A SHORT TERM TRAINING PROGRAMME ON CO2 WELDING PROCESS FOR EXECUTIVES

Introduction to Welding Processes

Principles Equipments Accessories Consumables Shielding Gas Metal Transfer
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Importance of Materials
Edge Preparation Weld Symbols Selection of Wires Selection of Pre-heat and its Importance

Quality of Welding
Welding Quality Improvements Appearance of Welding Workmanship Weld Defects Causes & Remedies Safety Precautions

Discussion on Weld Quality & Field Failures

GAS SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS :

CO2 WELDING PROCESS - GMAW : Carbon dioxide is a heavy diatomic gas with a combination of carbon and oxygen. It is obtained from several industrial-processing plants as a byproduct. Substantially, it is obtained as a byproduct of the process in the production of alcohol and ammonia. It is essentially an Inert gas at room temperature but active at an arc temperature, gets disassociated into carbon monoxide (CO) and Oxygen (0) in the arc zone where the temperature is quite high. However the gases revert back to CO2 as they cool. Because this gas is 50% heav% ier than air, its ability to shield the arc is quite satisfactory. Due to its rather high electrical resistance, CO2 gas shielded metal arc welding lends itself particularly well to automatic machine welding, however, many successful manual applications are also in regular use. Carbon dioxide gas is produced to high standard of purity, and the specification states the maximum impurity level in CO2 siphon cylinders for welding shall be: AIR - 0.2% V/V Water 0.015% W/W or 150-PPM W/W In practice however, CO2 from both siphon cylinders and bulk liquid storage vessels, is usually of higher quality than the mentioned above. Carbon dioxide is obtainable in the form of gas, liquid and solid (dry ice), the CO2 in the liquid form is chiefly used for gas metal arc welding purposes in cylinder. If the heavy carbon dioxide gas is released from the cylinder, the evaporating liquid is unable to obtain sufficient heat from its environment and the temperature of the system falls with decrease in the CO2 top pressure. If the process is carried still further, the cooling may be so intense that the liquid CO2 freezes into solid dry ice. To prevent this happening, CO2 should not be drawn off at a rate exceeding 24 Lit/min. and preferably not faster than 16 Lit/min. If more CO2 is required it is used to employ a rack containing multiple cylinders in manifold system in which case withdrawal of CO2 can be from 60 Lit/min. to even 100 Lit/min. The requirement of the gas preheater will be of a 500 watts capacity thermostatically controlled and upto 3KW Whereas the gas preheater rated as 150-250 watts for a single cylinder is quite satisfactory. For supplying a large number of welding units located throughout a fabrication shop CO2 can also be supplied for welding from bulk storage

tanks, which are of fitted at intervals from a road tanker. The capacity of these storage tanks may be kept in the range of 1.75 to 6 and 12 tons of CO2. These are supplied completely with evaporators. These systems of gas supply eliminate down time of changing individual gas cylinder and thus ensure, uninterrupted gas supply and increased productivity. FILLER WIRES : However effective shielding gas should may be in the prevention of atmospheric contamination, some form of deoxidant should, when practicable, be introduced to the weld pool to ensure complete freedom from gaseous defects. The electrodes for GMAW are usually quite similar or identical in composition to those used for welding with most other identical in composition to those used for welding with most other bare electrodes processes. In many cases, the electrode wires are chosen to match the chemical composition of the base metal as closely as possible in some cases electrode wires with a somewhat different chemical composition are used to obtain optimum desired mechanical properties or better weldability. For example the electrode that are most satisfactory for welding manganese bronze, a copper zinc alloy or are either aluminum-bronze or copper-manganese-nickel-aluminum alloys. Somewhat similarly, although not to the same degree the electrode that are most suitable for welding the higher strength aluminum and steel alloys are usually quite different in composition from the base metal on which they are to be welded. This is because some alloys, which are quite satisfactory or desirable as base metal, are unsuitable as weld metal. Accordingly e1ectrode alloys are designed to produce the desired weld metal properties and the acceptable operating characteristics. The use of electrode wires with the right amount of deoxidizes is most important when using oxygen or carbon dioxide bearing shielding gases. The deoxidizes most frequently used in steel electrodes are manganese, silicon and aluminum. Titanium and silicon are the principal deoxidizes used in Nickel alloys. Copper alloys may be deoxidized with titanium, silicon or phosphorous, depending on the type and desired end result. The electrodes used for GMAW are quite small in diameter compared to those used in any other welding processes. Commonly used electrode diameters are from 0.8mm to 1.6mm for semiautomatic welding and upto 2.0mm for automatic welding. Because of the small diameter of the electrode and the comparatively high welding current used for GMAW results in high metal deposition rate. In view of this very high wirefeed rate the quality of the wire with regard to size. Surface finish and tensile strength must match the specifications laid by the codes and standard being. Followed by the electrode wire manufacturers to obtain the desired result for continuous operation. The type of wire feeder often dictates the size of wire spool, for instance pull type wire feed system which has a small wire drive motor in the hand1e itself requires a smaller size wire spool weighing lesser than a ki1ogram with an outer diameter of spool not more than hundred millimeter. For high volume continuous welding operation, the latest trend is use barrel s which contain wires even more than one hundred kilograms to reduce the downtime, compared to changing the wire spools of smaller sizes of around fifteen kilograms. For more detailed information on filler wires reference can be, made to the A.W.S specification for various metals and alloys as listed in the table

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------N Metal Carbon Steel Low Alloy Steel Stainless Steel Nickel and Nickel alloys Aluminium and Aluminium alloys Magnesium alloys Copper and Titanium alloys Titanium and Titanium alloys Zirconium and Zirconium alloys A AWS Specification A A A A A A A 5.16 A 5.24 5.18 5.28 5.90 5.14 5.10 5.19 5.70 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------And similarly every country has developed their own codes and standards on the choice of filler wires suitable for various metals and many more countries are in the process of making their own codes and standards. These codes standards may be referred to by the users International standard organization (ISO) have also come out with their own specification in this regard for global standardization. METAL TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS : Research has shown that the metal transfer, from the electrode wire by way of the arc down to the molten puddle can vary a great deal. The factors deciding the character of the metal transfer are: (a) The type and size of electrode wire (b) The gas shield. (c) The welding current (d) The arc length/welding voltage. Filler metals are transferred from the e1ectrode to the work in 2 ways: (1) When the electrode contacts the molten weld puddle thereby establishing a short circuit which is known as short-circuiting or dip transfer. (2) When discrete drops are moved across the arc gap under the influence of gravity and electromagnetic forces, this type of metal transfer is known as either globular or spray arc. SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER : Short-circuiting arc welding uses the lowest range of welding current, welding voltage and electrode diameters associated with GMAW/FCAW. This type of metal transfer produces a small, fast freezing weld puddle, which is

generally suited for the joining of thin sections, for all position we1ding and for bridging of 1arge root openings. When we1d heat input is extremely low, the distortion in the sheet material is also negligible. The metal is transferred from the electrode to the work only during the period of short-circuiting. There is no metal transfer across the arc gap. During the metal transfer, three transient conditions occur. At the start of the short-circuiting cycle, a droplet starts advancing from the tip of the electrode towards the weld spool, causing the arc length to reduce gradually till short-circuiting occurs. At this stage, arc is extinguished, the current rises up and by nature of the magnetic pinch force common to high current density the molten droplet is transferred and then the arc is reignited. With the renewed arc, the cycle begins again. The frequency of short-circuiting transfer ranges from 20 to over 200 times per second at a steady rate. This type of metal transfer usually occurs between the range of 40 to 190 amperes welding current and 16 to 22 welding voltage. The peak level of short circuiting frequency is obtained maximum at around 20 arc voltage with smallest size of filler wires, such as 0.8mm diameter wire. The short-circuiting arc metal transfer makes special demands on the power source for its dynamic characteristics. When the short-circuiting of the electrode wire with the weld puddle takes place, sufficient current must be supplied at the correct rate to enable the short circuit to clear the bridging wire and re-establish the arc. The drooping or constant current characteristics power source cannot provide the rapid rise of current at short circuit as supplied by the flat or dynamic current characteristics power source. With low internal inductance value a flat constant voltage type transformer rectifiers are found to be the best choice over the drooping characteristic welding power source. The drooping voltage type power source are also found unsuitable to maintain the short arc length (low arc vo1tage) required for short circuiting metal transfer, due to abrupt fall in arc voltage electrode wire sticks to the work and arc extinguishes. GLOBULAR TRANSFER : Globular transfer occurs at relatively higher current densities and arc voltage than that of short-circuiting transfer. The globular transfer is characterized by the formation of a relatively large drop of molten metal at the tip of the electrode wire. The molten globule at the tip of the electrode wire grows and remains until the gravitational and the electromagnetic force carries the globule to the molten puddle. This type of metal transfer occurs with all types of shielding gases. Globu1ar transfer is characterized by a drop size of greater diameter than that of the electrode. This is an intermediate type of metal transfer occupies the transitional range of arc voltage (24 28 volts) between shortcircuiting and spray arc. This type of metal transfer is suitable for down hand welding and horizontal fillet welding position. For medium range of thickness, the rate of metal deposition per unit time is greater than the dip transfer. Since, this type of metal transfer takes place relatively at longer arc length and higher arc voltage in comparison to dip transfer, it is possible to introduce even constant current (drooping voltage) type power source as a second best alternative to dynamic current (Flat characteristic) power source with suitable modification of the wirefeed mecha-

nism. SPRAY TRANSFER The spray arc occurs at high current density with the arc voltage in the range of above 28 volts and below 45 volts. Maximum rate of metal deposition per unit time is obtained at relatively higher heat input in comparison to above two types of metal transfer. This type of metal transfer is best adopted for welding relatively thick parts because of the high welding currents associated with it. The minimum base metal thickness limit cannot be well defined. It will depend on the type of metal being welded and the welding conditions. Thickness down to three millimeter can be welded in some metals, such as aluminium and also steel sheets as low as 1.6mm thickness with good fit up fixtures along with temporary back up support of copper by using an automatic welding unit. In freeflight or spray transfer, the filler metal is transferred from the tip of the electrode to the weld puddle in an actual stream of fine droplets. One droplet follows the other, but they are not connected. The size of the droplet may vary in spray arc, the maximum diameter of the droplet is 1esser than that of electrode wire diameter as per figure-19.

The mechanism of axial spray transfer appears to be chief1y influenced by both the electromagnetic force on the molten electrode wire tip and the arc plasma. The electromagnetic pinch force squeezes on the molten portion of the electrode and acce1erates it towards the work. Another influence on spray transfer is the vaporization of metal at the electrode tip. Spray arc has a typical fine arc column and pointed wire tip. It has been observed that the gas shielding of Argon and Helium tends to produce an axial transfer whereas carbon dioxide gas shielding, the spray arc does not direct axially therefore there is more spatter than with an inert gas shielding. The spatter can be reduced if the welding parameters are adjusted properly. Since this type of metal transfer adjusted to higher arc length (arc voltage) and welding current, it is possible to adopt even constant current (drooping voltage) type power source with a suitable modification in the wirefeed mechanism. However, the superiority of the flat characteristic power source remains. WELDING VARIABLES The main variables have to be selected for acceptable quality of weld are given below: (1) Wire diameter. (2) Welding current. (3) Welding voltage. (4) Gas flow rate. (5) Inductance/choke. (6) Stick out (7) Torch angle

