, tr li cc cu hi theo th t tng nim tin v qun l bi kim tra. Bn c th thng xuyn tm c nhng mu cht gip cho cu tr li t vic c cc phn khc ca bi kim tra. - Kim sot tc ca bn thn v lun c thc v thi gian. Suy ngh v gi tr im s ca cc cu hi khc nhau, nu chi tit ny c cung cp v qun l qu thi gian ca bn! - Cn thn vi nhng cu hi ngn thi gian, i tip sang cu hi tip theo v nh du cu bn c th d dng quay li lm nu thi gian cho php - C gng tr li tt c cc cu hi, mt cu tr li cha hon chnh cn tt hn l khng c cu tr li no - Cc bi thi vit lun i hi tt c cc b quyt trn cng vi yu cu phn tch cu hi, lp dn , bao gm cc s kin, nm c trng tm v vit r rng. - Cc k thi thc t i hi tt c cc k nng trn v i hi bn phi c mi cu hi hai ln trc khi tr li bn c th nm c nhng t c bn. Bi thi trc nghim
68

bn c th phi loi tr bt nhng p n chn ra cu tr li ng nht. Cc cu hi ng/sai: nu mt cu hi l sai mt phn, nh du n l sai. Xem xt cn thn nhng t kha nh lun lun, thng xuyn, hoc khng bao gi; nhng t ny c th gip bn quyt nh xem cu l ng hay sai. - Khi bn khng bit cu tr li hy khm ph nhng b quyt sau:

Cc k thi trc nghim

Nhng ngi hng dn rt cn thn vi nhng cu tr li ng, nhng li thng c t vo nhng phng n khc. Cu tr li ng s khng c li ng php, cu trc hay chnh t. Th ca cu hi s khp vi th ca cu tr li. Phng n di nht, nu n ng v ng php, thng l cu tr li ng. Ch dng nhng b kp ny nu bn buc phi on. - C gng dnh 10 pht cui kim tra li tt c, nhng c gng ng thay i p n ca bn thnh mt kt qu suy on; n tng u tin ca bn thng l ng! - Khi c tr bi, c nhng nhn xt ca ngi hng dn tht cn thn bn hiu c nhng li ca mnh v khng lp li chng.

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Ti ngh ti lm vic , nhng ti khng th tm ra n: h tr nhng hc sinh thiu k nng t chc

Ito, Carolyn. (2005). I Think I Did It, But I Cant Find It: Assisting Students Who Lack Organizational Skills . Williamsburg, VA: Training and Technical Assistance Center, College of William and Mary. Retrieved December 22, 2006, from http://www.wm.edu/ttac/articles/learning/orgskills.html. Reprinted with permission. Sinh vin cn c k nng t chc thnh cng trng. Sinh vin thiu k nng t chc s b bt li bi v h thng chm hn hai bc so vi nhng ngi cn li ca lp. H thng b mun v khng c chun b. Trong khi h ang tm ti liu cn thit, h b l mt nhng thng tin quan trng nh, Hm nay chng ta s...., hoc S c mt bi kim tra vo th su, hoc Ti i ngy bo co v sch ca cc bn. Nhng gi sau y dnh cho gio vin v tr ging, nhng ngi lm vic vi nhng sinh vin km t chc tt c cc la tui v nhng ngi khuyt tt. Trong c cc thng tin v t chc khng gian c nhn, v vit, bng k hoch, thi gian, v mt danh mc ti liu ngun tham kho c ghi ch.

T chc khng gian c nhn

Bn hc
Kiu kim t thp: cc vn bn bn tri, gy sch hng ra ngoi, nhng quyn sch to nht di cng, v/ dng bn phi Kim sot khu vc lm vic: loi b nhng ti liu khng cn thit, lm phn tn t tng Bn hc chung: Hc bn quay ra ngoi cc vt dng t c kh nng b b qun li C thi gian dn dp sau mi bui hc v nhc hc sinh dn c nhn ca mnh

T c nhn
Sp xp cc t c nhn ca nhng sinh thiu k nng t chc gn phng ca gio vin gio dc hc c bit Sp xp bn trong t c nhn
70

+ ngn trn cng: vn bn, gy ba sch c nh du bng bt mu v t nm ngang + mc treo: s dng treo qun o, cp sch + ngn di cng: v theo chiu dc, theo th t cc lp hc, ti liu d tr + nhng th bn trong: bn k hoch hng ngy, tranh nh, trang tr, gng K hoch dn dp: dn dp hng tun trong thng u tin, hng thng sau hoc bt c khi no nhng ngn t khng c sp xp gn gng hoc khng th tm thy cc vt cn thit.

Cp sch
Dn dp v lau bi hng tun (chiu th su) + ly ra, vt b: giy t c, giy bc, cc dng c hng + t vo ng ch: tt c giy t, dng c, qun o, sch, giy ghi ch, v...v + s dng bng k cc tiu chun nh mt phn ca vic kim tra v + ghi li cc vic sa cha cn lm Quyt nh ca nhm: gio vin quyt nh ni cp sch trong sut gi hc (trong t c nhn, di ngn bn, hoc treo sau lng gh)

V ng
Gip sinh vin thit k mt v dnh ng tin, mt v ng giy ghi nh

Ti xch
Khuyn khch s dng cp sch ng c nhn: Con trai: kh mi, lc, cha kha (khng nc hoa) Con gi: son, lc, kh mi, dng n gii, cha kha (khng sn mng tay, nc hoa, xt tc v...v)

Sp xp v ghi
Gio vin nn cung cp danh sch ti liu cn thit cho c nm. Danh sch ny nn c a ra trc khi bt u nm hc, vo ngy khai trng, v mt ln na vo gia nm hc. m bo bn danh sch c cung cp cho mi sinh vin mi. Gi sn cc bn copy cho cc bui hp ph huynh.

V
Mt quyn v ln (2) c phn chia trang th tt hn v d theo di hn v sinh vin c mi th cn thit khi k hoch thay i Sp xp cc mn hc theo th t thi kha biu
71

 S dng ngn ti ng trc cho cc bi tp phi lm, cc bi tp hon thnh, v th t gi ph huynh Kim sot thay th khi cn thit khi cc khuyn v b cong hoc t ba b hng (vit hoc gi in cho ph huynh) Mang theo hp bt ch bng nha ng 2 hoc 3 bt ch, 2 bt mc, dng khc Dn nhn v c tn hc sinh, thuc i no, v...v Gio vin h tr duy tr cc quyn v c sp xp tt: Lu mt tp ring cc bi tp cho hc sinh vng mt v hc sinh c th c mt trang thay th cho nhng trang b b l Lu mt quyn v tng hp cha tt c cc cng vic, ghi ch v...v sinh vin tham kho Ch nh mt ngi no ghi chp cho cc hc sinh ngh hc xy dng h thng h tr bn b Vit Mc lc cho mi quyn v trn bng mt khu vc thng nht, v b sung hng ngy S thng nht ca c i rt c ch

Kim tra s ghi chp

Tng hp ni dung s ghi chp nh k - t nht 3 tun mt ln hoc khi cc bi hc c hon thnh Sp xp s ghi chp theo mc hon thnh v c t chc (hoc thay vo c th t cu hi kim tra cho 1 quyn s ghi chp), quyt nh ca nhm nh phn trm im c c qua cc quyn s ghi chp), vic t chi xp loi s ghi chp khng c bng ni dung, tn, lp ca hc sinh c th h tr vic t nh gi v nh gi ln nhau. Cho php dng thi gian trn lp sp xp cc trang v 1 hoc 2 ngy trc khi n hn kim tra v Bin vic chun b v vit thnh mt bi tp v nh Gi mt s quyn v chn lc trong h s, hi tho v thi c

Ghi chp bi tp: dng mt bn k hoch

c im cn thit ca cc bn k hoch
Dnh ch trng : + ghi chp hng ngy bi tp v nh ca lp hc hoc nhng vic lm c + vit s ghi ch trnh t m cc bi tp s c lm + nh du hon thnh nhng bi tp xong
72

+ nhn xt ca ph huynh + nhn xt ca gio vin Nhng c im nn c khc trong bn k hoch ca sinh vin + dnh ch ghi nhng bi tp di hn + dnh ch ghi im bi kim tra + nhng thng bo ngn to ng lc + dnh ch ghi s in thoi ca cc bn ng la + ng chc tt c cc trang c gi vi nhau trong sut nm hc + Thng qua h thng cc vn bn cho php c ngh hc + cc quy tc ca trng/ tp th Cc bn k hoch c bn sn + chi ph khong $6 mi hc sinh + c chi tit ha cho tng trng + i km vi n phm ca gio vin trong bi hc v k nng t chc + ko di trong mt nm + m bo l tt c sinh vin c cng thng tin nh nhau

Sp xp thi gian
t mc tiu, la chn v t th t u tin
Khi bn qun l thi gian, bn s s dng cuc sng tt nht (Santeusanio, 1989, p.53): mc tiu sut cuc i, mc tiu di hn (3-5 nm), mc tiu ngn hn (tun ny).

K hoch hng ngy:

C ngy = 24h, trng = 6.5h, n =1, ng = 9, hot ng k nng < 1, hc tp = 1 T c nhn, v, khu vc nhm, bng hc nh Vit trn th nh, tho kp ghim xung khi mi mn hc c hon thnh

K hoch hng tun:

168 ting trong 1 tun, 30 = trng, 56 = ng, 10 = n, 72 = cn li

Cc d n ln k hoch di hn:
Nhm v c nhn Chn d n trong vng 2 ngy ca cng vic phi lm Tho lun v d n vi ph huynh Kim tra s tin b bng cch s dng mt danh sch cc cng vic phi lm theo trnh t ngy n hn hon thnh
73

Thi gian hot ng x hi dnh cho bn b:

Gi in Cc hot ng do trng bo tr: cu lc b, games, khiu v, th thao c cng ng bo tr: cc hot ng th thao Tham gia nhm trt bng, xem phim, i nh th

Lm vic:
Sinh vin i lm thng 1 hoc 2 nm ln hn nhng ngi cng trang la Cn c s cho php lm vic Quan tm n tin tiu vt Kinh nghim c v gp phn xy dng hnh nh ca sinh vin trong mt ca bn b ng trang la Lm vic vo cui tun nh bi bn, ct c, giao bo, trng tr c tr tin dm di nn s hc c nhng iu khng tt v rt nhiu cng vic trong thc t Trong sut tun, lm vic khi i hc s gy ra tnh trng qu nhiu cng vic, mt mi, khng lm bi tp v nh Kim sot cht ch, thng bo cho ph huynh khi cng vic nh hng ti vic hc

Cc ti liu tham kho c ghi ch: Ngun tham kho v vic dy k nng t chc
Curie, P., deBrueys, M., Exnicios, J., &Prejean, M.(1987). 125 ways to be a better student. . East Moline, IL: Lingui Systems. Thch hp nht vi nhng hc sinh cp 3 v cp 2, y l mt tp hp cc bi hc k nng hc tp bao gm nhng thng tin c bn cho gio vin, nhng gio n bi hc, v nhng bi tp cho sinh vin c th c sao chp li. Gio vin c th chn nhng bi ring l hoc s dng quyn sch ny nh mt tng th nng cao s c lp v tnh c t chc. Nhng bi hc trong l Sp xp chnh mnh v Thi gian hc ca bn, Sp xp ti liu ca bn, Sp xp khu vc lm vic ca bn nh, S dng mt quyn sch bi tp, Kho st, Gch chn v nh du, c lt, Lp dn , Ghi ch, Lm theo hng dn bng li, Tinh thn trch nhim i vi hnh vi, Chun b cho k kim tra, Lm bi kim tra, v Sot li bi kim tra. Florey, H. (1987). Study orientation skills. Tuscaloosa, AL: Henry E.Florey, Jr., 3714 Paver Drive, Tuscaloosa, AL 35405.
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c thit k cho hc sinh cp 3 v i hc, chng trnh v k nng hc tp ny cp ti nhiu ch . Cc thut ng c nh ngha v minh ha bng nhiu v d. Nhiu trang sch c cung cp cho vic t khm ph v luyn tp. Cc ch c gii thiu bao gm ng lc, t mc tiu, Qun l thi gian, Nghe, Ghi chp, c sch gio khoa, Tp trung, Chun b v lm bi kim tra, v Sp xp v vit ti liu. Sch hng dn ny v Hng dn cho sinh vin (xem McDonald, B., DickersonYoung, L., & Florey, H.) c cung cp cho nhng ngi tham d vo hi tho k nng hc tp thnh cng. Heacoz, D. (1991). Up from underachievement. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing, Inc. Irvin, J., & Rose, E. (1995) Starting early with study skills: A week-by-week guide for elementary students. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. McDonald, B., Dickerson-Young, L.,&Florey, H. (1986). SSS: Successful Study Skills: The success program student manual. Tuscaloosa, AL: Henry E.Florey, Jr., 3714 Paver Drive, Tuscaloosa, AL 35405. Mi chng v k nng hc tp thch hp cho hc sinh cp 3 v sinh vin i hc bao gm nhng nh ngha v thut ng, im xp hng, v mt s hot ng thc hnh. Mi chng l ng lc, t mc tiu, Qun l thi gian, Cc phong cch hc, Nghe, Ghi chp, Phn tch sch gio khoa, Sp xp, Ghi nh/Tp trung, v Lm bi kim tra. Sch hng dn ny c cung cp cho nhng ngi tham d vo hi tho k nng hc tp thnh cng c bo tr bi Henry Florey. McMurchie, s.(1994). Understanding LD-learning differences: A curriculum to promote LD awareness, self-esteem and coping skills in students ages 8-13. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Press. Rooney,K.(1988). Independent strategies for efficient study. Richmond, VA:JR Enterprises, 2115 Willowick Lane, Richmond, VA 23233. Karen Rooney gii thiu nhiu chin lc h tr hc sinh cui cp tiu hc n cp 3. Mi chin lc c gii thiu c mt s thng tin c bn, v d minh ha, v thc hnh nht nh. Trong s nhng lnh vc v k nng c gii thiu c Qun l thi gian, Sp xp v vit, c sch gio khoa, Hc th ghi nh, Bnh xe c sch, Vit, Ton v Vn, Ghi chp, nh vn, T vng v ghi nh, v Nhng chin lc lm bi kim tra. Nghin cu v s pht trin ca cc chin lc ny l phn kt ca cun sch. Gio vin s cn b sung nhng g c gii thiu y c ti liu lin quan cho vic thc hnh ca hc sinh. Santeusanio, R.(1989). Improving your study skills: Developing study skills. Circle

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Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc. Sch c km bi tp ca hc sinh ny c chn bi bao gm Tm kim thng tin, Th vin, Ghi ch, S dng hnh nh, Qun l thi gian, HEART: Mt h thng hc tp, Xp hng vic c, Lm bi kim tra, v Phi lm g khi bn khng hiu. Ti liu ny thch hp vi hc sinh cp 2 v cp 3. Cc cu hi v bi tp bm theo thng tin c bn. Gio vin c th cn b sung nhng ti liu c gii thiu. Santeusanio, R.(1988a). Study skills and strategies: Student text. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc. Sch c km bi tp ca hc sinh ny c cc chin lc v gi thc hnh. Mi chng gii thch hc sinh s hc ti liu g, ti sao v bng cc no. Ti liu thc hnh cng c cung cp km theo. Cc ch c gii thiu l Chun b c, HEART- Mt h thng hc tp (7 chng), Qun l thi gian ca bn, Hc t hnh nh, v S dng vic nghin cu hc. Chng trnh ny thch hp vi hc sinh cp 2 v cp 3. Santeusanio, R.(1988b). Study skills and strategies:Teachers manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc. Hng dn ca gio vin cung cp ti liu c bn cho gio vin bao gm mt danh sch tham kho m rng. Cc ti liu cho mi chng c mc ch, Gi ging dy, v cu tr li cho cc cu hi trong Phn sch c ca hc sinh. Strichart, S., & Mangrum, C.(1993). Teaching study strategies to students with learning disabilities: ready-to-use reproducibles, teaching plans, and resources for middle to high school. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Sch ti liu cho gio vin ny cung cp thng tin c bn, gio n ging dy, cc trang copy, v cc bi tp luyn tp nhng k nng mi trong nhiu lnh vc mn hc. Cc ch trong sch l Ghi nh thng tin, c v Ghi chp t sch gio khoa, Gii quyt bi ton , Ghi chp t cc bi thuyt trnh lp, S dng th vin, S dng cc quyn sch tham kho, Din gii cc h tr hnh nh, Vit mt ti liu nghin cu, Lm bi kim tra, v S dng thi gian. Phn ti liu tham kho v danh mc tham kho cng rt rng. Training and Technical Assistance Center (T/TACW&M), William and Mary School of Education, P.O. Box 8795, Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795, Phone: (800) 323-4489, TDD: (757)221-2302, Fax: (757) 221-5053. T/TAC is funded by the Virginia Department of Education. Copyright 1996-2005 Training and Technical Assistance Center, College of William and Mary. All Rights Reserved.

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Nhng chin lc hc tp
Boudah, Daniel J., & ONeill, Kevin J. (1999). Learning Strategies. ERIC/OSEP Digest E577. Reston VA:ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. Retrieved January 1, 2007, from http://www. ericdigests.org/2000-2/learning.htm. Khi hc sinh chuyn t nhng k nng trng tm nhng nm tiu hc sang nhng ni dung trng tm ca trung hc c s, chng phi ng u vi nhng i hi cao hn c th c c nhng thng tin t sch gio khoa, c th ghi chp t bi ging, lm vic c lp, v th hin s hiu bit ca mnh qua cc bi kim tra dng trc nghim (pencil tests), bi lun (paper test), v cc on vn ngn (written compositions) (Schumaker & Deshler, 1984). i vi nhng hc sinh cha tch ly c cho mnh nhng k nng hc tp quan trng , thng hay tht bi vi nhng bi tp i hi phi nm vng ni dung, c bit l vi cc lp hc gio dc thng thng. c th p ng c vi thch thc ny, nhiu hc sinh c bit, bao gm c nhng em km kh nng trong hc tp, cn phi bit v s dng c nhng chin thut trong hc tp i n thnh cng bt chp s thiu ht v k nng ln kin thc. Ni mt cch n gin, chin thut hc tp l mt cch tip cn c nhn hon thnh mt bi tp. Ni mt cch chi tit, chin thut hc tp l cch t chc v s dng mt chui nhng k nng c th ca mt c nhn nhm mc ch lnh hi ni dung hay hon thnh nhng bi tp sao cho tht hiu qu trong h thng hc tp chnh quy hoc khng chnh quy (Schumaker & Deshler, 1992). V th, gio vin nhng ngi dy v chin thut hc tp s dy hc sinh lm th no hc hn l dy chng da trn ni dung ca mt gio n chuyn bit hoc nhng k nng c bit.

Nghin Cu Ni G V Chin Thut Hc Tp?

Chim a phn trong cuc nghin cu v pht trin chin thut hc tp cho nhng hc sinh km kh nng hc tp l t cc nh nghin cu v nh gio dc thnh vin ca trng i Hc Kansas, Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp (Center for Research on Learning). Ni chung, (cuc) nghin cu ca h cho thy vic s dng chin thut hc tp s ci thin thnh tch ca hc sinh bao gm cc cng vic thit k v a vo cp hc cao hay thp thch hp. V d nh trong mn tp c, kt qu t (cuc) vic nghin cu p dng Chin Thut Nhn Dng T (the Word Identication Strategy) cho thy rng s li phm phi trong cc bi tp c trn lp gim i trong khi im c hiu tng ln i vi ton b hc sinh bnh thng s dng ti liu hc tp lp tng ng (Lenz & Hughes, 1990). Mt cuc nghin cu khc cho thy rng

77

nhng hc sinh s dng Chin Thut Lm Bi Thi tng c im thi trung bnh trong cc lp hc hn hp t 57% ln 71% (Hughes & Schumaker, 1991). Cc nh nghin cu khc trong lnh vc chin lc hc tp cng cho ra nhng kt qu tch cc. V d, Graham, Harris, v ng nghip (Graham, Harris, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1991) xc lp nhng chin lc nhm mc ch ci thin cht lng bi lun vit, nhng tin trnh ln k hoch, v vic n tp. Trong mt nhnh nghin cu khc, Palincsar and Brown (Palincsar & Brown, 1986) kim tra v ti to thnh cng phng php dy hc tng tc, mt chin thut nhm ci thin kh nng c ca hc sinh. Scruggs and Mastropieri (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992) xc lp c mt s gii php dy hc sinh bng cch no to nn v s dng thut nh. Cc chin lc th nghim thnh cng bi Miller v Mercer (v d Miller v Mercer, 1993) dn n ci thin vic thc hin ca hc sinh trong tnh tan cng nh gii quyt cc vn v t ng.

Cc Gio Vin Dy Chin Lc Hc Tp Nh Th No?

Cc nh gio dc trng i Hc Kansas, Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp, xc lp mt chui hng dn trong hc sinh s c hc tng chin lc theo cc bc hng dn trc tip t gio vin nh sau: (a)kim tra trc, (b) m t, (c) lm mu, (d) thc hnh ming, (e) thc hnh di s iu khin, (f) thc hnh vi cp lp tng ng, (g)kim tra sau, (h) khi qut li (Schumaker & Deshler, 1992). Sau khi gio vin xc nh c mc thnh tch hin ti ca hc sinh qua bi kim tra trc chin thut, hc sinh s chp nhn hc mt chin thut mi. Tip theo gio vin s m t nhng tnh cht ca chin thut v khi no, ni no, ti sao v lm th no s dng chin thut. K , gio vin s lm mu lm th no s dng chin thut bng cch ni thnh li nhng suy ngh ca mnh khi chin thut c p dng cho mt ni dung ca ti liu hc tp. Sut trong giai on thc hnh ming, hc sinh s ghi nh cc bc ca chin thut v nhng yu cu s dng quan trng khc . Bc na, nhng hot ng thc hnh c kim sat s o to hc sinh tr thnh nhng nh s dng chin thut hiu qu cho nhng ti liu hc tp ph hp vi kh nng ca mnh. Gio vin cung cp cc phn hi c th v vic thc hin v tip cc hc sinh s s dng chin thut ny cho nhng ti liu hc tp vi cp lp tng ng hoc ti liu kh hn. Cui cng, sau khi lm bi kim tra sau xong, gio vin s gip tng hc sinh khi qut li vic s dng chin lc trong h thng hc tp chnh quy hoc khng chnh quy. Mi mt chin thut c nhiu phn v hc sinh mun nh c chng s cn n s tr gip ca cc thut nh . V d nh trong Chin thut Din Gii Theo (the Paraphrasing Strategy (Schumaker, Denton, & Deshler, 1984) cc hc sinh hc mt
78

chin thut c hiu bng cch nh 3 ch ci u ca cc phn trong chin thut RAP: R- Read: c mt on vn A-Ask: T hi bn thn, chnh v chi tit trong on vn ny l g? P-Put: Din t chnh v cc chi tit theo ca mnh. Nu hc sinh cn hc nhng k nng tin quyt, chng hn nh cch tm chnh v chi tit, thy gio s dy nhng iu ny trc khi dy chin thut, v cng c hc sinh sao cho h s dng thnh tho nhng k nng ny trong sut qu trnh hng dn chin thut. Cc hc sinh v c bn s hc s dng mt k nng hc tp trong nhng nhm nh, i khi trong mt phng hc ph o dnh cho tr c bit, vi nhng bi hc ngn, cp tc sut vi tun.

Nhng Ngun Ti Nguyn No Sn C cho Gio Vin?

Gio trnh chin lc hc tp do trng i Hc Kansas xy dng c t chc thnh 3 thnh phn: (a) Thu thng tin, (b) lu tr thng tin, v (c) th hin v minh ho kin thc. Thnh phn yu cu thng tin ch trng n chin thut Nhn Dng T, Din Gii Theo , v vi chin thut khc. Chin Thut Nhn Dng T (Lenz & Hughes, 1990) gip cho hc sinh gii m nhng t a m tit. Nhng hc sinh s dng Chin Thut Din Gii Theo (Schumaker, Denton, & Deshler, 1984) vi mc ch nng cao kh nng c hiu c chnh v cc chi tit trong qu trnh din gii theo mnh. Dng lu tr thng tin bao gm cc chin thut nh: Chin thut Tr Gip Nh Bng Cch Nh Cc Ch Ci u(FIRST-letter Mnemonic Strategy), Chin thut Lin kt Phn Cp (the Paired Associates Strategy) v nhng chin thut khc. Hc sinh no nm vng c Chin thut Tr Gip Nh Bng Cch Nh Cc Ch Ci u s c kh nng c lt sch gio khoa, to ra cc danh sch nhng thng tin quan trng v nh ni dung sch bng cch to ra thut nh t cc ch ci u (Nagel, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1986) nh c ti liu. c th hc v nh li ni dung, Chin thut H Tr Gp Thnh i s gip hc sinh gp thnh i nhng mu thng tin mi vi kin thc c trc bng cch s dng mt thit b trc quan (Bulgren, Hock, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1995). Dng th hin v minh ho kin thc gm Chin thut Vit Cu (Sentence Writing Strategy), Chin Thut Lm Bi Kim Tra (The Test Taking Strategy), v nhng chin thut khc. Chin thut Vit Cu c thit k dy hc sinh lm th no vit cu
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n, cu ghp, cu phc, cu phc hp (Schumaker & Sheldon, 1985). Chin Thut Lm Bi Kim Tra l mt chin thut tch hp c hc sinh s dng tp trung ch vo nhng mt quan trng ca cc ch mc trong bi kim tra, tr li cc cu hi mt cch c h thng, v ci thin vic trnh by bi kim tra (Hughes & Schumaker, 1991). Vi quy m to ln, cuc nghin cu v chin lc hc tp tin hnh sut 20 nm qua ti trng i Hc Kansas, Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp, c cp kinh ph bi Vn Phng Ph Trch Cc Chng Trnh Gio Dc c Bit M (the U.S. Ofce of Special Education Programs). Kinh ph cn c b sung t cc ngun nh Bang Kansas, Hip hi Gia nh Casey (The Casey Family Foundation), v Hi ng Quc Gia V Nhng vic Thiu k nng Trong Hc Tp (the National Council for Learning Disabilities.) Ni dung ca chng trnh xut bn khng cn phn nh quan im hoc chnh sch ca cc c quan cp ph, cng nh khng cn phi nhc n tn thng hiu, sn phm thng mi, hoc nhng t chc nhm ni ln s bo tr ca h. c thm thng tin v gio trnh chin lc hc tp ca trng i Hc Kansas, o to gio vin, v lm th no khai trin nhng chin thut hng dn cho c mt trng hc, xin lin h: Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp . trng i Hc Kansas, 3061 Dole Center, Lawrence, KS 66045, (785)864-4780 (www. ku-crl.org).

Tham kho
Bulgren, J. A., Hock, M. F., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1995).The effects of instruction in a paired associates strategy on the information mastery performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 10, 2237. Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C. A., & Schwartz, S. (1991).Writing and writing instruction for students with learning disabilities: Review of a research program. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 89-114. Hughes, C. A., & Schumaker, J. B. (1991).Test-taking strategy instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 2, 205-221. Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. A. (1990). A word identication strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 149-158, 163. Miller, S. P., & Mercer, C. D. (1993). Using a graduated word problem sequence to promote problem-solving skills. Learning Disability Research & Practice, 8, 169-174. Nagel, D. R., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1986). The FIRST-letter mnemonic strategy. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises.

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Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1986). Interactive teaching to promote independent learning from text. Reading Teacher, 39, 771-777. Schumaker, J. B., Denton, P. H., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence, KS:The University of Kansas. Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1992).Validation of learning strategy interventions for students with LD: Results of a programmatic research effort. In Y. L.Wong (Ed.), Contemporary intervention research in learning disabilities: An international perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag. Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). Setting demand variables: A major factor in program planning for LD adolescents. Topics in Language Disorders, 4, 22-44. Schumaker, J. B., & Sheldon, J. (1985). The sentence writing strategy. Lawrence, KS:The University of Kansas. Scruggs,T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1992). Classroom applications of mnemonic instruction: Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. Exceptional Children, 58, 219-229.

Ti liu ERIC/OSEP l ti sn cng cng v c th c in n li v ph bin t do, nhng vui lng ghi ch li ngun. Ln xut bn ny c c do ngun qu t Vn Phng Chng Trnh Gio Dc c Bit M, di hp ng s ED-99-CO-0026. Nhng quan im th hin trong bn bo co ny khng cn thit phn nh nhng lp trng ca cc chnh sch trong OSEP hoc ca b Gio Dc.

