How People Count

Bones, Fingers, Strings, Words and Symbols

2009 John Kellermeier, Tacoma Community College

The Ishango Bone

One of the oldest known mathematical object is a notched bone from the Congo, Africa. 25,000 to 20,000 BCE. Markings are grouped in six sets of 28 or 29 each representing a sixmonth lunar calendar.

The Isturitz Baton

Another such object is an engraved baton made of antler, from Isturitz, France, 25,000 to 20,000 BCE. The markings represent a five-month and a fourmonth lunar calendar.

The Cultural Context

The Venus of Willendorf Small stone image painted with red ochre. From Willendorf Austria, 30,000 to 25,000 BCE. The Venus of Laussel Bas relief image from Laussel, France. 25,000 to 20,000 BCE. The horn has thirteen marks, the number of moons in a year. So the first people to do math were calendar makers and quite likely women.

Finger Counting
Humans have tended to organize their counting by 5s, 10s and 20s, illustrating the link to finger counting. An exception to this is the Yuki people of California who count by 4s. Their base comes from counting in the spaces between the fingers.

Zulu Number Words

# Zulu Word
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Derivation
State of being alone
Raise a separate finger To take To join (All the fingers) united Take the [right] thumb

Finger gesture
Extend left little finger
Add left ring finger Add left middle finger Add left index finger Extend all left fingers Extend right thumb

nye
bili thathu ne hlanu isithupa isikhombisa

Point with the forefinger Add right index finger of the [right] hand Add right middle finger Add right ring finger Extend all fingers Leave out one finger Cause to stand

isishiyagalombili Leave out two fingers isishiyagalunye ishumi

9
10

Inuit Counting
The Inuit people use a sub-base five system combined with hands and feet to build most of the numbers from 1 to 20.

#
1 2 3 4 5

Word

#
11 12 13 14 15

Word

atausiq maqruuk pingasut sitamat tallimat

Word

itikkanuuqtuut atausirmik itikkanuuqtuut maqruugnik itikkanuuqtuut pingasunik itikkanuuqtuut sitamanik itikkanuuqtuut tallimanik
# 16 17 18 19 20 Word

Arvinlik derives
from right hand. # 6 7 8 9 10

Itikkanuuqtuut
derives from feet.

arvinlik atausirmik arvinlik maqruugnik arvinlik pingasunik arvinlik sitamanik qulit

arvitanganat arvitanganit aqragtut arvitanganit pingasut arvitanganit sitamat avatit

Arvitanganit
derives from right foot.

Tlingit Counting
1 tlix' 11 jinkaat ka tlix' 12 jinkaat ka dix 13 jinkaat ka ns'k 14 jinkaat ka daax'oon 15 jinkaat ka keijn 16 jinkaat ka tleidoosh 17 jinkaat ka dax.adoosh 18 jinkaat ka nas'gadoosh 19 jinkaat ka gooshk

2 dix
3 ns'k 4 daax'oon 5 keijn (five fingers up) 6 tleidoosh 7 dax.adoosh 8 nas'gadoosh 9 gooshk (before the thumb) 10 jinkaat (ten fingers up like a basket, kaat)

20 tleika (one person, ka)

Tlingit Number System

Old Way (Base 20)
20 tleika (one person) 30 tleika ka jinkaat 40 dax ka (two persons) 50 dax ka ka jinkaat 60 ns'k ka (three persons) 70 ns'k ka ka jinkaat 80 daax'oon ka (four persons) 90 daax'oon ka ka jinkaat 100 keijn ka (five persons) 200 jinkaat ka (ten persons)

New Way (Decimal)

tleika ns'k jinkaat (three tens) daax'oon jinkaat (four tens) keijn jinkaat (five tens) tleidoosh jinkaat (six tens) dax.adoosh jinkaat (seven tens) nas'gadoosh jinkaat (eight tens) gooshk jinkaat (nine tens) tlix' hndid (one hundred) dix hndid (two hundred)

The Incan Quipu

The Incan empire flourished in Peru and parts of Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina from about 1400 to 1560. They developed a system of cords and knots to represent numbers, called a quipu, consisting of a main cord with pendant cords hanging from it. Quipus used three different types of knots. The position and number of these knots on a cord indicated a base ten number. Long knots were used for units. The figure eight denoted a one in the units place. Multiple single knots gave the digits in higher places. The drawings depict Incan bureaucrats with quipus from Nueva Crnica y Buen Gobierno written by Guamn Poma around 80 years after the Spanish conquest of the Incas.

Single Knot

Figure Eight Knot

Long Knot with Four Turns

Egyptian Hieroglyphic Numerals

The ancient Egyptians used a base ten hieroglyphic numeral system.

10 100 103 104 105 106

107

12,332,637 is written as 12, 332,6 3 7

Aztec Tribute Record Numerals

The Aztec Empire flourished in Mexico from the late 14th century to the early 16th century. The Aztecs used a vigesimal (base 20) number system with the powers of 20 represented by the symbols.