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(8) Manipulation Angle

WIRE DIAMETER The choice of wire diameter is to be selected carefully, as it has direct bearing on the wire feed rate, welding current, welding electrical energy, thickness of the work piece, joint design, fit up and welding position. To achieve greater productivity and quality with high current density, a smaller diameter wires are preferred for dip transfer. Large diameter wires are preferred for spray transfer. The correct size of the wire has to be selected by the operator, according to his own experience, keeping in mind all the above important factors. WIRE DIAMETER 0.8 mm 1.2 mm 1.6 mm 2.0 mm WELDING CURRENT To achieve the maximum deposition rate and better quality of weld optimum current has to be chosen by the operator, according to metal transfer characteristics. WELDING VOLTAGE : It can be selected if the operator knows metal transfer techniques as we have already discussed earlier. The arc voltage should be so se1ected that it should give the desirable bead profi1e for a given current level, the higher arc voltage offers the flat bead shape and lower arc voltage offers the convex bead shape. Equi1ibrium of wire diameter current and arc voltage should be maintained to give smooth metal transfer. GAS FLOW : Gas flow rate should be sufficient to give adequate coverage to the arc zone so that any atmospheric gases will not contaminate with the weld. Contamination of the atmospheric element in the weld is always possib1e either gas flow is too low or too high. Ultimately the characteristic of the shielding gases, joint design and nozzle diameter will be the real good indication for selecting the gas flow rate. Too high gas flow rate normally keeps the molten pool unstable and shaky, makes the weld finish rough. For carbon dioxide it is a practice to have the gas flow rate for 10mm effective nozzle diameter between the range of 10 to 15 Lit/min. Similarly other shielding gas depending upon their density and the shielding characteristics can be adjusted low or high as per the metals, joint design and the diameter of the nozzle, with reference to the shielding gas characteristics described earlier as per figure-20. INDUCTANCE : Inductance is also known as choke, which controls the rate of rise in short circuiting current particularly at RECOMMENDED CURRENT 60 - 100 Amps 100 - 250 Amps 120 - 300 Amps 150 - 450 Amps

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the time of dip transfer to minimize the spatters normally with increased cross section of the wire. Inductance also inf1uences the arc time. Increasing the inductance will increase the arc time and decrease the frequency of short-circuiting as per figure 21. The increased arc time produces a more fluid puddle and a flatter, smoother weld bead and smoother sound of the arc. Ultimately the welding operator will be the better judge for selecting the correct inductance value by making a fillet weld test piece with less spatter and good surface finish of the weld if the welding power source has been provided with fixed chokes. Nowadays even some of the welding equipments have been provided with an automatic choke setting so the setting of a choke by an operator does not arise. ELECTRODE EXTENSION : The electrode extension or stickout is the distance between the end of the contact tube and the tip of the electrode as per figure-22. As this distance increases, so does the electrical resistance of the electrode. Resistance heating causes the electrode temperature to rise and less welding current is required to melt the electrode wire at a given feed rate. Electrode extension should be controlled because too long an extension results in excess weld metal being deposited with low arc energy. This produces a poor weld bead shape and shallow penetration. As the electrode extension increases the arc becomes unstable with extra spatter. Good electrode extension is from 5mm to 20mm depending upon the diameter of the electrode wire and the welding current used. For example 0.8mm wire diameter requires the sickout of 56mm and 1.2 or 1.6mm wire diameter require the sickout of 10-12mm and the wire in excess of these sizes can be kept unto 20mm to obtain satisfactory weld. WELDING POSITION : Most spray type GMAW is done in the flat position, while pulsed and short-circuiting GMAW can be used in all positions. Fillet welds made in the flat position with spray transfer are usually more uniform less likely to have unequal leg lengths, convex profiles and less susceptible to under-cutting than similar fillet welds made in the horizontal position. To overcome the pull of gravity on the weld metal in the vertical and overhead positions, small diameter electrodes are usually used either with short-circuiting metal transfer or spray transfer with pulsed arc. Electrode diameters of 1.2mm and under are best suited for position welding. The low heat input allows the molten pool to freeze quickly. Vertical down welding is usually effective on sheet meta1. When welding is done in the flat position, the inclination of the work surface with respect to the horizontal will influence the weld head shape, penetration and travel speed. The effect is the same whether the welding gun moves or the work moves. In the case of circumferential welding the work rotates under the welding gun and inclination is obtained by moving the welding gun either direction from top dead center as per figure-23. By positioning the work with the weld axis at 150 to the horizontal and welding down hill, weld reinforcement can be decreased under welding conditions that would produce excessive reinforcement when the work is in the flat position. When traveling downhill travel speed can usually be increased at the same time penetration is lower, which is beneficial for welding

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sheet metal. When welding sheet meta1 or root runs vertically down, the torch angle is backhand since the operator is directing the arc on to the molten weld bead as a support system. Vertically upwelds are necessarily made with a forehand angle but operator needs much skill to move into the angle of the joint, and most movements of the torch need to become intuitive and smooth to alter the torch angle in the horizontal frame to direct the arc into the side walls of the joint as per figure-24. The vertical upweld must be welded with a careful attention to the weaving pattern acquired only by skillful welders to obtain satisfactory weld. For medium and heavy sections the vertical upward welding technique have been found to be useful to meet requirement of high heat input and voluminous weld deposit. For very heavy sections where the heat input requirement is higher it is recommended to use even 1.6mm wire diameter for dip transfer in vertical upward. The process is also in use for spot welding by depositing the right quantity of weld metal from one side with the help of spot welding attachment. This GMAW process offer added quality and productivity both to bring down the cost of welding as compared with SMAW process as per figure - 25. GAS SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING : The principle of gas shielded arc welding consists in the introduction of a gas around the arc to shield the arc and metal against contact with ambient air. The inert gases, Argon and helium are used for shielding, as well as Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide and other active gases. The most widely used gas shielded processes are Argon. Arc, Atomic Hydrogen, and Carbon dioxide shielded arc welding. ARGON ARC WELDING : Argon arc welding may be done either with a non-consumable tungsten electrode (STAW) or with consumable electrode (GMAW) as per figure-l & 2.

In inert gas tungsten arc welding, the arc is shielded by an atmosphere of Argon or Helium. The filler rod is fed to the arc zone. Either direct or alternating current may supply the arc. Both hand and automatic processes are applied. The holder (torch) of the tungsten electrode also serves to provide a flow of inert gas around the arc column and to transfer the welding current to the weld zone.

Inert gas tungsten arc welding is used chiefly for joining stainless steels, aluminium, magnesium, and titanium alloys as well as for critical steel parts. In inert gas tungsten arc welding, the electrode is nonconsumable but in inert gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, the electrode is in the form of wire, which is consumable electrode to provide filler metal for the weld. The electrode wire is fed through an automatic wire feed mechanism through a flexible tube to a torch head where the welding current is transferred to the filler wire through a contact tube, the shielding gas such as Argon, Helium is used to protect the arc column and the weld deposit from the atmospheric contamination. The D.C. power source with a flat characteristic is always pre-

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ferred with positive polarity for better arc stability and position welding. The process is always used as semiautomatic and automatic process. Inert gas shielding is most effective: However these gases are relatively costly, therefore it is uneconomical to use it for welding cheaper material such as mild steel and low alloy steels. Unlike GTAW/GMAW process has more scope for utilizing inert and active shielding gases in single or multiple gas mixtures by using modified electrode wire chemistry. There is a growing use of carbon dioxide gas as a shielding gas for mild steel and low alloy steel allover the world. In Russia for welding of steels to limited applications they have made use of even steam as a shielding media. ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING : This process differs from the preceeding, in that an alternating current arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes along with stream of hydrogen is fed to the welding zone. The molecules of are disassociated by the high heat 2H H2 + 100600 Ca /Mol. The stream of atomic hydrogen strikes the cooler surfaces of the metal and is again converted into molecular Hydrogen as per figure-3. The metal is heated by the indirect arc and by heat evovled when the atomic hydrogen is converted into the molecular form according to the reaction 2H H2 + 100600 Ca /Mol. This produces a flame with a high temperature of 3700 C which shields the Welding pool from oxidation and from saturation with Nitrogen. The power source for this type of welding process is always of an alternating constant current type with a higher 0.C.V. upto even 300 V and an arc voltage as high as upto 120 volts. The current is used for welding ranging from 20 TO 100 Amps while the consumption of hydrogen varies from 6 Lit/Hr to 13 Lit/Hr/Min. Atomic hydrogen welding is applied in joining steels and light alloys, when the components are of a sheet metal type in welding critical designs operating under dynamic loads, high pressure, or in a vacuum as well as in other cases when the weld must be air tight and possess high mechanical properties. However now the inert gas shielded arc processes have now largely replaced this process. GAS SHIELDED TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) as per figure - 4 Equipment for GTAW process consists of: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) Power source AC/DC High frequency unit D.C. suppresser (Filter condenser Welding gun (Gas cooled/water cooled) Water circulation system if the torch is of water cooled type Controls Gas flow control equipment Shielding gases Tungsten electrodes

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POWER SOURCE : There are two types of power sources AC/DC with drooping voltage characteristics (constant current type) used in this process, similar to shielded metal arc welding sources. AC ARC : AC arc in GTAW is used for welding of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. Reference has been made to the polarities of A.C. that the ability of positive electrode arc to remove the oxide film on the aluminium, magnesium and their alloys and the negative electrode arc to cool the tungsten electrode and ensure penetration in the workpiece. Therefore A.C. was found suitable for welding of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys as mentioned above, as the positive half cycle dislodges the tenacious aluminium oxide layer. The melting point of aluminium oxide is three times higher than that of aluminium, and other half of negative cycle cools down the electrode and ensures the penetration by forming the molten metal. D.C. ARC ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (D.C.S.P) : With this configuration, the cathode spot is formed on the electrode. Conventionally the tungsten electrode is tapered to concentrate the cathode spot on the tip of the electrode and thus provide more stable arc due to emission of electrons from the electrode to the work piece, more heat is generated (2/3 heat of the arc) at the work than good penetration is obtained. This configuration is often used for welding almost all types of metals other than aluminium, magnesium and their alloys.

D.C. ARC ELECTRODE POSITIVE (D.C.R.P) : With this configuration, the cathode spot is formed on the workpiece and the flow of electrons is from the workpiece to the electrode. More heat is generated (2/3 heat of the arc) on the electrode tip than on the workpiece, compared with electrode negative using the same electrode diameter and the current. The heat energy at the tip of the positive electrode is much higher than the negative polarity used for tungsten electrode and a molten globule is formed on the electrode tip. Penetration with electrode positive is low and a wide weld pool is formed. This polarity is generally used for welding of very thin section around 1mm of Aluminium, Magnesium and their alloys in the absence of suitable A.C. power source, for various other application D.C.R.P. is seldom used as per figure-5.

HIGH FREQUENCY UNIT : High frequency unit in the circuit serves to start the arc initially without making contact between the tip of Tungsten electrode and the workpiece. High frequency serves stabilization and reignition of the positive half cycle in A.C. arc. The high voltage of High frequency unit with spark gap in the circuit promotes ionization of the shielding gas, providing a good path for the current to flow satisfactorily. Superimposed Highfrequency vo1tage is also used

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with D.C. arc for the purpose of easy arc striking without touching the Tungsten electrode to the work. The value of super imposed high frequency vol tage is about 3000 to 5000 volts with 3 (KHz). D.C.SUPPRESSER/FILTER CONDENSER : While welding aluminium, magnesium and their alloys with an AC arc, the layer of oxide present on the surface of these materials offer greater resistance to the flow of current in the positive half cycle than in the negative half cycle. This results rectification of A.C. current into D.C. component. The D.C.component in the A.C. current gives rise to unbalanced A.C. waveform is undesirable as it leads to instability in the arc. Due to unbalanced A.C. waveform the positive half cycle duration is reduced. Positive half cycle duration is very important especially to dislodge the refractory oxide layer from the surface of metals such as aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. This phenomenon is also known as oxide scavenging action. Thus, when the positive half cycle duration is due to unbalanced wave form, the oxide cleaning action becomes less effective leading to arc instability. In addition to this undesirable effect the D.C. component due to arc rectification may cause magnetic saturation of core of main transformer leading to distortion in primary current and overheating. The D.C. component due to inherent rectification can be reduced by connecting a bank of capacitors (Filter capacitors/D.C. suppresser) of sufficient value in series in the welding circuit. Capacitors get charged during the negative half cycle by the excess energy and this charged energy in the capacitors gets dicharged during the positive half cycle. Thus the balanced and symmetrical waveform is obtained. The D.C.component in the A.C. current is filtered/suppressed by the capacitor bank that is why capacitor bank is commonly called as filter capacitor unit or D.C. suppresser as per figure-6. Therefore filter capacitor unit is always recommended with AC power source to achieve good quality of welding for aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. WELDING TORCH/GUN : A torch for manual GTAW should be compact, lightweight, and fully insulated. It must provide a handle for holding it, a means for conveying the shielding gas to the arc area, and a collet, chuck, or other means for securing the Tungsten electrode and conducting welding current to it. The torch assembly normally includes various cables, hoses and adapters for connecting the torch to sources of power, gas and water (if water is used for cooling). The shielding gas passage through the entire system must be leak proof. Any leakage of the air into the shielding gas system can be a major problem of poor quality weld. The different sizes of torches are rated in accordance with the maximum welding current that can be used. In addition, the torch will accommodate different sizes of electrode and different types and sizes of nozzles with various angle including the straight line (Pencil type) torches and even adjustable angle torches. Some torches have auxiliary switches and gas valves built into their handles. Among the torches of GTAW there are gas cooled or water cooled type. Gas cooled torches are known, due to the shielding gas. Gas cooled torches are usually lightweight. Small, compact and less expensive than water-cooled torches. They generally have a maximum welding current of about 200Amps. They are normally used for welding lower thickness ma-

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terials. Water-cooled torches, cooling is provided by the flow of shielding gas but it is supplemented by water that is circulated through the torch to the metallic nozzle. Water-cooled torches are designed for continuous high current welding they operate continuously with welding current beyond 200 Amps. Effective water-cooling system in the TIG welding torch can enhance the life of Tungsten electrode and the nozzle. CONTROLS : Controls are generally provided in the equipment to operate the contactor for current, H.F.circuit D.C.suppresser, solenoid valve with the timer for preflow and postflow shieldlng gases and water pressure switch for safety of the water cooling system through On/Off switch provided on the torch. These various functions are also indicated through coloured indicating lamps displayed on the control panel of the equipment, for the convenience of the operator. In addition to these controls, in modern welding equipment even up slope and downslope controls are provided to eliminate the initial current surge and to minimize the crater concavity at the end of the weld bead as per figure-7. GAS FLOW CONTROL EQUIPMENT : A combined regulator and flowmeter is widely used to control and measure the flow rate of shielding gas. High gas pressure in a cy1inder or cylinder manifold is reduced to a safe working pressure in a single or two stages. The working gas pressure is metered through the flowmeter and controlled by mandal adjustment of a throttle valve. The flow is indicated on the flowmeter tube or dial that is calibrated for the particular gas being metered. In operation with high gas consumptions, a centrally located manifold or a liquid storage tank can be installed to store gas. The gas is piped from the storage container to the welding station. The pressure in the distribution line is regulated and individual flowmeter are mounted at each welding station. When shielding gas mixture must.be used, standard proporties are commercially available in cylinders. Other desired mixtures can be obtained through the use of manually set mixtures of automatic gas ratio mixtures, which can be operated from cylinders or bulk system. It must be ensured that there is no leakage in delivery system of the shielding gas anywhere from the supply point to the delivery of the gas upto the nozzle of the welding gun to prevent any air contamination in the shielding gas to safeguard the tungsten electrode and the weld metal SHIELDING GASES : The inert gases Argon and Helium are used for GTAW process. Neon, Xenon, Radon and Krypton inert gases are not employed for welding because of their scarcity and relatively highcost. Among the reactive gases, only hydrogen and nitrogen have found limited use, one to two percent. Hydrogen is added to Argon or Helium in small quantities for mechanized welding of stainless steel. Around thirty percent Nitrogen is sometime added to Argon for the joining of copper and copper a1loys. The choices of shielding gas can significantly quality as well as welding

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speed. Argon, Helium and A, He mixtures do not react with Tungsten or alloy Tungsten electrode and have no adverse effect on the quality of the weld metal. ARGON (A) : Argon is heavy monatomic gas with an atomic weight of forty. It is obtained from the atmosphere by liquification of air. After Argon is refined to purity on the order of 99.99%, it may be stored and transported in liquid at temperature below -184C. Depending on the volume of use, Argon may be supplied as a liquid or as a compressed gas. Because of the economics of liquid distribution, liquid Argon for bulk storage can be purchased at much lower price than cyl inder Argon, hut equipment must be installed to vaporize the gas for distribution. Argon is used more extensively than Helium because of the following advantages (a) Smoother, quieter arc action. (b) Lower arc voltage at any given current level and arc length. (c) Greater cleaning action in the welding of such material as aluminium and magnesium with A.C. power source. (d) Lower cost and easy availability. (e) Lower flowrate for good shielding. (f) Better cross draught resistance. (g) Easier arc starting. The lower arc voltage characteristic of Argon is particularly helpful in the manual welding of thin material because the tendency for excessive melt through is reduced. The same characteristic is advantageous in vertical welding since the tendency for the base metal to sag or run is decreased. In other words, the heatinput in the joint with Argon gas shielding is reduced. Considerably for the same 1evel of welding current, arc length and the speed of travel as compared to Helium; HELIUM (He) : Helium is the lightest monatomic gas naving an atomic weight of four. It is separated from natural gas. Welding grade Helium is refined to a purity of at least 99.99%. Although some Helium is distributed as a liquid, it is more commonly transported as a gas in a high-pressure cylinder. Special railroad cars and trailers are used for transporting gaseous Helium, like transporting Argon. A Helium shielded arc emits about one third more heat than an Argon shielded arc at the same current setting, because of the higher arc voltage of the Helium arc. Normally ten to twenty percent more Helium than Argon is required for effective shielding of the weld pool. However 30 to 40% greater welding speed is achieved with the Helium shielding because of the hotter and more intense arc it provides. With a D.C.S.P. high quality weld cannot be made in aluminium when Argon gas shielding is used, but when

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high purity He is used thoroughly acceptable weld can be made. NITROGEN (N2) : Nitrogen is also Heavy diatomic gas of weight fourteen. It is obtained from atmosphere by liquification of air, which is readily available in the air as high as 78% of its volume. After it is refined to purities on the order of 99.99%, it may be stored and transported as 1 liquid at temperature below -210C. Depending on the volume of use, it may be supplied as a liquid or a compressed gas. In case of liquid N2, equipment must be installed to vaporize the gas for distribution. If high purity Nitrogen is used as a shielding media in the GTAW process if is only used for deoxidized copper or copper alloys. The higher arc voltage obtainable by Nitrogen gas shielding permits higher current. to be used with standard equipment. The efficiency of heat transfer is much higher than when Argon or Helium is used. The attendant heat in the welding of Copper and Copper alloys in the Nitrogen shielding where an extremely hot arc is essential Though there is no any harmful effect of N2 shielding on welding of copper, it is unsuitable for other ferrous and Nonferrous alloys but it reacts with tungsten electrode and reduces its life. Once upon a time there was scarcity of A and He in Great Britain only then the Nitrogen gas was used as an alternate choice of shielding gas for welding of Cu and its alloys. Though an economical method of welding, it is not very popular as Argon and Helium. Ar --- For all types of metals. He --- For heavy section and high conductive metals. N2 --- For Copper only. TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE : The use of a non-consumable electrode - an electrode that does not supply filler metal - constitutes the major difference between GTAW and other metal arc welding process. Tungsten, which has the highest melting temperature of all metals (3338oC) has proved to be the best material for non-consumable electrode. In addition to having an extremely high melting point, Tungsten is a strong emitter of electrons, which stream across the arc path, ionize it, and thus facilitate the maintenance of stable arc.

Tungsten electrode of 99.5% purity (EWP) are less expensive and are generally used on less critical operations than electrode that contains Thoria or Zirconia. A pure tungsten electrode has a relatively low current carrying capacity with A.C. power and has a low resistance to contamination. Tungsten electrodes with one or two percent Thoria (EWTH-l EWTH-2, EWTH-3A, EWTH-3C) are superior

19

to pure tungsten electrode in several respects. They have higher electron emissivity, better current carrying capacity, longer 1ife, and greater resistance to contamination. With these electrodes, arc starting is easier, and the arc is more stable. Tungsten electrode that contain some Zirconia (EWZR) have properties that generally fall between those of pure and Thoria containing Tungsten. However, there is some indication of better performance in certain types of welding with alternating current. EWZr electrodes, when used for A.C. welding, combine the desirable stability characteristics of pure Tungsten with the capacity and starting characteristic of thoriated Tungsten.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Type of Electrode Pure Tungsten Electrode 1 to 2 % Thoriated Tungsten electrode 1 to 2 % Zirconiated Tungsten electrode A.C. Recommended Current D.C. D.C. Applications Little used now replaced alloyed tungsten electrode. All kinds of metal other than Aluminium /Magnesium and their alloys Aluminium, their alloys. Magnesium and --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES SURFACE CONDITION AND END PROFILE : Tungsten electrodes for GTAW must be smooth enough preferably with ground finish to have better surface contact between the surface of Tungsten electrode and the fil1et for optimum welding current carrying capacity. Tungsten electrodes having seams, cracks, pipes, slivers or non-metallic segregated inclusion should not be used for welding. Tungsten electrode may have an end profile that is pointed, partly or completely hemispherical. The electrode taper angle is the angle that is ground on the tungsten e1ectrode. Thoriated tungsten electrodes are ground to a tip to provide improved arc starting, with high frequency ignition. Higher current carrying capacity enables these electrodes to be tapered. Taper angles usually range from 30 to 120. A large taper angle is recommended with the end diameter of tip ranging from 0.125 to 1.50 mm. for an electrode size

20

ranging from 0.26 to 6.4 mm diameter as per figure-B. CURRENT RATINGS OF GTAW ELECTRODES : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Tungsten Electrode Dia in mm Maximum current carrying capacity in Amps Thoriated Zirconiated D.C. A.C. A.C. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0.80 1.60 2.40 3.25 4.00 5.00 6.30 45 70 150 250 400 500 640 30 55 90 140 195 250 340 40 55 90 150 210 275 370

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------RECOMMENDED TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE AND SHIELDING GASES : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Metals Thickness Type of current Tungsten Electrode Shielding gas

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.Aluminium All Thin only All Thin only All Thin only A.C. D.C.R.P. D.C.S.P. A.C. A.C. D.C.R.P. Zirconiated Thoriated or Zirconiated Thoriated Zirconiated Zirconiated Thoriated or Zirconiated. Ar or Ar and He Argon Ar or Ar and He Argon Ar or Ar Argon

2. Copper and its alloys 3. Magnesium alloy and He

4. Nickel and its alloys

All

D.C.S.P. D.C.S.P. A.C.

Thoriated

Argon

5. Plain Carbon and All o Low allo ys steels thin only

Thoriated Ar or Ar and He Thoriated or Argon Zirconiated

21

6. Stainless steel All and Thin only 7. Titanium All

D.C.S.P. A.C.

Thoriated Argon

Ar or Ar He Ar & H Argon

Zirconiated D.C.S.P.

Thoriated

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------FILLER METAL : Filler metals for joining a wide variety of metals and alloys are available for use with GTAW process. They are available in the forms of rods, spooled wires, and consumable inserts for straight rods, which are used for manual GTAW, standard diameter ranges from 1.60 mm to 6.30 mm with a nominal length of 0.50 M to 1.00 meter. For mechanized welding, filler metals come in continues spooled wire. The diameter of the spooled wire ranges frDm 0.60 mm for delicate work to even as high as 6.3 mm diameter for high current surfacing and welding. In addition to these filler wires, consumable inserts have also been introduced to attain consistent controlled root penetration in the joints for critical applications. They are shaped in different style and sizes such as T shaped, J shaped, Y shaped and many other forms to suit the joint configuration. The consumable inserts are classified on the basis of their chemistry as filler wires as per figure-9. Filler metals if used are most often similar may not be necessarily identical, to the meta1 that is being joined. When joining dissimilar metals, the filler metals will be different from one or both of the basemetal. Generally the filler metal composition is adjusted to allow for its use in the welded condition while matching the properties wrought base metal. To accomplish this, filler metal are produced to closer control on chemistry, purity and quality than base metal. Deoxidisers are frequently added to ensure weld soundness. Adjustments in the chemistry of filler metal are also made to allow for the operating characteristic of the welding process used. In the case of GTAW, there is little or no loss of deoxiders as a filler metal is deposited directly into the molten puddle blanketed by the inert shielding gas. In the case of GMAW, for steel, shielding gas may contain oxygen or carbon dioxide, which can react with some of the deoxidisers and alloying elements of the consumable electrode before they reach the weld puddle. The consumab1e electrode/chemistry of GMAW is often enriched to offset these arc transfer losses. However, a solid bare wire (Electrode) manufactured for the GMAW process is generally suitable for GTAW process. Further modification is made to some filler metal compositions to improve response to post weld heat treatment.