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Nng Cao Nhng K Nng Nhn Dng T Bng Cch S Dng Nhng Chin Thut Hng Dn Mu Mang Tnh Chin Lc (SIM).
Bremer, Christine D.; Clapper, Ann T.; and Deshler, Donald D. (2002). Improving Word Identication Skills Using Strategic Instruction Model (SIM) Strategies. Research to Practice Brief Vol. 1, Issue 4. Improving Secondary Education and Transition Services through Research. Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, Institute on Community Integration. Retrieved January 20, 2007, from http://www.ncset.org/publications/printresource.asp?id=720. Nhng hc sinh c khim khuyt trong hc tp khi bc vo cp 2 ch t c nhng k nng c mc tiu hc nn khng th gii m d dng nhng ch khng quen thuc. V th, chng gp kh khn vi nhng mn hc thin v kin thc, nh lch s v khoa hc, i hi k nng c phi p ng vi trnh lp. Phn tm gn ny tp trung vo Chin Thut Nhn Dng T l mt thnh t ca Nhng M Hnh Hng Dn Mang Tnh Chin Thut (Strategic Instruction Model SIM) (Deshler & Schumaker, 1988), v xem xt nhng nghin cu gn y th hin hiu qu ca chin thut ny i vi nhng hc sinh cp 2 khuyt tt.

Nhng M Hnh Hng Dn Mang Tnh Chin Thut (SIM)

Nhng M Hnh Hng Dn Mang Tnh Chin Thut , c gii thiu bi Deshler and Schumaker (1988) v pht trin thm bi mt s nh nghin cu thuc trng i Hc Kansas, l mt h thng hng dn c thit k gip hc sinh c khuyt tt trong hc tp thnh cng vi nhng chng trnh gio dc ph thng. SIM bao gm nhng ti liu gio trnh c hiu chnh ph hp vi nhng dng khuyt tt trong hc tp khc nhau, nhng lch trnh dnh cho gio vin nhm gip h p ng c nhng i hi ca loi hc tr, v nhng chin thut dnh cho hc sinh. Trong SIM, nhng chin thut hc tp c lin quan n 6 lnh vc: c, lu tr v ghi nh thng tin, th hin thng tin, nng lc minh ha, giao tip x hi, v ton.

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Nhng chin thut c SIM

C 4 chin thut SIM lin quan c bit n chuyn c. 1. Chin Thut Din Gii Theo ( hc sinh biu din chnh v chi tit bng nhng t ca chnh mnh); 2. T Cht Vn (hc sinh t t ra nhng cu hi c lin quan n nhng on c v c tm ra cu tr li); 3. Hnh Dung (hc sinh hnh dung ra nhng cnh chi tit trong on c); 4. Nhn Dng T (hc sinh gii m nhng t xa l bng cch s dng nhng gi trong nt dung v phn tch t).

Chin Thut Nhn Dng T

Chin Thut Nhn Dng T s dng trong SIM c gy dng bi Lenz v Hughes (1990) v u tin c kim tra trn hc sinh c khuyt tt trong hc tpca 12 trng cp 2. Chin thut ny nhm gip nhng ngi c gp kh khn trong vic gii m v nhn dng nhng t xa l, v n c xy dng trn cu trc c bn ph bin ca hu ht nhng t a m tit trong ting Anh. Hu ht nhng t ny c th c pht m bng cch nh dng nhng thnh t trong t (tip u ng, tip v ng, gc t) ri p dng ba nguyn tc m tit cho nhng gc t. Trong cch tip cn ny, tip u ng v tip v ng c nh ngha mt cch n gin nh nhng nhm ch ci c th d dng nhn ra v hc sinh c th pht m chng. Nh c miu t bi Lenz v Hughes (1990), c 7 bc nh dng mt t m ta khng bit. Nhng bc ny c th nh bng cc ch ci u ca n, DISSECT: Bc 1: D-Discover-Khm ph ni dung. Bc ny i hi hc sinh b qua nhng t khng bit v c cho n cui cu. Sau , hc sinh s dng nhng ngha hin th r rng ca cu on t no ph hp nht. Nu li on ny khng ph hp vi t khng bit, hc sinh i sang bc k tip. Bc 2: IIsolate-C lp tip u ng. Trong bc ny, hc sinh tm kim nhng cm t m hc sinh c th pht m c nm v tr khi u ca t. Hc sinh c dy trc mt danh sch nhng tip u ng gip ch cho vic nhn din ny. Nu mt tip u ng c xc nh, hc sinh ng khung n li tch hn n ra vi phn cn li ca t (V d, trong t inactivity, ta ng khung in; trong ch underachievement, ta ng khung under). Bc 3: S-Separate- Tch ring tip v ng. S dng quy trnh y nh trong bc 2, hc sinh ng khung phn tip v ng nu tm ra n (trong t unactivity ta ng khung ity, trong t underarchievement ta ng khung ment).

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Bc 4: S-Say-c gc t. Hc sinh s c gng pht m gc t (activ, achieve). Nu khng th c c gc t, hc sinh i sang bc 5. Bc 5: E-Examine-Khm ph gc t. Trong bc ny, hc sinh chia gc t thnh nhng phn nh c th pht m c bng cch s dng Nhng nguyn tc Hai v Ba (Lenz & Hughes, 1990, p. 151). Nhng nguyn tc ny c th tm tt nh sau: Nguyn tc 1: Nu gc t hoc mt phn ca gc t bt u bng mt nguyn m, tch 2 ch ci u tin thnh mt phn; nu n bt u bng mt ph m ta tch 3 ch ci u tin thnh mt phn; tip tc p dng nh th cho n khi ht gc t (ac\tiv; ac\hie\ve). Nguyn tc 2: Nu bn vn thy gc t hon ton xa l vi bn sau khi p dng nguyn tc 1, hy b ch ci u ca gc t i v p dng nguyn tc 1 cho phn cn li ca gc t (a\chi\ev\e). Nguyn tc 3: Khi 2 nguyn m i lin nhau, s dng nhng g bn bit v cch pht m (V d nh pht m 2 nguyn m i k nhau thnh mt m n, v nh rng nguyn m e khi cui t v trc mt ph m thng l cm) v c th nhng kh nng khc (a\chiv, a\chev). Bc 6: C-Check- Kim tra qua mt ai . Hc sinh kim tra li vi gio vin, cha m, hoc mt ai . Bc 7: T-Try- Th tra t in. Hc sinh tm t, s dng nhng thng tin v cch pht m, v, nu nh t ny hon ton xa l, hy c nh ngha ca n. Lenz&Hughes (1990) khuyn rng chin thut ny ch c th t hiu qu hon ton vi nhng t kho ct yu nht gip ta hiu mt on no ca bi c, chng hn nh nhng t thuc phn tiu ca chng. Bryant, Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, Ugel, Hamff, & Hougen (2000) lu rng chin thut ny hot ng tt nht khi t ang c phn tch l t tht s nm trong t vng nghe ca hc sinh.

Phng Php Lun V Hng Dn

Phng php lun v hng dn c s dng trong vic dy nhng chin thut SIM c 8 giai on, vi nhng mc ch nh sau: (a) Cc mt cng c o trc khi hun luyn nhng k nng ca hc sinh v nng cao tnh tha nhn ca cc hc sinh i vi vic hc; (b) khin cho hc sinh nhn thc c cc bc tin hnh trong chin thut, ni no chin thut c th p dng, v chin thut s mang n tin ch cho cc em nh th no; (c) minh ho cho hc sinh thy chin thut c s dng ra sao; (d) m bo rng hc sinh hiu v gi c tn cc bc trong chin thut; (e)
84

m bo rng hc sinh thnh tho cch s dng chin thut trong nhng ti liu hay tnh hung n gin; (f) m bo rng hc sinh thnh tho cch s dng chin thut trong ti liu cng nh trong tnh hung tng t vi ti liu v tnh hung gp phi trong cc lp hc bnh thng; (g) C c cng c o lng k nng ca hc sinh sau khi hun luyn; v (h) m bo rng hc sinh khi qut ho c cch s dng chin thut trong cc lp hc bnh thng (Ellis, Deshler, Lenz, Schumaker, & Clark, 1991). Ti liu v cc qu trnh c s dng bi cc chuyn gia v hc tp trong cng cuc ny c chng thc bng thc nghim trong mt chui nhng nghin cu (nh Hughes & Schumaker, 1991; Lenz & Hughes, 1990; Schmidt, Deshler, Schumaker, & Alley, 1989). Mt s ti liu c xut bn cho gio vin s dng (nh Lenz, Schumaker, Deshler, & Beals, 1984; Schumaker, Deshler, & Denton, 1984; Van Reusen, Bos, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1987).

Cng Trnh Nghin Cu Gn y trn Chin Thut Nhn Dng T

Cuc nghin cu gn y bi Woodruff, Schumaker, v Deshler (2002) thm vo bng chng chng minh Chin Thut Nhn Dng T gip nhng hc sinh cp 2 ci thin c nhng k nng c ca cc em. Bang Michigan vo nm 1988, cc gio vin tin hnh mt d n nghin cu da trn khong 600 em hc sinh lp 9 trong mt trng trung hc c xp vo nhm x l v mt s hc sinh trong mt trng trung hc khc c xp vo nhm i chng. C 2 nhm c kim tra trc bng bi kim tra Chn on Sng Lc Dnh Cho Tp c ca nh xut bn Slosson (the Slossen Diagnostic Screening Test for Reading) trong c s Dng Bi Kim Tra Ph Nhn Dng T (the Word Identication Subtest), dng A (Form A). Nhng hc sinh ny t nht l trong sut 2 nm qua hc di ng cp cn phi c ca mnh ti trng trung hc nu trn, cc em sau c nhn nhng bi hng dn c cp tc da trn Chin Thut Nhn Dng T. Bi hng dn c phn phi cho tng nhm nh c 4 n 5 hc sinh hc vi 1 gio vin (50 pht mi ngy trong sut t 3-8 tun). Hc sinh sau li quay v lp hc bnh thng sau khi thnh tho k nng. Nhng hc sinh ny v nhng hc sinh trng trung hc i chng, cng nhau lm phn hu kim tra s dng dng B (form B) cho bi kim tra Chn on Sng Lc Dnh Cho Tp c ca nh xut bn Slosson (the Slossen Diagnostic Screening Test for Reading) cho Bi Kim Tra Ph Nhn Dng T trong bi c (Reading Word Identication Subtest). Kt qu c phn theo nhng nhm con da trn nhn khu hc. Hnh 1 cho thy im tin kim tra v hu kim tra ca hc sinh c phn ra thnh 3 nhm nhn khu con: hc sinh nam ngi M gc Chu Phi, hc sinh nam ngi gc Ty Ban Nha hay B o Nha, v nhng hc sinh mang khuyt tt. Nhng nhm con ny c chia theo nhn khu bi v theo d liu quc
85

gia cho thy c nhng khong cch th hin trong kh nng c i vi gii tnh phn nh, chng tc, cng ng (B Gio Dc M, 2002). im ca nhm i chng cho hc sinh nam ngi M gc Chu Phi, hc sinh nam ngi gc Ty Ban Nha hay B o Nha cng c th hin; hc sinh khuyt tt khng kim tra trng trung hc i chng. hnh 1 cho thy rng nhng hc sinh hc qua Chin Thut Nhn Dng T th hin s tin b ng k so vi hc sinh c nhn khu tng ng ti trng trung hc i chng. S tin b c th hin bi hc sinh khuyt tt cng c so snh. Hnh 1: 1988 Cuc Nghin Cu Michigan, c Trng Trung Hc (gii m)

Nhm con nhn khu Nam-M gc Phi Nam-M ni ting TBN Hc sinh khuyt tt Kim tra Kim tra Kim tra Kim tra sau Kim tra Kim tra sau

Nhm x l (Cp c) Cp c Cp c Cp c Cp c lp 9 Cp c Cp c lp 9

Nhm i chng (Cp c) Cp c lp 6 Cp c lp 6 Cp c lp 7 Cp c lp 6 n/a n/a

Bng ny c phng theo Nhng hiu qu ca s can thip c cp tc da trn nhng k nng gii m ca hc sinh trung hc b thua km trong kh nng c c vit bi S.Woodruff, J. B. Schumaker, v D. D. Deshler, 2002, Lawrence, trng i Hc Kansas Institute for Academic Access. Bo h bn quyn ca trng i Hc Kansas Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp. Vic phng theo c php. Cc nhn vin ti mt trng qun th Kansas thc c kt qu ca cuc nghin cu Michigan, v p dng hng dn v Chin Thut Nhn Dng T cho mt nhm hc sinh lp 6 trong qun vo nm 1999. Qun m rng thm, u vo ca cc em hc sinh lp 6 s c mt bi kim tra s dng bi Kim Tra Thnh Tch Cp Thnh Ph (the Metropolitan Achievement Test), hc sinh c xp hn theo phn v phn trm, nhng ai c phn v di 37% (c ngha l 100 hc sinh i thi c 37 hc sinh im thp hn mnh, nd.) s phi hc thm 47 pht mi ngy cho bi hng dn cp tc v Chin Thut Nhn Dng T khong 7-9 tun. Cc hc sinh ny n t nhng lp c bnh thng hay lp chuyn v c dy theo tng nhm nh. Trong sut khong thi gian cn li ca nin hc, hc sinh s tham gia vo nhng kho hc n hng thng.
86

Hnh 2 cho thy kt qu ca 78 hc sinh tham gia, s dng 2 cch o lng. Cch o th nht l phn trm hc sinh gii m thnh cng t nht l 98% t trong mt bi vn vit lp 6 (thanh mu m) v phn trm nhng cu hi c tr li chnh xc trong bi kim tra c hiu ca ng tc gi Woodcock- Johnson (thanh mu sng). Trong bi hu kim tra, hc sinh r rng nng cao c kh nng gii m cng nh c hiu. Hnh 2: Nghin cu ca Kansas, lp 6 (n=78) Nhng t hc sinh gii m chnh xc (%) Kim tra Kim 14% 71% Nhng cu hi c tr li Chnh xc-c hiu (%) 57% 79%

Bng ny c phng theo Nhng Hiu Qu Ca S Can Thip c Cp Tc Da Trn Nhng K Nng Gii M Ca Hc Sinh Trung Hc B Thua Km Trong Kh Nng c c vit bi S.Woodruff, J. B. Schumaker, v D. D. Deshler, 2002, Lawrence, trng i Hc Kansas Institute for Academic Access. Bo h bn quyn ca trng i Hc Kansas Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp. Vic phng theo c php.

Kt lun
Chin Thut Nhn Dng T c hiu qu tt trong vic gip hc sinh cp 2 b khuyt tt trong hc tp gii m v nh dng c nhng t kh m cc em gp phi trong bi c. Bng cch pht trin s thnh thc trong vic nhn dng t, hc sinh c th nng thm thnh cng ca mnh trong cc mn hc v lnh vc kin thc v chun b tt hn cho gio dc trung hc hay ni lm vic. Tuy nhin, cc gio vin cn c hun luyn thm dy chin thut theo mt cch thc t hiu qu cao nht. Kho o to v ti liu cho SIM c Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp ti trng i Hc Kansas. Sch hng dn Chin Thut Nhn Dng T ch c pht trong qu trnh o to t cc hng dn vin c cp bng SIM. Nhng thng tin chi tit hn c th tm thy trang web trng i Hc Kansas, Trung Tm Nghin Cu Hc Tp http://www.ku-crl.org.

87

Tham kho
Bryant, D. P., Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Ugel, N., Hamff, A., & Hougen, M. (2000). Reading outcomes for students with and without reading disabilities in general education middle-school content area classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 238252. Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1988). An instructional model for teaching students how to learn. In J. L. Graden, J. E. Zins, & M. J. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional options for all students (pp. 391-411). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Ellis, E. S., Deshler, D. D., Lenz, B. K., Schumaker, J. B., & Clark, F. L. (1991). An instructional model for teaching learning strategies. Focus on Exceptional Children, 23, 1-24. Hughes, C. A., & Schumaker, J. B. (1991). Test-taking strategy instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 2, 205-221. Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. A. (1990). A word identification strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 149-158, 163. Lenz, B. K., Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., & Beals, V. L. (1984). Learning strategies curriculum: The word- identification strategy. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas. Schmidt, J. L., Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., & Alley, G. R. (1989). Effects of generalization instruction on the written language performance of adolescents with learning disabilities in the mainstream classroom. Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities, 4, 291-309. Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., & Denton, P. H. (1984). An integrated system for providing content to learning disabled adolescents using an audio-taped format. In W. M. Cruickshank & J. M. Kliebhan (Eds.), Early adolescence to early adulthood: Vol. 5, The Best of ACLD (pp. 79-107). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Digest of education statistics 2001. OERI Publication No. NCES 2002- 130. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 23,2002 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002130.pdf. Van Reusen, A. K., Bos, C., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1994). Self-advocacy strategy for education and transition planning. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises. Woodruff, S., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2002). The effects of an intensive reading intervention on the decoding skills of high school students with reading deficits.
88

Lawrence: The University of Kansas Institute for Academic Access.

Ngun web
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, Reading Resources, http://www.sedl.org/pubs/ reading16/7.html This site includes resources on reading research and assessment, and a link to the document, Building Reading Proficiency at the Secondary Level: A Guide to Resources, which includes a section on word analysis strategies. Strategy Instruction for Problem-Solving Unknown Words, http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/ teaching_techniques/ellis_unknownwords.html This 1996 book chapter by E. S. Ellis, was originally published in D. D. Deshler, E. S. Ellis, & B. K. Lenz (Eds.), Teaching Adolescents with Learning Disabilities: Strategies and Methods. Denver: Love 66 What WorksPublishing. It has been reprinted on the LD Online website, and provides a detailed description of the Word Identification Strategy. University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning, http://www.ku-crl.org Provides information about SIM, including a brochure, newsletters, resources, and websites for related topics and organizations. Authors Christine D. Bremer and Ann T. Clapper are with NCSET. Donald D. Deshler is with the Center for Research in Learning, University of Kansas. National Center on Secondary Education and Transition, Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, 6 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis MN 55455; ncset@umn.edu; 612-624-2097 (phone); 612-624-9344 (fax)

89

Gip Hc Sinh khuyt tt Hi Nhp c Vi Gio Trnh Ton C Bn

Warger, Cynthia. (2002). Helping Students with Disabilities Participate in StandardsBased Mathematics Curriculum. ERIC/OSEP Digest Number E628. Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. Retrieved December 9, 2006, from http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section= Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=1796. Mi quan Tm n tr ngi vi hc sinh khuyt tt trong qu trnh hc tp c dy ln bi nhng sa i vo nm 1997 trong o lut gio dc ngi c khuyt tt (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), trong nhn mnh v s hi nhp v tin b ca hc sinh khuyt tt i vi gio trnh gio dc ph thng. Vic iu chnh gio trnh ton gio dc ph thng l cha kha a hc sinh n thnh cng. Gio trnh ton thay i trong sut 20 nm qua bi nhng ci cch gio dc c lo li vi nhng tiu chun. Mt thnh t ni tri trong vic lo li s thay i ny l Hi ng Gio Vin Ton Quc Gia (the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) vi n phm Nhng Nguyn L v Tiu Chun Dnh Cho Ton Hc (Principles and Standards for School Mathematics-xut bn nm 1989 v chnh li vo nm 2000), trong tp trung vo vic nm c kin thc mang tnh khi nim v gii quyt c vn hn l trang b kin thc mang tnh gii php hoc tnh ton theo kiu p dng cng thc. Hu ht cc bang v cc qun u s dng chun ca NTCM lm mi li gio trnh ton ca h theo nhng cp no . ( c thm thng tin truy co website ca NCTM http://standards.nctm.org.) Thch thc i vi cc gio vin trong vic hng dn hc ton mt cch hiu qu cho hc sinh khuyt tt l hc sinh ca h phi t c nhng tiu chun cao c ra cho tt c hc sinh l bit v lm ton mt cch chun xc. Khng may, nhiu hc sinh khuyt tt hc tp gp phi nhng kh khn vi gio trnh ton ci cch mi. Nh cc nh nghin cu trng Maryland, Paula Maccini v Joe Gagnon tm ra, cc hc sinh c th gp tr nga trong vic x l v phn loi nhng g c lin quan n thng tin, chng thiu ht nhng k nng tnh ton, hoc thiu nhng k nng l lun hay gii ton . Nhng khi nhn c s h tr ng cch, cc hc sinh khuyt tt hc tp c th gt hi c thnh cng trong mt gio trnh ton cao cp.
90

Trong sut nhiu nm, B Gio Dc M, Vn Phng Cc Chng Trnh Gio Dc c Bit (the U.S. Department of Education, Ofce of Special Education Programs (OSEP) h tr nghin cu c th nng cao cc thnh tch cho cc hc sinh khuyt tt. Ti liu ERIC/OSEP ny xem xt lm th no chn ra nhng nh nghin cu c kh nng bo co c thc tin trong 4 lnh vc: y mnh kin thc ca hc sinh v ton hc, dy hc sinh nhng chin thut gii cc bi ton, s dng dng c cng ngh h tr (assistive technology) trong hng dn v nh gi, v to ra cc tin nghi h tr hc sinh hi nhp trong bang v trong nhng bi kim tra m rng ngoi phm vi qun.

y Mnh Kin Thc Ca Hc Sinh V Ton Hc

John Cawley, Gio s Emeritus trng i Hc Connecticut, pht hin ra rng i vi nhng hc sinh khuyt tt c th hc tt mn ton chng cn phi cm thy ton c ngha vi chng. Hiu Ton v Lm ton c hai u cn phi c t trng tm nng cao phm cht dy ton v hc ton ca hc sinh khuyt tt. Hiu v ton c ngha l hc sinh hiu c nhng nguyn l c bn trong mt bi ton, bit rng c nhiu hn mt cch gii thch mt bi ton, v bit rng cu tr li ng thng th nhiu hn mt. iu ny tng phn vi vic lm ton, lm ton c ngha l hc sinh c th p dng mt s chin thut v nguyn l ton khc nhau gii mt bi ton. Cawley tin rng c nhiu kh khn hc sinh gp phi khi i mt vi nhng thut ng ton hc t s th ca cc nh gio dc i vi Bit Ton trong khi li qu nhn mnh vic Lm Ton. Ta hy xt mt v d lm ni bt s khc bit gia bit g v php tr v c th lm c php tr. Php tr, nu ta xem xt n nh mt ch ton hc s c ngha hn nhiu vi phng php tin cn mang tnh tnh ton my mc l ly bt i, cch tip cn ny c p dng cho hc sinh khuyt tt t nhng nm 1920. ci nhn mi php tr l mt qu trnh cho php hc sinh hiu v tm ra s chnh lch gia hai con s. S tht tt khi hc sinh hiu rng php tr trnh din mt s chnh lch. Hiu v php tr nh th s gip cho l lun theo dng bng chng v gii thch. N cng lin quan n kh nng minh ho c mi lin h gia mt ny ca ton hc (chng hn nh php tr) v mt khc (nh php cng). Cawley tm ra rng hiu php tr theo cch ny s mang n cho gio vin tht nhiu c may nhn mnh ngha ca con s v pht trin k nng, l ci dn n thnh cng cho hc sinh trong vic hiu v th hin thnh tch.

91

Dy Hc Sinh Nhng Chin Thut Gii Cc Bi Ton

Theo nh nghin cu Majorie Montgue ti trng i Hc Miami, tp trung ch yu ca cc chun NCTM v ci cch gio trnh dy ton l gii bi ton. Cuc nghin cu ca b ta cho thy rng vic gii mt bi ton hiu qu ph thuc vo kh nng chn lc v p dng nhng tin trnh siu nhn thc v nhn thc bi tp thch hp v cc chin lc hiu, trnh by, v gii bi ton. Montague m t nhng tin trnh nhn thc ging nh l nhng chin thut Thc hin v nhng tin trnh siu nhn thc th ging nh l nhng chin thut phn nh (chng hn nh Ti ang lm g? v Ti lm g?). gip gio vin hiu c nhng kin thc v k nng cn thit cho vic gii ton mt cch c hiu qu v hp l, Montague pht trin mt cch tip cn tn l Solve It!, n tch hp nhng tin trnh nhn thc chnh xc vi vic gii bi ton sao cho ng trong tng bc mt ca chin thut:

c bi ton: Hc sinh c dy lm th no c mt bi ton, bao gm vic

s dng nhng chin thut hiu bi ton (chng hn nh tp trung vo nhng thng tin quan trng), vic pht trin thm t vng ton, v vic ghi nhn khi no hc sinh khng hiu mi quan h gia nhng thut ng ton hc v nhng khi nim nh lng c trnh by trong bi ton.

Din Gii Li: Cc hc sinh c dy lm th no c th din gii bi ton

bng ngn t ca mnh v chuyn ti uc ngha ca bi tan.
Hnh Dung: Hc sinh c dy cch v trn giy minh ho cho bi ton hoc hnh

dung ra n trong suy ngh.

Gi Thuyt v cc cch gii : Hc sinh c dy lm th no quyt nh bao nhiu

php tnh cn thit gii bi ton, chn lc v sp xp trt t cc php tnh, v sau chuyn thng tin c c sang nhng phng trnh v thut gii chnh xc.
c tnh cu tr li: Hc sinh c dy lm th no c th tp trung vo dng ca kt

qu (chng hn tm s yard ch khng phi feet) v sau tin on cu tr li bng cch s dng nhng thng tin trong bi ton v hng gii d kin.
Tnh ton: Hc sinh c dy lm th no nh li cc phng php ng gii

tan (cho cng vic) thng qua nhng thut ton v cc d kin tan hc cn thit cho chnh xc.

92

Th li bi ton: Hc sinh c dy lm th no kim tra qu trnh gii ton m

bo rng hc sinh hiu c vn , trnh by chnh xc c vn , chn ra mt gii php thch hp, v gii ng bi ton. Trong cch tip cn Solve It!, hc sinh ng thi c hc mt chin thut siu nhn thc chng c th p dng cho mi bc. Chin thut ny gm nhng bc sau: -c ln ln hoc t ni vi bn thn rng bi ton yu cn ta lm g. -T hi bn thn xem mnh c hiu khng. -Kim tra li tin trnh ca mnh.

S Dng Cng Ngh H Tr Trong Hng Dn V nh Gi

IDEA cho rng (dng c) cng ngh h tr i vi hc sinh khim khuyt hc tp cn c xem nh l mt phn trong vic thit k Chng Trnh Gio Dc C Nhn (individualized education program (IEP). Cc nh nghin cu c c nhng bc tin ng k trong vic cung cp nhng (cng c) cng ngh h tr cho vic hc ton thnh cng. Ta xem nhng v d sau: Phn mm tng tc cho hc sinh khim th. Nhiu hc sinh khim th khng c kh nng c hoc vit nhng k hiu cha trong ton hc, v v th, chng buc phi hc nhng khi nim v thc hin cc php tnh hon ton trong u, khin chng b gii hn khng th thnh tho vi nhng phc tp trong mn ton. Nhm ti nhu cu ny, Gaylen Kapperman v Jodi Sticken thuc trng i Hc Northern Illinois pht trin phn hng dn s dng phn mm tng tc gip hc sinh c th hc c m Nemeth (Nemetth Code- m Braille dnh cho ton). Phn mm c vit di dng mt bn Braille rt gn- mt cng c ghi chp Braile c ng nh gn c ci pht m v nhng th hin Braille c th lm ti c. Mt CD-ROM dnh cho hc sinh s dng Ngn Ng Du Hiu M (American Sign Language (ASL) giao tip. S dng truyn thng, Jean Andrews v Donald Jordan thuc trng i Hc Lamar pht trin mt b CD-ROM Meet the Math Wiz nhm gip hc sinh tp trung vo vn t ng ca tan hc ca 6 lp tiu hc gp phi nhng kh khn trong mn ton khi s dng nhng tn gi a vn ho, nhng cu chuyn, v nhng ch . Chng trnh a ra nhn vt thy gio Chris Kurtz, mt thy gio khim thnh. ng ta hoan nghnh mi ngi s dng n lu i ca ng, ni ng m t, gia nhng th khc, mt k hoch 4 im cho gii nhng vn t ng tan hc . ng ta hng ngi s dng vo 8 minh ho ca mi CD, dch li mi
93

bi ton qua ngn ng ASL, mt gi to hnh, v mt gii thch lm th no gii bi ton bng ASL.

To Tin Nghi H Tr S Tham gia Ca Hc Sinh vo Cc nh gi ca Bang V Qun.

Hu ht cc bi kim tra trong phm vi bang hay qun m rng u nh vo kin thc v k nng ton hc. Da vo cuc tranh lun vy quanh chuyn s dng cc tin nghi nh l bng chng c c t s phn tch v chnh sch ca bang, tht quan trng bit cuc nghin cu hin thi ch nh nhng g c th a ra nhng quyt nh v tin nghi thch hp. gip cc nh thc nghim xm nhp c vo cuc nghin cu ang thu ht s quan tm ca mi ngi khi n nhm n nhng tin nghi cn c cho hc sinh khuyt tt, Martha Thurlow ti Trung Tm Quc Gia V Thnh Qu Gio Dc (the National Center on Educational Outcomes) to ra mt ng mng, c th tm kim trn d liu v nhng tin nghi (http://education.umn.edu/NCEO/ AccomStudies.htm). Nhng d liu ny cho php ngi s dng tm ra nghin cu thc nghim no ang nghin cu hiu qu ca v s nhng tin nghi khi lm kim tra dnh cho hc sinh khuyt tt.

Tham kho
Andrews, J., & Jordan, D. (n.d.). Meet the Math Wiz. (CD-ROM). Curriculum Publications Clearinghouse, Horrabin Hall 46, Western Illinois University, 1 University Circle, Macomb, IL 61455, 800-322-3905. http://www.wiu.edu/users/micpc/index.html Cawley, J. (2002). Mathematics interventions and students with high incidence disabilities. Remedial andSpecial Education, 23, 2-6. Freedom Scientic, Inc. Nemeth Code Self-Study Instructional Material. Retrieved July 2002 from http://www. freedomscientic.com/fs_downloads/notenemeth.asp. Gagnon, J., & Maccini, P. (2001). Preparing students with disabilities for algebra. Teaching Exceptional Children,34, 8-15. Montague, M., Applegate, B., & Marquard, K. (1993). Cognitive strategy instruction and mathematical problem-solving performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 8, 223-232. For more information, contact Montague at outreach@Miami.edu. Ti liu ERIC/OSEP l ti sn cng cng v c th c in n li v ph bin t do, nhng vui lng ghi ch li ngun. Ln xut bn ny c c do ngun qu t Vn
94

Phng Chng Trnh Gio Dc c Bit M, di hp ng s ED-99-CO-0026. Nhng quan im th hin trong bn bo co nykhng cn thit phn nh nhng lp trng ca cc chnh sch trong OSEP hoc ca b Gio Dc.

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Hun Luyn Chin Thut Cho Ngi Hc Ngoi Ng

Hc sinh hc ngoi ng ang c khuyn khch hc v s dng rng ri nhng chin thut hc ngoi ng l nhng th c th lin quan n sut qu trnh hc tp. S tip cn ny da trn nim tin l vic hc tp s tr nn d dng hn khi ta to cho hc sinh nhn thc ra rng: c cc loi chin thut m hc sinh c th chn v s dng trong sut qu trnh hc tp. Cch cng dng nht nng cao nhn thc ca ngi hc l cung cp mt chng trnh o to chin thut-hng dn chi tit lm th no p dng cc chin thut ngn ng-nh l mt phn trong gio trnh hc ngoi ng. Ti liu ny tho lun nhng mc tiu ca vic o to chin thut, lm ni bt nhng tip cn cho vic o to , v lit k nhng bc thit k chng trnh o to chin thut.

Mc Tiu Ca Vic o To Chin Thut

Mc tiu ca o to chin thut l cung cp cho ngi hc cng c lm nhng vic sau: -T chn on im mnh v yu ca mnh trong khi hc ngn ng. -Nhn thc ra ci g c th gip h hc mt ngoi ng sao cho hiu qu nht. -Pht trin mt phm vi rng cc k nng gii quyt vn . -Tri nghim nhng chin thut hc tp quen thuc hoc khng quen thuc. -Quyt nh lm th no tip cn mt bi tp ngn ng. -Quan st v t nh gi vic hc ca mnh. -Chuyn nhng k nng thnh cng sang nhng ni dung hc tp mi. Cc chin thut c th c phn loi thnh cc chin thut hc hay s dng ngn ng. Chin thut hc ngn ng l nhng suy ngh v hnh vi c thc c s dng bi ngi hc vi nhng mc ch r rng lm sao nng cao kin thc v hiu bit mt ngn ng ch(ngn ng m ta nhm ti hc. ngi dch). Chng bao gm nhng chin thut nhn thc gip cho vic nh v thao tc nhng cu trc ca ngn ng hc, nhng chin thut siu nhn thc cho vic qun l v gim st cch s dng chin thut, nhng chin thut hiu qu cho vic phn on nhng xc cm i vi vic hc v lm h bt nhng lo lng, v nhng chin thut x hi cho vic thc y
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vic hc, chng hn nh hp tc vi nhng ngi hc khc v tm cch giao tip vi ngi bn x. Nhng chin thut s dng ngn ng bt u c hiu lc mt khi hc sinh c th tip cn c vi ti liu ngn ng ri thm ch d ch mi dng s khai. Mc ch ca chng l gip cho hc sinh li dng c ngn ng m h hc ri. Nhng chin thut s dng ngn ng gm c nhng chin thut dnh cho vic gi ra c cc thng tin v mt ngn ng cha sn trong b nh, din tp nhng cu trc ca ngn ng hc, v giao tip bng ngn ng hc bt chp cn nhng l hng trong kin thc v ngn ng .

Cu Trc Khung Cho Vic o To Chin Thut

Mc du khng c bng chng thc nghim gip cho vic quyt nh mt phng php n no tt nht trong vic tin hnh o to chin thut, ta c t nht 3 cu trc khung khc nhau c nh dng. Mi mt khung c thit k nng cao nhn thc ca hc sinh v mc tiu cng nh tnh hp l ca chin thut s dng, cung cp cho hc sinh nhng c hi thc tp nhng chin thut m hc sinh c hc, v gip chng s dng nhng chin thut trong nhng ni dung hc tp mi. Mt khung cu trc, c ngh bi Pearson v Dole (1987) c lin quan n vic hc ngn ng m nhng cng c th p dng hc ngoi ng, nh hng phn lp cc chin thut bng cch bao gm nhng cch lm mu r rng v gii thch nhng tin ch ca vic p dng mt chin thut c bit, luyn tp chc nng m rng vi chin thut, v mt c may chuyn giao chin thut n nhng ni dung hc tp mi. Trnh t bao gm cc bc sau: -Khi u chin thut s c lm mu bi gio vin, vi s gii thch trc tip cch s dng cng nh tm quan trng ca chin thut -Thc tp chin thut c hng dn -Cng c, l lc gio vin gip hc sinh nh dng c chin thut v quyt nh khi no n c th s dng -Thc hnh chin thut c lp -p dng chin thut cho bi tp mi. Trong cu trc khung th hai, Oxford et al. (1990) phc tho mt trnh t hu dng cho vic hng dn nhng chin thut, trnh t ny nhn mnh v vic nhn thc chin thut c th, vic tho lun nhng tin ch ca chin thut s dng, vic thc hnh mang tnh ng cnh ho v mang tnh chc nng vi nhng chin thut, vic t nh gi v theo di s th hin ca ngn ng, v nhng ngh hoc nhng minh
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ho v tnh c th chuyn ho ca chin thut trong nhng bi tp mi. Phi hp ny khng l quy nh ca nhng chin thut m ngi hc nn s dng, m ng hn l m t nhng chin thut a dng cho ngi hc c th s dng trong phm vi rng nhng nhim v hc tp. Cu trc khung th 3, c pht trin bi Chamot v OMalley (1994), c bit hu dng sau khi hc sinh thc tp vic p dng rt nhiu loi chin thut cho nhng ni dung a dng. Tip cn ca chng gip hc sinh hon tt nhng bi tp trong vic hc ngn ng c th c miu t nh mt qu trnh gii quyt vn theo 4 giai on. 1. Ln k hoch. Hc sinh ln k hoch nhng cch c th tip cn vi mt bi tp hc tp. 2. Theo di. Hc sinh t theo di vic thc hin ca mnh bng cch ch n chin thut s dng ca hc sinh v kim tra kh nng c hiu. 3. Gii quyt vn . Hc sinh tm ra gii php cho cc vn m h gp phi. 4. nh gi. Hc sinh hc nh gi s hiu qu ca mt chin thut cho trc sau khi n c p dng cho mt nhim v hc tp.

Nhng La Chn Trong Vic Cung Cp o To Chin Thut

S a dng nhng mu hng dn dnh cho o to chin thut ngoi ng thc s c pht trin v thc hin trong nhng c cu gio dc a dng. By trong nhng s ny c miu t nh sau.

Nhng Kho Hc V K Nng Hc Tng Qut

Nhng kho hc ny i khi nhm n nhng hc sinh gp kh khn hc tp nhng cng c th dnh cho nhng hc sinh thnh cng nhng vn mun ci thin thi quen hc tp ca h. Nhiu k nng hc tp tng qut c th c chuyn sang qu trnh hc mt ngoi ng, chng hn nh s dng th ghi ch (flash card), khc phc c s lo lng, v hc nhng k nng ghi chp tt. Nhng kha hc ny i khi bao gm vic hc ngn ng nh mt ch c bit lm ni bt hc mt ngoi ng khc nh th no vi hc nhng mn hc khc. Nhng hc sinh ngoi ng c th c khuyn khch tham gia pht trin nhng chin thut hc tp tng qut.

o To Nhn Thc: Bi Ging V Tho Lun

Cng c th coi y l s nng cao thc hoc o to s ph cp, n bao gm hu nh ch l nhng bi ging v nhng tho lun ring bit v c s dng tch bit khi nhng hng dn ca lp hc bnh thng. Cch tip cn ny cung cp cho hc
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sinh mt gii thiu i cng v nhng p dng chin thut. Oxford (1990) m t o to nhn thc nh l mt chng trnh trong ngi tham gia nhn ra s tng ng gia nhng khi nim tng qut v nhng chin thut hc tp ngn ng v cch m cc chin thut ny c th gip h hon thnh nhng bi tp ngn ng a dng (trang 102).