20

400 8000

For example, 9244 = (1)(8000) + (3)(400) + (2)(20) + 4 + 1244 44

Mayan Numerals
The Mayan civilization of Central America reached its height between the years from 200 to 1000 and developed a vigesimal (base twenty) positional number system with the earliest evidence dating from around 1200 BCE. This number system had a sub base of five and used the following three symbols representing the numbers 0, 1 and 5 respectively. The symbols for the digits from 1 to 19 written with additive combinations of the symbols for one and five. For example, 13 was written as Numbers larger than 19 are written using a vertical positional system, with successive higher tiers representing successive higher powers of 20. For example, 2971 171 10,971 = (1)(8000) + (7)(400) + (8)(20) + 11

Babylonian Numerals
The ancient Babylonian civilization developed developed a sexagesimal (base sixty) number system as early as 3500 BCE to 2400 BCE. Their number system was a positional system with a sub base of ten for building the digits 1 through 59. They used just two symbols: for one and for ten. The digits for 1 through 59 were written using additive combinations of these symbols. For example, 35 was written Larger numbers were written using a base sixty positional system starting with units to the right, then 60s, then 3600s an so on in powers of 60. For example 3819 = (1)(3600) + 219 + 39 3(60)

The Babylonians had no zero and just left a position empty if needed. 75611 = (21)(3600) + (0)(60) + 11 11

Ancient Chinese Numbers

The earliest known form of Chinese numerals date from between 1500 and 1200 BCE. They were combinations of symbols for the units 1 through nine and the decimal powers ten, hundred, and thousand.

1
Units

10s

100s

1000s

Chinese Rod Numbers

From the third century CE, the Chinese used a scientific positional number system based consisting of heng and tsung numerals used to represent even and odd powers powers of 10 respectively.
Hengs Tsungs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

These numbers were created using rods on a counting board. Originally a zero was indicated by a blank space. Around the eighth century CE, a symbol for zero was introduced. For example the number 97,052 would be represented with or without a zero as shown. When the rod numbers were used in written manuscripts or printed documents the numbers were combined as a single symbol. 97,052 would be written as shown.

Early Roman Numerals

While the Roman numerals as we know them today are based on letters of the Latin alphabet they were originally represented by symbols that were derived from the numbers of the Etruscan people who lived in the Italian peninsula prior to being conquered by the Roman Empire.

10

50

100

500

1000

For example, the number 1869 would be written as 18 6 9

Medieval Roman Numerals

The early symbols evolved into the Latin letters we use today. Number Symbol Letter 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000 I V X L C D M Originally 1994 would be written MDCCCCLXXXXIII By Medieval times this would be written MCMXCIV Originally numbers were represented using only additive combinations of these letters. The subtractive method for representing 4 and 9 came about during Medieval times.

Indian Numerals
The base ten positional system of numbers that we use today originated in India. By the year 300 CE the symbols for the digits 1 through 9 known as the Brahmi numerals were in use in India.

By the year 500 CE, Indian culture had developed the concept of the zero and a base ten positional number system. The Indian Gwalior numerals were used for this system.

Hindu-Arabic Numerals
The Arab culture centered in Baghdad began to use the Indian system of numbers during the eighth century CE. Under Arabic influence the Indian numerals evolved into an Eastern Arabic form (the top row) and a Western Arabic form (the second row).

The Hindu-Arabic system spread into Europe by around 1200 CE. The numerals used in the Gutenberg Bible printed in 1455 are recognizable to us today.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

References
Alaskool. (2007) Interactive Tlingit Dictionary. Retrieved January 28, 2007 from http://www.alaskool.org/language/dictionaries/akn/dictionary.asp Ascher, M., & Ascher, R. (1981). Code of the Quipu. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Eisler, R. (1987). The Chalice and the Blade. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Gadon, E. (1989) The Once and Future Goddess. San Francisco: Harper. Grahn, J. (1993). Blood, Bread, and Roses: How Menstruation Created the World. Boston: Beacon Press. Hinton, L. (1994) California counting. In Flutes of Fire. pp. 113-122. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books. Ifrah, G. (1998). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Joseph, G. (1991). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. London, England: Penguin Books. Marshack, A. (1972). The Roots of Civilization. New York: McGraw-Hill. Menninger, K. (1969). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. Mills, K. & Hoonah High School Students (1997). Woosh Yx Yaa Datwch: Tlingit Math Book. Tlingit Readers, Inc.. Sitka Alaska. Retrieved January 28, 2007 from http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/curriculum/Tlingit/Salmon/graphics/mathbook.pdf Payne, S. & Closs, M. (1986). A survey of Aztec numbers and their uses. In Closs, M. (ed.) Native American Mathematics. pp. 213-235. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press Schmidt, J. (2006) 1454 Gutenberg Bibel font. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from http://www.dafont.com/1454gutenberg-bibe.font . Sj, M. & Mor, B. (1987). The Great Cosmic Mother. San Francisco: Harper. Zaslavsky, C. (1973). Africa Counts, 172-189, Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt.