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32

CHAPTER - 13

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33

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34


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42

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3mg + SO2 ---> MGS + 2 MGO

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43

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44

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O\g@~. XH Jowl = XH #@< x g@~.

Jowl

XH Z~ =#= XH _<
x XH

|= H Ju z#fl
=
}= _<
. _<
HQ" |= 10,00,000 =O` LO@Ok.
XH p= #flx # =~ 100 _<
|=` Q`Ok. XH #@< = 105 _<, XH Jowl =
107 Z~
. |=, #
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58




yOz# |= ==
K#k O|OQ LO> x [~Q ^
x
JO\~. x ~ @<
=~ = JO\~. =~ = = x / H=.
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XH "\ = XH Jowl for secon.


=~ = "_H L#fl
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x K _xH Q =~ " H
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59

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63

2. Q=# [_`fi = :- U^<


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64

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CHAPTER - IV

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CHAPTER

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^fix (SOUND)

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JO`

CHAPTER
``fi= (MAGNETISM)

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