Cc Hi Tho Chin Thut

Nhng cuc hi tho ngn l mt cch khc, thng l cp tc, tip cn gia tng s nhn thc ca ngi hc v nhng chin thut thng qua nhng hot ng nng cao thc a dng v nhng nh gi chin thut. Chng c th gip nng cao nhng k nng ngn ng c bit hoc trnh by nhng kin cho vic hc nhng mt no ca mt ngn ng c th. Nhng cuc hi tho ny c th c nh nhng kho hc phi tn ch hoc c yu cu nh mt phn ca mt ngn ng hoc mt phn ca kho hc v k nng hc tp. Chng thng bao gm nhng bi ging, nhng thc hnh ti ch vi nhng chin thut c th, v nhng tho lun v hiu qu ca chin thut s dng.

i Bn Cng Hc
Tip i (tandem) hoc chng trnh i bn cng hc bt u vo nhng nm 1970 Chu u v rt thnh hnh trong nhiu trng i Hc khp nuc M. Holec (1988) miu t h thng ny nh Mt chng trnh trao i ngn ng trc tip, chng trnh ny nhm i hc sinh c ngn ng m khc nhau cng nhau c nhng bui giao tip tr gip qua li (v d nh mt hc sinh ni ting Anh hc ting va mt hc sinh gc hc ting Anh). Nhng i hi ca bui giao tip tr gip l nhng hc sinh ny thng xuyn gp nhau, i qua li vai tr gio vin v ngi hc vi nhau, thc hnh hai ngn ng tch bit, v dnh cho mi ngn ng khong thi gian hc bng nhau. Thng thung, hc sinh trao i nhng ngh v nhng chin thut hc ngn ng m h s dng, t cung cp cho kiu hc ny mt dng o to chin thut. Mt tip cn khc trong chng trnh i bn cng hc l khuyn khch nhng hc sinh cng hc mt ngoi ng t chc nhng nhm hc thng xuyn v ngoi ng mnh ang hc. Nhng hc sinh no thc s hon tt kho hc ngn ng cng c th c mi n cuc gp mt. Nhng hc sinh km tri chy hn c th nhn c tin ch v nhng k nng ngn ng t nhng hc sinh tt hn, v nhng hc sinh tt hn c th c mt nhn thc tt hn v nhng kh khn c th ca mn ngoi ng hn l mt gio vin.

Chin Thut Trong Sch Gio Khoa

Nhiu sch gio khoa dy ngoi ng bt u chn nhng chin thut vo trong gio trnh ca h. Tuy nhin, tr phi nhng chin thut ny c ging dy, lm mu,
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hoc c cng c bi nhng gio vin ng lp, cc hc sinh c th hon ton khng nhn ra rng h ang s dng nhng chin thut. Mt t sch gio khoa v ngn ng cung cp nhng hot ng c chn chin thut vo v gii thch r rng nhng tin ch v cch p dng nhng chin thut m h cp. Bi v s tp trung ca nhng hot ng ny t l vic hc ngn ng c ng cnh ho, ngi hc c th pht trin nhng danh mc v chin thut hc tp ca h trong khi hc ngoi ng. Mt li ch khi s dng sch gio khoa vi nhng o to chin thut r rng l hc sinh khng cn c thm nhng bui o to ngoi kho; cc sch gio khoa ny cng c chin thut s dng t bi tp cho n k nng, khuyn khch hc sinh tip tc t mnh p dng n.

Nhng Kho Hc Nh Da Trn Bng Video

Rubin (1966) pht trin mt chng trnh videodisc tng tc v nhng bn hng dn i km nhm nng cao nhn thc ca hc sinh v vic hc chin thut v qu trnh hc ni chung, th hin cho hc sinh thy lm th no a mt chin thut vo nhng bi tp mi v gip h chu trch nhim vi s tin b ca mnh trong khi hc ngn ng. S dng nhng tnh hung ngn ng xc thc, chng trnh hng dn bao gm 20 ngn ng khc nhau v a ra c hi chn ngn ng, ch , mc kh. Cc ti liu c cu trc sao cho hc sinh thy c nhng chin thut a dng c s dng trong nhng ni dung khc nhau.

Hng Dn Da Trn Nhng Chin Thut (Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI)

SBI l mt cch tip cn ging da t trung tm l ngi hc, n khai trin lp hc o to chin thut bao gm nhng chin thut tch hp n hay r rt vo trong ni dung ca kho hc. Hc sinh s bit c nhng ch li ca vic p dng chin thut mt cch c h thng trong hc tp v s dng ngn ng m h ang hc. Thm vo , h c nhng c hi chia s nhng chin thut m h thch vi nhng hc sinh khc v gia tng thm nhng chin thut s dng trong nhng bi tp ngn ng c th m h c yu cu th hin. Cc gio vin c th o to chin thut cho ring tng c nhn, ngh nhng chin thut ngn ng c bit, v cng c cc chin thut trong khi trnh by ni dung ca mt kho hc thng l. Trong mt lp hc SBI in hnh, cc gio vin c th lm nh sau: -M t, lm mu, v a v d v nhng chin thut tim nng hu ch -Khu gi t hc sinh nhng v d khc da trn nhng kin thc hc tp ca chnh hc sinh. -Hng dn nhng cuc tho lun theo tng nhm nh hay c lp v chin thut

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-Khuyn khch hc sinh tri nghim vi mt phm vi rng ln cc chin thut -Tch hp cc chin thut vo ti liu hc tp ca lp mi ngy, chn chng r rng v hon ton vo trong nhng bi tp ngn ng s dng cho vic thc tp chin thut c ng cnh ho. Cc gio vin c th xy dng bi ging SBI bng cch khi u vi nhng ti liu kho hc c thit lp, sau quyt nh chin thut no nn c ci vo v ci vo u; khi u vi mt h thng nhng chin thut m gio vin mong mun tp trung vo v thit k nhng hot ng chung quanh chng; hoc ci nhng chin thut mt cch t nhin vo trong bi hc bt c khi no cm thy thch hp (chng hn nh gip hc sinh gii quyt c vn vi nhng bi hc kh hoc tng tc hc bi).

Cc Bc Cho Thit K o To Chin Thut

Nhng cch tip cn c dn dng trc khi a ra nhng chn la chun b cho vic o to chin thut cho ng o ngi hc. Da trn nhng nhu cu, cc ngun ti nguyn, v thi gian cho php ca mt c s, bc k tip l ln k hoch ging dy sao cho hc sinh c th tip nhn c. By bc k c da trn a phn nhng li ngh cho vic o to chin thut bi Oxford (1990). M hnh ny cc k hu dng bi v n c th thch nghi vi nhu cu a dng ca cc nhm hc, ngun ti nguyn c sn, v di ca kha o to chin thut. Xem Cohen (1988) c mt m t t u n cui nhng bc ny. 1to. 234567Xc nh nhu cu ca hc vin v ngun ti nguyn c th c cho vic o Chn lc nhng chin thut c dy Xem xt nhng tic ch ca vic o to chin thut tch hp. Xem xt nhng vn v ng c. Chun b ti liu v hot ng. Hng dn o to chin thut c th. nh gi v xem li chin thut o to.

Kt lun
Cc hng dn cho vic thc hin nhng chng trnh o to chin thut cung cp v s la chn cho vic c cu li qu trnh o to ph hp vi nhu cu ca mt s ln hc sinh, cng nh nhu cu ca nhng c s t hay chng trnh ngn ng. Mi quan tm quan trng nht trong vic thit k chng trnh o to chin thut l nhu cu ca hc sinh, ngun ti nguyn c sn (chng hn nh thi gian, tin, ti liu, cht lng ca gv o to), v tnh kh thi ca vic cung cp hnh thc hng dn ny. Khi a hng dn d trn chin thut vo mt gio trnh dy ngoi ng, quan trng l chn mt m hnh hng dn gii thiu cc chin thut cho hc sinh v nng cao nhn thc v nhng s thch hc tp ca h; dy hc sinh nhn dng, thc tp,

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nh gi, v chuyn giao nhng chin thut n nhng tnh hung hc tp mi; v thc y s t qun ca hc vin cc hc sinh c th tip tc vic hc ca mnh ngay c khi h ri khi lp hc ngn ng.
Ch : Thng tin trong ti liu ny c rt ra t chng 4 ca Cohen (1988).

Tham kho
Chamot, A. U., & OMalley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. New York: Longman. Holec, H. (1988). Autonomy and self-directed learning: Present elds of application. Project no. 12: Learning and teaching modern languages for communication. Strasbourg, France: Council for Cultural Co-operation. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury/HarperCollins. Oxford, R. L., Crookall, D., Cohen, A., Lavine, R., Nyikos, M., & Sutter, W. (1990). Strategy training for language learners: Six situational case studies and a training model. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 197-216. Pearson, P. D., & Dole, J. A. (1987). Explicit comprehension instruction: A review of research and a new conceptualization of learning. Elementary School Journal, 88, 15165. Rubin, J. (1996). Using multimedia for learner strategy instruction. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 151-56). Honolulu: University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.

Ti liu ny c c do ngun qu t b Gio Dc M, Vn phng Nghin Cu v Pht trin Gio dc. Th vin Gio dc Quc gia, di hp ng s ED-99-CO-0008. Nhng quan im th hin trong bn bo co ny khng cn thit phn nh nhng lp trng ca cc chnh sch trong ED, OERI, hoc NLE.

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LearningWork Connection is an initiative of the Center for Learning Excellence at The Ohio State University. What Works: Evidence-Based Strategies for Youth Practitioners is sponsored by Ohio Department of Job and Family ServicesODJFS, Office of Workforce Development, Bureau of Workforce Services.

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