The choice of filler metal for any application is a compromise involving such factors as metallurgical compatibility, suitability for the intended operation; cost, the tensile and impact properties, corrosion resistant properties and electrical or thermal conductivities that are required in a particular weldment also must be considered. Thus, the alloy to be welded and. the intended service generally determines the filler metal. However the selection of filler metals and their use with specific metal one should refer the manufacturers catalogues often provide useful information on

22

the proper use of their products and the same must be evaluated for their compatibility in accordance with codes and standard being followed by the user.

COLD AND HOT WIREFEED MECHANISM : In semiautomatic or automatic GTA welding systems, filler wire feeders are required to supply filler metal either hot or cold wire into the molten weld puddle. A cold wirefeed system includes a wire drive, wire feed rate control and wireguide to feed the wire into the leading edge of the molten weld pool. The wire drive is controlled by a motor and gear to propel the filler wire. An electronic or mechanical control device can achieve a constant speed of travel. Filler wire usually is directed to the weld pool through a flexible conduit. The wire guide also can be water-cooled. The sizes of filler wires used ranging from 0.8 to 2.4mm diameter. A hot wirefeed system equipment is similar to cold wirefeed equipment. The wire, however, is electrically resistance heated to the desired temperature by using not more than 60% of the welding current from an A.C. power source to avoid an arc blow phenomenon while welding. The hot wire is fpd mechanically tc the weld puddle through a guide or contact tube shielded with an inert gas to protect the hot wire from oxidation as per figure-l0. Deposition rate is greater with hot wire than with cold wilre and comparable to that in GMA welding process. The wire is fed into the molten weld puddle directly behind the Tungsten arc at a 40 to 60 angle with the tungsten electrode as per figure-11. Preheated filler wire has been used successfully for the joining of carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, alloy of copper and nickel. Preheating is not recommended for copper and aluminium filler wires because of high conductivity. AUTOMATION IN GTAW : Mechanized GTAW, which includes the semiautomatic, and the automatic modes, is used extensively. The degree of mechahization varies from simple mounting of the welding torch in a bracket that moves over the work piece or (in a stationary bracket, with the work Piece being moved under the torch) to a fully mechanized operation that accomplishes the complete welding cycle. 'The degree of mechanization is usually determined by the number of

23

identical welds to be made, and by the speed and quality desired. The aerospace industry uses machine and automatic GTAW extensively, not necessarily because of' large quantities of production parts, but because the weld quality required for aerospace components often can be achieved only with the controlled inherent in the automatic welding equipment. Successful automatic GTA welding have hydraulic and pressure tubing and fuel lines is performed using precision electronic and mechanical controls. A very important improvement has resulted from the use of pulsed current as per figure12. The relation of pulsed current travel, speed during one weld program is shown in the figure, pulsing of the current begins at arc ignition. The travel start is delayed and the current pulse magnitude increases gradually until it reaches the operating level and complete penetration of the butt joint is achieved. Prior to arc extinction, the time at low current level may be varied to suit the individual application. With pulsed current, satisfactory penetration and weldface contour can be maintained for the welding of tubing in a fixed position. Compared with conventional continuous arc, the pulsing arc increases the penetration with lesser heat input to the joint. For the root pass of groove welds in pipe requiring the addition of filler metal, the variables of arc voltage, welding current, wire feed rate, and travel speed are most critical to obtain the fine balance of energy input needed for adequate penetration and fusion. The consistency in welding quality obtained by these methods is not easy for duplicating even by using a skilled welder. The same has become much easier with the introduction of programmable welding equipments commercially available. TECHNIQUE OF GTAW : The GTAW process lends itself to high quality welding. In every critical service applications or for very expensive metal or parts, the materials should be carefully cleaned of surface dirt, grease and oxides in preparation for welding and the minimum flow rate of the shielding gas required to exclude air from the weld zone must be maintained constantly. The effective gas shielding of the arc zone is influenced by the following variables (a) Characteristic of the shielding gas. (b) Distance between the gas nozzle and the work surface. (c) Joint design. (d) Size and shape of the gas nozzle. (e) Presence of draught or wandering air current. (f) Inclination of the torch towards the work surfaces. (g) Welding position. (h) Metal or alloy being welded.

24

In case of reactive metals like Titanium, Zirconium and Beryllium requires extra gas shielding precautions. Since the absorption of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen or Carbon will adversely affect toughness and ductility of the weld and the base metal. Hence in addition to the gas flow through the torch leading and trailing gas-shielding attachments are used. The trailing shield must provide protection for the weld area until the weld area cools below 525C. Leading shield should be used when the metal ahead of the weld is above 525C. To achieve the highest level of quality in fabrication of such metals and alloys it is recommended to weld in a flow purged chambers and vacuum purged chambers that are used to provide the highest purity inert gas atmosphere. Generally the purity level of Argon is 99.985% minimum with low moisture content, liquid argon is always preferred for effective shielding. The gas hose is preferred of a tygon or vinyl plastic type that is non-porous in nature. For such reactive metals even special fixtures are designed to take care of effective shielding from the weld side as well as other side of the weld and in addition to this it also serves the purpose of any other commonly used fixtures for welding such as maintaining the dimensional accuracy and accelerate the rate of cooling. To avoid contamination of the shielding atmosphere at the weld joint, the ideal location for gas shielded arc welding is a draughtless area. If conditions of disturbed air exist, suitable baffle screens should be set up around the welding operation. During welding with any gas shielded process in the open air much time effort, and difficulty will be avoided by providing some method of proper protection against draught. The direction and amount of inert gas covering the weld zone is controlled by gas nozzles threaded into the head of electrode holder. The gas nozzles are made of either heat resistant ceramic material or water-cooled metallic nozzles in different diameters, shapes and lengths. Length and shape are selected on the required clearance between the nozzle and the work. The nozzle should be large enough to provide. adequate inert gas coverage of the molten weld pool and adjacent hot base metal. Specially designed gas nozzles are available that reduce gas turbulence at the end of the nozizle. Laminar flow of shielding gas has been achieved by the introduction of a special screen inside the gas nozzle. This device, known as a gas lens, permits projection of an uncontaminated column of inert gas to a considerable distance beyond the nozzle orifice, so that the electrode extensions much as 20 mm. can be kept beyond the gas nozzle for increased visibility and accessibility as per figure-13.

A good practice is always to purge the gas system of air a few minutes before starting to weld after a. period of down time. Slight discoloration of areas near the weld and at the end of the weld may indicate improper inert gas coverage during or after gas shielded arc welding. Backing gas (gas shield on the other sides of the root weld in the joint), leading and trailing gas coverage or welding in a controlled atmosphere chamber will minimize weld quality problems caused by this process variable.

25

Protection of the weld metal from other side of the root run is very important and there are several practices which are being followed such as retaining the shielding gases other side of the weld, using non-metallic and noncontaminated backup supports of ceramics and fiber knitted cloth and temporary support of a copper bar or rings. BACK PURGING : A sufficient quantity of the ineRt gas reaches the bottom of the joint to provide adequate protection and the shielding gas while welding already shields the top of the weld. Several methods are used for containing the inert gas in the pipes, and tube such as rubber lined pistons for short length pipes, and balloon as well as soluble paper discs to prepare shielding dams in a long length pipes and tubes. With these arrangements it has become possible to use purging gas more effectively and economically. While welding, the sealing tape, around, externally on the pipe joint is removed in sections just ahead of the weld. Initially before using higher rate of iriert gas f1ow flushes out striking an arc the internal air and then it is reduced to, just below the level of shielding gas flow rate so that the proper root penetration is obtained. In the field conditions, where the pipe diameter and lengths are frequently large, the Joint can be shielded by inflating two plastic balloons in the pipe as per figure-14. They must be positioned far enough from the weld joint so that the heat from the weld will not burst them. The location of the balloons must also be marked on.the outer an oxyacetylene torch at these markings to burst the balloons applies side of the pipe, for when the root run is finished, just sufficient heat. Similarly the soluble paper discs can also be placed in place of balloons and they can be flushed out after completing the root pass and hot pass of the joint by using the compressed air or a stream of water.

BACKUP SUPPORT : Other than the back purging the backup supports made out of copper, ceramics or fiber glass knitted cloth are also being used in industries for the joints which are easily accessible from other side of the root. They offer the advantage of greater productivity by using high rate of current without burnthrough and eliminate the working of back gouging or grinding. Since the quality of root run is so good there is no need to apply sealing run from the backside of the weld. Backside cl.an up is accomplished with a chipping hammer or wire brush, permitting immediate and easy under5ide inspection. In many cases, the disadvantage of turning over a heavy or awkward weldment is eliminated. . The non-metallic composition of the particular ceramic and fiberglass material used in the backup tape make it a natural choice for a backing bar. This non-metallic quality eliminates the need of metallurgically match the backing bar with the base metal. The refectory nature of such materials enables it to withstand high welding heat without distorting as a heat absorbing copper metal bar may. These nonmetallic backup materials in different

26

shapes and sizes mounted over an aluminium foil with adhesive both side facilitate quick fixing. These adhesive material applied over the tapes are designed to adhere to the base metal surface even to a temperature of 250oC. PROCESS APPLICATION : The GTAW process is used extensively for the welding of longitudinal seams of thin wall stainless steel and alloy pressure pipe and tubing on continuous strip mills, generally without filler metal. It is used for joining in all welding position a broad spectrum of heavier wall metal and alloy pipe and tubing for the power generating, chemical, fertilizer and petroleum industries, generally with filler metal. Aircraft and aerospace industries make extensive use of the process in manual, mechanized and full automated systems for joining components made of wide variety of metals selected to meet critical strength weight consideration, jet engine casing and rocket motor cases are typical examples. It is one of the few processes permitting the rapid satisfactory welding of such tiny or light walled objects as transistors cases, instrument diagrams, and delicate expansion bellows. GAS SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) as per f igure - 15 Gas metal arc welding process consists of (a) Power source. (b) Wire drive system and spool holder. (c) Welding gun. (d) Water cooling system if the gun is of a water-cooled type. (e) Controls. (f) Shielding gas supply. (g) Filler wires in spooled form. POWER SOURCE : Alternating current is seldom used in GMAW. The power source used for GMAW is either a D.C.generator or a rectifier. Three types of power sources can be used to supply steady D.C. current, which can be distilnguished from their volt amphere characteristics. i.e. drooping voltage, constant voltage or rising voltage as per figure-16. The constant voltage type of power sources has marked advantage over the other types of power sources and hence is popularly used in conjunction with adjustable consistent wirefeeders. This type of power source offers (a) Simplicity of control circuitry. (b) Self regulation of arc. (c) Better arc striking characteristics. This flat characteristics type power source are designed that small changes in the arc lengths are

27

rapidly compensated by variation in the current with the result that arc length effectively remains constent, thus providing a self regulating arc. In the case of drooping voltage power sources voltage sensing circuits are required to maintain desired arc length for the given current setting and at the same time it is difficult to strike an arc particularly with metals of low electrical resistance such as Aluminium and Copper with a constant current or drooping voltage type power sources. The constant voltage type power source provides a rapid surge of current at the start of welding operation, improving upon the arc startirlg characteristics. Electrode freezing to the substrate is almost eliminated and burn back is minimized. The knobs located on the front of the power source adjust the welding voltage. Unlike G.T.A.W. the electrode. is alwavs connected to the positive polarity (DCRP) in GMAW process for better fusion, penetration as well as good arc characteristics. In GMAW process: the electrode itself is a consumable which melts and the molten particles are detached from the tip of the electrode and transported across the arc to the substrate by the magneto dynamic forces and gaseous streams. It will be recal1ed that DCRP welding permits the arc cleaning action to take place but that this polarity cannot be used with a non-consumable tungsten electrode because it gets overheated, and there is no any metal transfer which has to take place directly from the tip of the non/consumable tungsten electrode to the work piece. PULSED CURRENT POWER SOURCE : This type of power source pulses the D.C. output from a low background current value to a high current peak value. Because the average power is low, pulsed welding current can be used to weld thinner sections very easily than with steady D.C. spray arc. WIRE FEEDER : The wirefeed motor provides the power for driving the electrode through the drive rolls to the cable and gun to the work piece. Most wirefeed systems are of the constant feed type, that is the rate of speed (Mtr/Min.) is selected before welding beqins. The wirefeed is started and stopped by a switch mounted over the welding gun for semiautomatic welding or the same On/Off switch is mounted over the control unit of an automatic welding equipment. On the wirefeed unit an inching switch is provided to feed the wire and a wirefeed regulating knob is also mounted to control the wirefeed rate and the same is used to control the level of welding current if the power source is of a flat characteristic type. Variable speed wirefeed systems are adaptable only with constant current or drooping voltage type

28

power sources with an arc voltage sensing device, which normally suits the requirement of down hand welding position only with high welding current density but not for sheet metal welding and other positions. Therefore its use is less than the constant type wirefeeder. The wirefeed systems may be of the push type, the pull type or push pull type. The type used depends mainly on the size of electrode wire used and the distance between the wirefeeder and work. PUSH-TYPE WIREFEED SYSTEM : Most wirefeed systems are of the push type in which the wire is pulled from a spool by means of feed roller and is pushed through a flexible conduit (wirefeed hose) to which the welding gun is attached. The lengths of conduit are commonly two to four meters for steel electrode wire and upto three meters for aluminium electrode wire, depending on strength of the wire. Push type wirefeed systems are available that can handle hard solid wire from O.6mm to 2.4mm in diameter and soft solid wire from 1.2 to 2.4mm in diameler. The term 'hard' and 'soft' generally refer to ferrous and non-ferrous wires respectively. Though there are many variations among systems from different manufacturers, for instance the feed roll mechanism may have upto four driven roller. Many utilize only two rollers, one of which (usually lower) is driven. Ordinarily, the lower roller (or each of the lower two roller) has a circumferential V-groove. The upper roller does not have grooves. Knurled rollers are not recommended as they damage the wire surface. A feed roll mechanism must be designed so that the roll pressure on the wire can be increased or decreased as required. PULL TYPE WIREFEED SYSTEM : This type of wire feed system has a small drive motor in the handle with a very small spool of wires mounted in the handle itself where the outer diameter of the wire spool is not more than one hundred millimeter. The unit is compact and can be easily manipulated manually. The equipment is relatively delicate and is best suited to use with finer electrode wire less than a millimeter diameter. Mostly suited for welding in confined space. PUSH-PULL WIREFEED SYSTEM : Push pull wire feed systems are well suited to use with soft wires. The welding gun is fitted with a motor and drive roller and is used as the master unit for controlling the speed of wire feed. It receives a wire through a flexible conduit, the other end of which is attached to a remote wire drive mechanism. Speed of the remote mechanism is adjusted to keep the wire in tension. Small diameter wires (even soft aluminium alloy wires) can be moved 17 meters or more from the source to the welding gun by push pull system. The wire feed hose may have a plastic liner to reduce drag.

29

WELDING GUN : Welding gun used in GMAW transmits current to the electrode. Because the Wire is fed continuously, a sliding electrical contact is used. The welding current is passed to the electrode through a copper contact tube. The contact tubes have various hole sizes corresponding to the diameter of the electrode wire. The gun also has supply connection and a nozzle to direct the shielding gas around the arc and weld pool. The welding guns are either gas cooled or water-cooled type. An electrical switch is used to start and stop the electrode feeding, welding current, and shielding gas flow. This is located on the gun in semiautomatic welding and separately on the machine welding heads. Hand held semiautomatic guns are usually in the form of pistols, or they are shaped in a gooseneck type are. found to be convenient for welders to weld in various positions and locations. These guns are always fitted with only metallic nozzle. Nowadays there are special welding guns, which have been developed with fume extraction facility, but they are found to be heavier and costlier than the standard GMAW welding guns. WATERCOOLING SYSTEM : Apart from permitting the use of lighter weight welding guns for high welding current, considerably less copper in the power lead, and decreasing the difficulty of removing the weld spatters from the nozzle, water-cooling adds to the service life of the welding gun. To make the water cooling system more effective, it is essential to have a sealed recirculatory clean and forced water cooling system so that the corrosion and clogging due to impurities or foreign particle can be stopped. The tap water-cooling systems have not been found very effective in comparison with the sealed water circulatory system. In the forced water circulatory system it is necessary to install a water pressure switch for safety of the unit with an indicator lamp to indicate the working of the water cooling system. Where the ambient temperature is above 40C it will be an added advantage to install a refrigerated water cooling system for continuous high welding current operation where the water temperature can be maintained below 10C for more efficient and effective water cooling, but this is an expensive proposition. CONTROLS The wire drive unit usually contains a control circuit which links the wire feed motor, power contactor, gas and water solenoid and work traverse if required, Various functions are initiated by a single starting switch, which may be either the trigger on a semiautomatic gun or the start button on an automatic machine. SHIELDING GASES : Unlike GTAW, the GMAW process has more scope in the choice of the shielding gas because the electrode wire is transferred to the weld pool, and even where changes in the weld metal composition occur

30

due to gas metal reactions these can often be rectified by the appropriate choice of electrode wire. Although used initially with Argon or Helium the process has also been used with Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide and various gas mixtures of inert and active gases. The shielding gas affects the burn of rate, metal transfer characteristics, weld profile and penetration. Argon is generally used for welding non-ferrous metals, but mixtures of Argon and Helium are some times used wherever Helium is available. A compromise in arc properties is obtained with such mixtures. High current arcs in Argon tend to show finger penetration but this effect is less pronounced with Helium, which gives a broader penetration as per figure-17 but a tendency to spatter. For ferrous metals an addition of Oxygen is usually made to the inert gas. With additions upto 5% Oxygen the transfer of metal is smoother, more regular and axial from the tip of the electrode to the work piece. The fluidity of the weld pool and the ease with which it wets the work is improved because of presence of traces of the easily melted and fluid FeO. Bead shapes are therefore smooth and flat. Even such small oxygen additions require the use of a deoxidized electrode wire. Where adjustments can be made to the weld puddle chemistry and the electrode or the base metals which do not form refractory oxide layer, it is possible to use an active diatomic shielding gas. These gases are cheap and having a few technical advantages over the inert gases. Mixtures of Argon and Nitrogen have been used for copper to take advantage of the higher heat input rate with Nitrogen and the favourable metal transfer characteristics with Argon. The most used diatomic gas is carbon dioxide employed for welding of carbon steel and low alloy carbon manganese high tensile steels carbon dioxide gas may be employed alone for shielding or in mixtures with Argon and Oxygen. When used alone carbon dioxide gives a deep bowl shaped penetration is preferred to the narrow fingered penetration characteristic of Argon rich shielding gases. The cross sectional area melted is about 50% greater than that with the Argon-Oxygen mixture for the same welding current. Carbon dioxide gas shielding demands special electrode wire enriched with deoxidisers such as silicon, Manganese, Aluminium, Titanium and Zirconium to obtain good quality weld deposit. Even where only an inert gas is used it is frequently recommended to use electrode with a small quantity of deoxidisers for better quality and finishing of the weld. The carbon dioxide gas decomposes to carbon monoxide and oxygen at arc temperatures, producing an oxidizing effect approximately equal to that obtained by the Use of an inert gas with eight to ten percent oxygen which is taken care by special fillers wire enriched by deoxidisers. Information on selection of shielding gases for GMAW iscgivenjbelow:

31

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Type shielding Typical mixture percent Applications gases --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Argon (A) Helium (He) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Argon Helium ---------------------------20-50A-50-80He Non-ferrous metals Aluminium, Magnesium and Copper alloys Low carbon and low alloy steels Aluminum, Magnesium, Copper and Nickel} alloys Stainless steels.

of

Argon Oxygen Argon 0xygen

1-2 O2 3-5 O2

Low carbon and low alloy steel. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DEFECTS & DISTORTION IN WELDS, ITS PREVENTION : If our ancient monuments can stand firm for centuries with no trace of damage, why are modern welded constructions, built with the benefit of high technology, so fragile? The seeds of the untimely demise of a structure are shown even before it starts taking shape. Men, material, methods of working and management practices all are equally responsible for the poor state of affairs. ANY JOB WORTH DOING IS WORTH DOING WELL'. This saying is particularly applicable in welding. We14ing is the only commercial method of joining metals which is capable of giving full strength to the joint. The welding process such as manual, semi-automatic and automatic has achieved a very high level of development to obtain reliable welds. The process has to depend on welding consumables, joint design, base metal, welding procedures and operator's skill to achieve sound welded joint. It is not very difficult to achieve perfect weld joint provided care is taken. The aim shall be towards achieving the desired joint efficiency at given cost and adequate margin of safety under the conditions of service, for which the finished product is designed. N w 2

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T ( R I I I M ( G S T I U C S W A A 3 R I

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KAILASH AUTO BUILDERS

insignificant small volume of the heated weld zone. This condition presents the uniform expansion metal and may produce internal strains, distortion and warpage. The structural changes brought about in the metal by the welding heat area accompanied by volumetric changes therefore, give rise to lock up stresses. This happens in the following way. When reaching a definite point in heating or cooling, the structure of steel undergoes a transformation the different structures having different densities, for example, when low carbon steel temperature is raised to the point at which ferritic structure transforms into austenite, its volume is somewhat reduced, as austenite has a higher density than ferrite. When stee1s high in carbon are cooled rapidly, the austenite changes into martensite at 200o C to 250o C. The martensite is of lower density and has a greater volume than the austenite and ferrite. This change brings about internal stresses. The operator should have a working knowledge of the causes of stresses in metals during welding and of the ways and means of controlling them. Molten metal expands in volume when it cools it contracts. In welding, both the heated and

cold metal are parts of a whole. Therefore when contracting in cooling, the heated metal will cause

34

the adjacent cold metal also to contract. If this contraction is not restrained, no stresses will be set up in the weld, but the work may warp. Conversely if the cold parent metal restrains the contraction of the weld, no warping will take place, but contraction stresses will be set up in tile weld. Internal stresses remain locked up in welded joints, as contraction in them is usually restrained. Butt these stresses vary widely in magnitude from negligible to very large that are affected by * Temperature distribution in the weldment. * Thermal expansion characteristics of the metal s. * Mechanical properties of the metals at room and elevated temperature. These stresses may sometime exceed the strength of the metal and. will then give rise to cracks in the weld or in the parent metal). Locked up stresses are harmful, as they may impair the strength of the weldment. It sometimes happens that the internal stresses only require a slight addition from external loads to exceed the strength of the structure and thus produce failure. To reduce residual stresses and distortion for dimensional stability various thermal and mechanical treatments often are performed. They include preheat, postweld thermal treatment and peening. The extent of the changes in the basemetal that determines the subsequent thermal treatment depends on the temperature to which the metal is subjected, the period of exposure the composition of the metal, and the rate of cooling. Other factors include background of base metal, joint design, welding process and welding procedure. CALCULATION OF DISTORTION : A number of formulas have been developed for the prediction of longitudinal, transverse and angular distortion that will occur in an arc welded fabrication but these are not in general use, because in practice the degree of distortion is effected by the following variables that formulas can not take into account. 1) Restraint either from the nature of the fabrication or externally app1ied by jigs and fixtures. 2) Number of we1druns, their 1engths,size and speed of welding. 3) Sequence of welding i.e. multipass welds over full length of joint or block welding, directions of welding and order of making welds in different parts of the structures. 4) Plate or sheet thickness and flatness. 5) Edge preparation gaps and general fitups. 6) Residual stresses in plate from rolling, flame cutting or forming.

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It is usually impossible to calculate the distortion even though its general effect may be predicted. Distortion of arc-welded components is caused by two factors shrinkage of the cooling weld metal, local expansion and contraction of the plate. Contraction of mild steel weld metal on cooling to ambient temperature after solidification is 6% of the original volume and if allowed to contract freely without being attached to the parent plate a weld would occupy a smaller volume as shown in figure a-b for the butt and fillet welds respectively. Longitudina1 shrinkage shortens the weld. Transverse shrinkage decreases as shown in figure 2. As arc welds are generally shaped in cross section maximum transverse shrinkage occurs at the face of the weld and, progressively decreases towards the root and this geometry gives rise to angular distortion fig. 3, the amount varying with welding procedure. Distortion in fabricated structures is caused by three fundamental dimensional changes : (a) Transverse shrinkage (b) Longitudinal shrinkage and (c) Angular changes However, distortion that occurs in actual welded structures is far more complex than the dimensional changes shown in the following sketches as per figure 1,2,3. MINIMISE THE DISTORTION : To minimize the distortion, the fol1owing three important factors may be considered before and during welding. Reduce the cause of shrinkage forces. Make use of shrinkage forces, and Balance the shrinkage forces

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* REDUCE THE CAUSE OF SHRINKAGE FORCES : The root cause of the, shrinkage forces is the we1dmetal itself. The amount of shrinkage force increases with the amount of metal deposited. Therefore the best. prescription to eliminate the distortion is not to weld as far as possible. If the welding is unavoidable the following important point may be adopted to minimize the distortion. a. Reduce the number of joints. b. Improve the joint design to accommodate lesser amount of weld metal. . c. Avoid excessive root gap and mismatch of the joints.

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d. Avoid excessive weld metal being deposited or weld as per the drawings only, without increasing their cross section. e. Reduce the number of runs. f. Use larger diameter electrodes if possible. g. Use iron powder type electrode. h. Use semi-automatic or automatic welding processes~ MAKE USE OF SHRINKAGE FORCES as per figure - 4. Once it is accepted the distortion in some form or another is inevitable, it becomes necessary to consider the estimated distortion likely to occur during welding for assembling the job by giving a correct preset to the members to compensate for the distortion. The presetting is attractive because the parts have almost complete freedom to move during welding and there will be less residual stress. However, it is a difficult method, except on relatively simple fabrication. The amount of preset required varies somewhat according to plate thickness, plate width and the welding procedure. For this reason, it is advisable to establish the amount of preset by experiment, otherwise it is only, possible to make an intelligent guess at what the present should be. This type of presetting is very much in practice for batch production. BALANCE THE SHRINKAGE FORCES as per figure-5. Where the presetting is not practicable, the study of the job may be recommended so as to arrange the welds in a sequence that will keep distortion to a minimum. The direction of welding should be away from the point of restraint and towards the point of maximum freedom. For a butt welds an efficient sequence is the back step or step back method of welding. The weld is broken up into short increments 150 to 200mm long, and each increment is welded seperately. This technique eliminates almost all warpage, due to the fact that the increments are short and so the longitudinal stresses, which grow with the length of a continuous weld, never reach any appreciable magnitude. The back step method is effective against longitudinal warpage and should be applied to long seams, while taking care to remelt and fill up the craters where the increments meet. Similarly the techniques known as intermittent welding, chain intermittent welding and skip welding techniques, are very useful sequence of welding to minimize the distortion. When welding a cylindrical vessel consisting of several longitudinal and circumferential weld seams, the former should be welded first, followed by latter. If welded in reverse order, the longitudinal weld would be restrained as per figure-6. In welding jobs of a large surface area consisting of several plates, the transverse seams should be welded first, followed by the longitudinal seams, as per figure-7 & 8

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KAILASH AUTO BUILDERS

In welding an I or H beam, the first to be welded are the joints within each web plates and flanges of a beam. If an I or H beam has stiffeners, they should be welded in place before the webs and flanges are assembled. It is impossible to give exact sequences for all possible cases. In each particular case a welder should learn the instruction, for a given weldment, including the sequence of welds. In many cases, he may follow a sequence of his own provided he knows the way residual stresses work in his job. For heavy fabrications to reduce the efforts of handling the work for sequencing the weld, an alternate method for Double-V-Groove butt weld have been found very successful known as asymmetrical Double-V-Groove butt weld to minimize the distortion as per figure-9. The significance of an asymmetrical Double-V-Groove butt-weld design is to place the welds closer to the neutral axis, where the residual stresses developed by the weld metal are incapable to distort the work. As the subsequent weld runs, replaced away from the neutral axis they have the tendency to bend or distort but at the same time the root and the hot pass work has a counterforce to minimize the distortion. When light gauges are welded, it is advisable to place copper chill blocks under the joints. As copper has a high thermal conductivity it will absorb much heat from the weld, thus reducing the heating and warpage of the sheets. If a weldment warps despite the precautions taken, there are ways and means of controlling the distortion, using external forces such as strong tacks (free from defects), special clamps and fixtures.

TACK WELD : After a joint is properly lined up, short tack welds are used to connect parts before the final welding. The tack welds should be of sufficient numbers and of suitable proportion to hold the parts, in place during handling and welding. The length of the tack weld should be in the range of one and a half to twice the thickness of the material to be welded. The tack weld should be considered very important and need not be left to the semi-skilled or unskilled welders. Because, the starting and ending of the tack welds are so close it is difficult to obtain a sound tackwe1d as compared to long weld. For tack weld a welder must, be qualified, and any welding procedure that has been set for long welds, the same welding procedure should be adopted closely for tack welds. It has been commonly observed in, many of our industries that importance is not given for the tack welds, hence the unskilled welders are employed for making tackwe1ds without following the procedural norms, which is generally followed for long seam welds. For example; when the welding procedure calls for preheating, it is not followed

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for tack welds, thus resulting in defective tack welds and leading towards failure in the long seam weld. Any tack weld has to be examined thoroughly for its soundness by means of visual or liquid penetrates and incase the tack welds are found defective they should be removed and replaced by another sound tack weld. The starting and the end of the tack welds should be dressed carefully and care must be taken while welding, for its continuity. If the tack welds are, not made properly they start giving way at the time of long seam welding, causing dimensional defect. JIGS FIXTURES & CLAMPS as per figure-l0, 11,12. Jigs, Fixtures and Clamps that lock parts into a desired position and hold them until welding is finished are probably the most widely used external forces to minimize the distortion in sub-assemblies or components. If however, distortions are prevented in this way, there is a probability of internal locked up residual stresses, and this should be taken into consideration, While in certain cases internal stresses may not have a detrimental effect on the strength of a structure, they may weaken it considerably if stress raisers such as notches or abrupt discontinuities of shapes may cause stress ,concentrations, particularly in structures, which are likely to be subjected to fatigue loading conditions. Internal, stresses are also undesirable in structures requiring great working accuracy, such as machine tool, jigs and fixtures, high speed gear boxes, because they may cause distortion during manufacture particularly during machining operation or later, creeping in service during the working life of the structure in question. Not, only the structures which, fall under the above mentioned categories, but also pressure vessels and similar structures where failure would be dangerous to human life and containers of certain chemicals where stress corrosion cracking is likely to occur, should be subjected to a stress relieving heat treatment which will remove, the internal stresses to a reasonable degree. THERMAL STRESS RELIEVING : The experiments has shown that the influence of the heat treatment temperature upon the degree of stress relief is beyond 550o C the stress relieving temperature varies from metal to metal and thickness, for more accurate results it is better to gather the information from the codes and standard related to the heat treatment stress relieving. VIBRATION STRESS RELIEVING : Mechanical energy in the form of low and high frequency vibration has been used to relieve residual Stresses in weldments. However vibratory stress relief is a somewhat controversial subject and there is not enough supporting data on this topic. Moreover, opinion of this treatment varies greatly from shop to shop due to the size and the complexities of the job. It may not be possible or even

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necessary to eliminate all residual stresses by this method, but it may be possible to reduce the magnitude of peak stresses. If such reduction is accomplished, a vibratory stress relief system could provide a means of reducing distortion in parts machined after welding. PEENING : Peening has been in use of for several years as another source of reducing the residual stresses and distortion. The weld must be peened when its temperature is either higher than 450oC or lower than 150oC because in the intervening temperature range it tends to crack due to reduced ductility. The root and final runs of a multipass weld is usually leftunpeened to avoid cracking. Peening should be preferably be done with a pneumatic tool of moderate force. As an alternative around head hammer may be employed. However, the codes and standards are not very specific for quantifying the level of peening to be carried out. Generally most of the codes and standards wording indicate that the job must be peened thoroughly but it should not be overpeened. Care must be taken wile peening for metals which are having the work hardening, hot shortness, poor notch ductility or malleable properties.

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CORRECTION OF DISTORTION : Despite the most careful planning if distortion occurs there are ways and means of correcting the defect, using either mechanical or thermal method depending upon the metals response to the treatment. Mechanical methods involve presses, jackscrews, straighteneing rolls, sledges and special fixtures. Thermal methods involve the local heating of a warped spot. Any source of heat may be employed an oxy-acetylene torch, a carbon arc, powerful oil or gas burners etc., This technique is based on the fact that metal distorts when heated non-uniformly and contracts on cooling. Thermal methods apply to metals which do not change their properties when heated to corrective temperature. Heat should always be applied on the convex side of the warped work. Repeated application may be required if the plate is badly distorted, working gradually from the middle outwards. The heating zone should be in an area equal to or twice the size of plate thickness. Thermal or flame straightening has been used most successfully in the ship building industry to remove distortion. The area to be straightened is heated to between 600oC to 650oC and then quenched with a water spray, repeated application of heat in specific areas in a selected sequence or pattern are normally needed to straighten a distorted member or structure. The patterns acre usually

40

spot or linear heating techniques. Flame straightening method is relatively simple and has been widely used specially for structures made out of low carbon steels. INCORRECT JOINT PREPARATION : Efficiency in the manufacture of welded components depends to a great extent upon the procedure used for executing the welds, and upon .the correct preparation of the component, plates and other parts of the welded structures. All these points must, therefore, be carefully planned, supervised and inspected. The basic instructions on which planning department, shop supervision and. inspection department are working, have to be issued by .the design department. It is a fundamental error to issue only vague information on drawings from the design office to the workshop and then leave it to the operator's decision as to how to carry out the work. As the preparation of joints has an important bearing on the cost and the quality of welding, selection of the type of joint should be given careful consideration. INCORRECT WELD SIZE : The operator must always take the correct weld size specified by the designers on the drawing into consideration. The welder should remember that properly made welds would result in products that are of good quality and economical. Excessive weld size deposit results often in distortion and highly stressed joint and at the same time, actual required weld size need not be reduced further to cause the unacceptable effective throat thickness. INCORRECT WELD PROFILE as per f'igure-13, 14,15. Groove welds profile shall preferably be made with slight or minimum reinforcement except as may be otherwise provided. In the case of butt and corner joints, the reinforcement shall not exceed 3.2mm or 10mm of the plate thickness whichever is smaller in height and shall have a gradual transition to the plane of the base metal surface. Excessive reinforcement does not improve the strength of the weld, but increases electrode consumption. Due to sharp or abrupt changes in the plate thickness stresses may concentrate at this point, leading to the failure of the welded joint. On the other hand, a weld with the top layer finished be low the plane of the parent metal reduces the strength of the welded joint. In a severe fatigue loaded component it is desirable to have, the weld surface flushed to smooth surface finish by means of chipping or followed by grinding to have a better service life.. The face of fillet weld may be slightly convex, flat, or slightly concave. The convexity of a weld shall not exceed 0.07 times the actual face width of the weld respectively plus 1.5mm as recommended by the AWS structural welding code ANSI/AWS. D.1.1-1983. The excess convexities or concavities tend to produce notches, which lead to harmful, stress concentrations under load.

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KAILASH AUTO BUILDERS

MISMATCH OF THE JOINTS asper figure-16. Misalignment of the joint is detrimental to the performance of the component due to reduced effective throat thickness of the weld and increased stress concentration due to notch effect over the surface of the joint for fatigue as well as static load bearing members. Misalignment of the joints also results in poor penetration at the root. 2) STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES : GAS ABSORPTION - POROSITY as per figure-17, 18,19,20. The root cause of the porosity problem is that gases are more easily dissolved in the molten metal at high temperature. They may subsequently be trapped in the solid metal if cooling is rapid. The gas may either be retained in the microstructure or may form bubbles, which can become trapped as porosity in the fast freezing metal. The gases which most often cause trouble are, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, In addition to these gases therefore other sources of harmful gases for causing porosity in the weld moisture, hydrocarbons, lead, sulphur, selenium and corrosive products. The parent material itself may also contain absorbed gas, which will be released on melting. Typical faults include porosity, piping, wormhole gas pores and blowhole. Pores can take many shapes and sizes from pinholes to large voids, from spherical to elongated or pear-shaped with constrictions or expansion. Distribution of' porosity in welds may be aligned, clustered or uniformly scattered. Two common types of porosity are wormhole and blowholes. Wormholes are elongated voids with a definite worm type shape and texture. Blowholes may form on the surface of the weld. If gas cannot fully escape before the weld metal solidifies, Herringbone porosity forms when the gas shield in the automated GMAW process is interrupted its appearance is due to the formation of highly elongated pores reclined to the direction of welding as per figure-19, 20. Porosity in aluminium is primarily caused by the entrapment of hydrogen during the so1idification process, from sources such as filler-metal, base metal, surface contamination, and shielding as. Weld pool fluidity is the major controlling factor. For examp1e pores form most readily in aluminium when it is welded with filler metal such as A1-Mg that produces weld pool of, low fluidity. It is much less, of a problem in weld made within Al-filler metal that produces a highly fluid weld pool. Porosity due to hydrogen gas is associated with welding of Aluminium, Copper, Titanium, Magnesium and Niobium. Moisture and organic compounds form the main sources of hydrogen. The porosity nitrogen, particularly associated with the gas metal arc welding-of carbon steel, stainless steel

42

and nickel. Usually one finds that the gas shield has been contaminated either at the source of supply or owing to air entrapment at the shielding nozzle. It is important to shield d the welding point from cross draughts and to make sure that the gas flow rate is adequate and nonturbulent. Porosity, formation due to oxygen absorption is normally indirect with the reaction product Carbon monoxide (CO) formed between oxygen and carbon. To eliminate CO porosity the most commonly used deoxidants are Al, Si, Mn, Ti, and Zr. The convenienent guide to the most common sources of porosity in various materials is shown in the table below

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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------METAL Absorbed gas Causing porosity Mild steel & Low alloy steel Oxygen Ti, Si Ti Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Aluminium * Titanium * Magnesium * Niobium * Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen 2H + O =H2O P Ti B * * * * Chemical reaction in weld pool C + (0) = CO Prevention by using typical dioxides Ti, Al, Zr Si c Mn.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Stainless steelsNitrogen Nickel * Copper and Copper alloys

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------* Pure shielding gas quality is important.

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Control of porosity reduces with the correct selection of the parent filler metal and welding process combination with parameter, clean and dry working environment. With regard to flux shielded welding operation extra precaution is taken for drying or baking of the coated electrodes or SAW fluxes to remove excessive moisture. The influence of porosity is evaluated according to its location, either surface or internal. Surface porosity has a detrimental effect on fatigue strength and 1eakage of liquid or gas in storage

vessels. Severe or honey comb porosity, wormholes, b1owholes and various other nature of gaseous defects which are unacceptable to the required standard, should be removed by gouging grinding or any other means and re-we1ded. The significance of weld discontinuities is evaluated on the basis of their effect on the service life and integrity of a welded structure. SLAG INCLUSIONS as per figure-21, 22, 23, 24. Slag inclusions are non-metallic oxides formed by the slag reactions that are wrapped in the weld. They frequently are non-planar in shape and can change in size from veer small bands to large and long band to the axis of weld. This type of discontinuity can occur randomly as isolated foreign particles or as continuous or intermittent lines of intrusions parallel to the axis of the weld. Multiple pass welds are more prone to slag inclusions than single pass welded joint if interpass weld cleaning is not done thoroughly. The reason for the slag to float over the surface of the weld mainly is the grain growth phenomenon. Grains first appear at the line of fusion where the temperature is relatively low. Grains grow at different rates because the conditions of their growth differ. The growing grains may push nonmetallic inclusions out to the surface .of the weld. This is the reason why, in overhead welding, Magnesium slag appears on the weld surface rather than floats upto weld root. Uneven grain growth in the weld causes s1ag entrapment. The slag inclusion depends upon the structure of the weld metal and the proper solidification of the metal pool and to some extent depends on bead factor, the aspect ratio of the weld, which is the ratio of the weld width to the depth of penetration. If the aspect ratio (bead factor) is less than one the pockets of molten metal last to form will be found in the center of the cross section of the weld, and accumulation of slag gas and other inclusions are possible there. With normal bead factor (greater than one), the molten metal pockets last to form will be in the middle of the weld surface, and all impurities will be removed from the weld metal. The chances of slag inclusions are found greater in the weld if they are of a quick freezing characteristic and subjected to nonuniform cooling rate. This can happen due to the poor edge preparation, insufficient welding current, and incorrect size of the electrode, long arc length, incorrect manipulation of the electrode, excessive convex weld bead formation poor in. TUNGSTEN INCLUSION :

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Tungsten inclusions are particles found in the weld metal from the nonconsumable tungsten electrode used in GTAW. The inclusions are the result of exceeding the maximum welding current for a given electrode size or type allowing the tungsten electrode tip to touch the molten weld puddle allowing the filler wire to come in contact with the hot tip of the tungsten electrode using an excessive electrode extension using non-alloyed tungsten electrode, use of inadequate gas shielding or excessive wind drafts, wrong selection of shielding gases, such as CO2 + CO2, A + O2 or impure inert shielding gases absence of high frequency unit absence of proper control for pre and post flow of shielding gases. Tungsten inclusion, which is not acceptable for high quality work, can only be found by N.D.T. methods gouging the defective weld portion and rewelding with care can rectify this. INCOMPLETE FUSION & PENETRATION : For a weld to be sound, it is essential that absolute fusion and depth of penetration be obtained between the parent metal and weld metal. Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration may be avoided by using proper electrodes and welding current, proper electrodes manipulation technique by suitable edge preparation, with clean fusion faces from dirt, rust and scale, by using backing or backup supports where it is practical and by keeping sufficient root gap for welding. In heavy welds welding from sing1e side only making it essential to weld from both sides or to backweld the joints on the underside may not attain complete pemetration. Too narrow welding grooves should be avoided and the electrode should be sufficiently small to ensure good penetration in the root. The deposited weld metal should fuse into the parts to be joined and not overlap on the fusion faces. Poor fusion, which is among the most dangerous defects, is lack of thorough and complete union between the deposited and the parent metal or between individual layers in multiple layer welding. Lack of fusion impairs the strength of welds and makes the welded structures unreliable. For the best performance of the welded joints for critical applications, it is necessary to have controlled fusion. Excessive fusion causes more dilution in the weld metal from the parent metal resulting in the changed weld metal chemistry and mechanical properties. If the steels are of a greater carbon equivalent (CE 0.451.) type or of dissimilar metals, more precautions are required towards the depth of fusion area. Therefore it is necessary to qualify the welding procedures to obtain the reliable welded joints. Similarly excessive root penetration should be discouraged to avoid stress concentration on the root side specially for the fatigue loaded components and at the same time excessive penetration reduces the internal cross sectional area of the tubes and pipes which offers greater resistance to the flow of the fluid. The limit of penetration in the butt joint generally upto 1.5 to 2 mm on the root side is acceptable, but this limit varies from job to job depending upon the industries and the codes and standard that they follow. UNDERCUT as per figure-25, 26

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Undercuttinig is the melting or burning away of the base metal at the toe of the weld. They reduce the crosss section of the plate or pipe material and may lead to failure. In general it can be attributed to faulty welding technique. The operator should be trained thoroughly to set the welding variables carefully such as welding current, welding voltage, arc length and speed of travel and proper technique. CRACKS : Crack is a linear rupture type discontinuity in the weld or in the vicinity of the weld under stress characterized by a. sharp tip and high ratio of length and width to opening displacement. Cracks are the most serious type of weld discontinuity because they can greatly reduce the strength of welded structure. Types of cracking include restrained cracking, crater cracking, hydrogen induced cold cracking, hot cracking, stress corrosion cracking, micro fissures and lamellar tearing. (i) RESTRAINT CRACKS as per figure-27, 28. Cracks occurring in weldments made of steels of lower carbon content were attributed chiefly to design restraint and unbalanced thermal stresses in thicker and more massive plates or parts being welded which are having more rigid design. Consequently with higher hold down or fixturing loads, the probability of cracking is greater. The root pass in massive weldments is particularly susceptible to cracking, because relatively small cross section of weld metal is not strong enough to force the movement of the large mass of base metal. The susceptibility of restraint cracking is greater in steels having higher percentage of carbon or carbon equivalent. To eliminate the restraint cracks in cylindrical vessels consisting of several plates or tiers, the longitudinal seam should be welded first, followed by circumferential seams. If welded in reverse order the longitudinal welds would be restrained. Similarly in the welding jobs of a large surface area consisting of several plates (such as vessel bottoms, platforms, decks, etc.) the transverse seam should be welded first, followed by the longitudinal seams. In unavoidable circumstances when a restraint joint has to be welded, proper pre-heating and ductile weld deposit in the root is beneficial. In a very high tensile steel fillet welds of a heavy section it is recommended to use low hydrogen low tensile steel weld deposit with higher elongation percentage in root pass followed by low hydrogen high tensi1e steel electrode for subsequent passes to reduce the cracking tendency in the root pass. (ii) CRATER - CRACKS as per figure-29. Crater in nonpressure fusion welding is a depression at the termination of a weld bead or in the molten weld pool . If the crater is too concave, it is more susceptible to crater cracking. The crater cracking can be avoided if it is filled skillfully by melting to a profile of flat or convex by moving the electrode backward and the electrode should d be kept stationary for a moment. Crater

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KAILASH AUTO BUILDERS

cracks are usually of a star type or even longitudinal type that are very harmful and can propagate in the weld longitudinally or in any other direction unpredictably. It is caused by a volume contraction of molten metal during solidification. The factors increasing cracking tendency are increased wall thickness, increased restraint, high strength base metal or filler metal, increased hardness of the weld deposit due to the high dilution factor and poor ductility of the weld deposit. (iii) HYDROGEN INDUCED CRACKS as per figure-30. This form of cracking, which occurs in the heat, affected zone (HAZ) at temperatures less than 200oC is a major source of trouble in carbon and low alloy steels. Cracks may form within a minute or may be delayed over several days after welding. This could, of course, be a considerable embarrassment to a fabrication schedule, particularly as the cracks themselves are difficult to detect nondestructively. The susceptibility of HAZ microstructure to cracking arises through the formation of brittle phases. Martensite is extremely brittle, whereas microstructure consisting of ferrite and pearlite are more resistant to cracking. Martensite is formed by high cooling rate coupled with high carbon or carbon equivalent. Carbon equivalent formulae are widely used as empirical guides relation composition and cracking tendency, for example Dearden and O'Neill gives as under: Cequiv% = %C + %Mn / 6 + (%Cu+% Ni) / 15+ (%Cr + %V + %Mo) / 5 This formula greatly oversimplifies the true behaviour of martensitic formation in HAZ due to the faster rate of cooling. The most crack susceptible microstructures are usually formed with the coarse grained region of the HAZ although sometimes the degree of embrittlement may be greater in the fine grain region. The most crack sensitive microstructure is high carbon martenisite. Structures that have hardness below 300 VPN have low susceptibility to cracking above 350 VPN the risk is significant. However it has become clear that hardness can exceed this level without cracking if hydrogen level or residual stresses are low. Again for other steel there is no reason why a particular hardness value should be a safe guide, as a link between hardness and cracking is very thin. Even when the formul is based on laboratory cracking tests, factors other than the composition may not be controlled to a standard pattern (such as hydraogen content, fit-up, restraint, cooling rate, parent material grain size etc.,) It is not suprising therefore, that the different formulae attribute different influences to the various elements. Atable is shown for precautions to weld low alloy steels.

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Carbon equivalent %. Less than 0.40

Recommended welding procedure for combined thickness of 50 mm. No precautions, cellulosic, or rutile electrode may be used

0.40 - 0.48

Use ordinary electrodes and low preheat (100 to 200oC) or low hydrogen electrodes.

0.48 0.55

Use of ordinary electrode and preheat, 200-350oC or low hydrogen electrode and preheat 125 150oC austenitic electrode with high ferrite, or use GMAW.

Above 0.55

Use low hydrogen electrode with 200 350oC preheat or austenitic electrode with high ferrite or GMAW.

A1ternately to arrive at the conclusion of preheating temperature a formula worked out by a french scientist by name Saiferian can be used: Preheating temp. oC = 350 ([C] n (C)c 0+-(C)t 1/2 ] 0.25) [C]o = n[C]o + (C)t Total carbon equivalent

(C)o=%C+(%.Mn+Cr%.)/9 + %Ni / 18 + % (7.Mo)/ 90 (C)t = (C)o x 0.005 t t = thickness in mm. It is found to be useful to prevent the cracking tendency in the HAZ. Similarly a simpler formula has been provided by ASM metals handbook for preheating the hardenab1e carbon steels containing carbon percentage less than 0.6 to retard the rate of cooling and avoid the formation of hard and brittle martensite structure.

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Preheating temp oF = 1000 (%C -0.11) + 18t C = Carbon content. t = thickness in inches. * Conversion from C to oF or vice-versa. C = 5/9 (oF - 32) Preheating temperature requirement is closely linked with the heat input applied to the work by the process of fusion welding and its hydrogen yielding capacity. Due to increased heat input level obviously the rate of cooling is retarded, and the chances of harden ability in HAZ is reduced considerably. Thereby the preheating temperature can be brought down comparatively to a lower leve1 or even to the level of room temperature. Where the room temperature is near to zero or sub zero temperature, it is essentia1 to preheat the plate or pipe material around 10 oC and above. In shielded metal arc welding process where the electrodes used are of a cellulose type and rutile type the requirement of preheating temperature is greater in comparison to low hydrogen electrode (H 10m1 / 100g of weld deposit) and if the electrode is of an extra low hydrogen yielding type (H 5ml / l00g of weld deposit) or the welding process like GMAW the preheating temperature requirement is much less. Moisture and organic compounds form the main sources of diffusible hydrogen and in steel welds, porosity is less trouble some than cracking, which occurs because excess hydrogen diffuses to the HAZ where the microstructure tends to be brittle. Therefore, it is the best practice to dry or bake the electrode as recommended and also ensure the cleanliness from the hydrocarbons.

Laboratory tests for hydrogen induced tracking were developed for a number of regions for example to determine the variables that govern the cracking phenomenon to compare the susceptibility of different steels, or to develop welding procedure for preventing cracks. Among the many laboratory-cracking tests, which have been devised, the C.T.S. (Controlled Thermal Severity) test and the Lehigh restrained slit groove test have achieved wide acceptance. Based on the result obtained from the tests for individual type of steel materials a suitable welding procedure should be adopted to prevent the occurrence of underbead or delayed cracking due to the hydrogen embrittlement. (iv) HOT CRACKS :

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In steels, impurity films forming at the grain boundaries are the main culprits. Sulphur, Phosphorous, Boron, Copper and Arsenic are the most troublesome elements. Sulphur for example, promotes the formation of low freezing point sulphide films. (It is worth noting that sulphur, an important constituent of free cutting. steel ranging. from 0.1 to 0.15% is widely used for machine parts). The impurity level in the weld pool will depend on the initial impurity content of. the steel and the dilution ratio but as previously noted impurities are liable to concentrate in the centre of the weld due to the grain growth phenomenon, promoting solidification cracking. Such solidification cracking is noticed in the root weld by SAW process where the bead factor plays a significant role. If the bead factor, which is the ratio of the we1d width to the depth of penetration, is less than one, chances of centre line cracking or solidification cracking is much more even with moderate stresses. The solubility of sulphur in ferrite is relatively higher than austenite. Sulphur will be rejected to the grain boundaries when the carbon percentage is greater than zero point one(C% 0.1), promoting intergranular weakness in the primary austenite grains. Manganese tends to inhibit the effect of sulphur, but the higher the carbon content the higher the manganese: sulphur ratio required to avoid cracking. Manganese addition to the filler wire can be used to bind the sulphur in the form of manganese sulphide. Hot cracking can be eliminated fully when the manganese to sulphur ratio is greater than twenty two (22%), for carbon content between 0.11 to 0.13% a ratio of over thirty is required to avoid hot cracking. When the carbon content exceeds 0.13% the effect of manganese to sulphur ratio is nullified. Such cracks are not only observed in the weld but also appear in adjacent boundaries of the weld or HAZ termed as reheat or liquation cracks induced by well ding stresses and the presence of liquation Melting point constituents that form as a result of segregation during the liquid to solid phase transformation process. Many alloys, including cupronickels, austenitic chromium Nickel steels, some nickel based alloys and aluminium bronzes exhibit temperature range over which ductility and tensile strength drop sharply. These alloys are susceptible to HAZ and weld hot cracking when welded under excessive restraint. This type of hot cracking phenomenon is also referred to as ductility dip cracking. The risk of hot cracking can be minimised by (a) Maintaining a low carbon content in the weld deposit. (b) Keeping the sulphur and phosphorous content as low as possible. (c) Ensuring that the manganese content is high enough. (d) Controlling the weldbead factor. (e) Reducing the heat input and stress.

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(v) STRESS CORROSION CRACKS as per figure-31. When austenitic chromium nickel steels are stressed in a corrosive environment containing chloride, stress corrosion cracking may occur such cracking is typically transgranular and branched. Penetration may occur in a few seconds when a sheet metal is exposed to hot concentrated chlorides, but at a lower temperature and lower chloride concentrations penetration may take many hours. Increased nickel content slightly improves the resistance of a steel to this type of attack which at the opposite extreme ferrite or substantially ferritic chromium steels are not susceptible to stress corrosion. When austenitic stainless steels are allowed to cool very slowly through the sensitizing temperature range of 400C to 800C, chromium carbide precipitation takes place along the grain boundaries. These grain boundary area will therefore, be depleted of chromium and subjected to corrosive attack (weld decay). Corrosive is always intergranular and can be so severe that the grains separate as per figure32. A number of methods can be used to reduce problem of weld decay or intergranular corrosion cracks in HAZ: (a) Restrict tbe carbon content to 0.03%. (b) Stabilise the carbon by the addition of Niobium (columbium) or Titanium which, form carbides more easily than chromium. (c) Avoid excessive heat input while welding. (d) Allow the faster rate of cooling during welding. The austenitic chromium nickel stainless steel, which contains ferrite above 10%, transforms into brittle sigma phase if the material is held at a temperature between the ranges of 600oC to 850oc for a period of time. This sigma phase formation develops fine cracks and becomes difficult to repair. However in the absence of ferrite in austenitic stainless steels it is more susceptible to microfissure cracking, which can be prevented only by controlling the ferirte level.

(vi) LAMELLAR TEARING as per figure-33. Lamellar tearing is a form of cracking that occurs in the base metal of a weldment due to the combination of high localised stress and low ductility of the plate in the through thickness direction due to the inclusion of silicate and sulphide. It is associated with restrained corner or tee joints particularly in thick plates, where the fusion boundary of the weld is more or less parallel to the plate surface. The cracks appear close to or a few millimeters away from the weld boundary, and usually consist of planar areas parallel to the surface. It is possible that. Submicroscopic inclusions play a part in generating this

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type of crack.

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Lamellar tearing may, in principle, be avoided by ensuring that the design does not impose through thickness contraction strains on steels with poor through thickness ductility. Some possible, design modification is necessary. Such changes will usually add to the cost and it is justified by experience. It is therefore necessary to grind or machine away the volume of metal where tearing is anticipated and it is to be built up with ductile e weld metal called as as buttering technique. In severe cases after buttering it is to be stress relieved and then welded as per figure-34. STRAY FLASH : Accidental arc strike at random over the surface area of the hardenable plate material cant cause severe damage due to the formation of hard and brittle spot turned into martensite. These hard spots can result in stress concentration that may initiate cracks and possible fai1ure by fatigue. Such stray flashes have also been found at the origin of brittle fracture at subzero temperatures. Normally the welders ignore this type of defect, as many of them are not aware of its seriousness. Even after failure during service from stray flashes most of our engineers conclude that the failure has taken place due to the defective parent material since it is away from the welded joints but really it is not. This type of defect must be taken care by the welder by not striking the arc here and there over the plate surfaces beyond .the welding surface area (fusion face boundary) or in other words welder must strike an arc within the joint area to be welded. If such arc striking is done somewhere accidentally, must be ground smoothly to remove the hard spots fully. SURFACE IRREGULARITIES : Surface finish is of course very important to improve the corrosion resistance and fatigue life properties of a welded component. The surface irregularities are mainly attributed to faulty welding practices such as improper joining of weld beads1eaving crater unfilled, coarse irregular ripples over the surface of the weld, undercuts, excessive convexity and concavity of the weld surface, under filling mismatching and overlapped surfaces. To overcome such surface irregularities it is essential to improve the skill of the operator, if necessary even at extra cost of grinding the well d surface areas, which must be carried out carefully to dress the weld to the required finish. If the surface finish is not achievable by grinding it is necessary to repair and reweld properly for final ground finishing. ARC BLOW as per figure-35. The electric current flowing through the electrode, work piece and ground cable sets up a circular magnetic field around the current path. When the magnetic field around the work piece or around the electrode is unbalanced, the arc deviates away from its intended path and is known as arc blow. It

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causes poor weld quality and poor weld finish with heavy spatters, and makes it difficult for the welder to continue the weld with wavering arc. It occurs only in D.C.arc because the induced magnetic field is constant in one direction. Magnetic field is created with A.C. only to a minor degree, because the induced magnetic field that builds up collapses a. soon as the current reverses. Deflection of the arc in D.C. may occur to one side when the concentration of magnetic field is greater on one side of the arc than on the other, but usually deflection is in the direction electrode travels or opposite to it. This intensity of the arc blow is such more in the beginning and end of the welding, on corners, and complex structures composed of a number of components welding on massive structures with high current, or where fit-up is poor, encourages the arc blow. Certain corrective measures may be taken to eliminate arc blow or reduce its severity such as keeping the short arc length, changing the ground connection position on the substrate, keeping good joint fit up, stopping arc at the time arc blow occurs and changing the direction of welding, using back step welding technique. Tack welding must be of a long and heavy type and weld towards the long tack weld. Magnetic field intensity is directly proportional to the square of the welding current and increased welding current will increase the arc blow intensity proportionately, hence the aim should not be to use very high current level to reduce the intensity of arc blow, inspite of all the precautions taken by the welders the arc blow persists, the alternate method is to switch over from D.C. to A.C. arc.

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Eccentric coated electrode burns with tapered arc (finger nailing) should not be construed magnetic arc blow it is a resultant of non-concentric flux coating over the core wire of an electrode. Such electrodes continue to burn with fingernailing irrespective of any arc either D.C. or A.C. In such cases the electrode should be changed to a concentric flux coated. 3) DEFECTIVE PROPERTIES : Apart from above-mentioned defects, chemical and metallurgical properties must be, assessed to achieve the optimum service life from the welded structure before welding. Chemical properties of the Weldmetal is very important ,to be considered for the components which are subjected to corrosive environment and similarly the importance of mechanical properties as per design requirement must be given. To obtain the reliable weld the welding process, welding consumables, joint design, basemetal welding procedure and the skill of the operator are important variables. Generally essential practices have to be proved adequately either by procedure qualification or by enough prior use and service experience to guarantee dependability. The significance of a we1d defect should be viewed in the context of the fitness for purpose the welded construction. Fitness for purpose is a concept of weld evaluation that seeks a balance among quality, reliability and economy of welding procedure. Fitness for purpose is, not a constant. It varies depending on the service requirement of a particular welded structure, as well as on the properties of the material involved. There are several engineering materials of a ferrous and nonferrous type having their different background of manufacturing which are very sensitive to repairs and rewelding. They lose their properties due to excessive heat input and residual stresses developed during excessive weld repair. The welding personnels should visualize the type of failures that might occur during and after welding due to faulty welding practices. Therefore one has to understand the weld ability of material and draw the suitable welding procedure to achieve the reliable quality of weld to meet the demand, however the quality of weld does not rest with the welding procedure alone but it is essential to update the knowledge and skill of the welder to perform on the job in accordance with the drawn welding procedure. Alongwith these important points, the effective welding inspection can certainly prevent the occurrence of weld failures. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN FUSION WELDING PROCESSES : Despite the technological, advances in, the fusion welding processes and safety aspect, the operating personnel has to face many occupational hazards. The general rules have been framed for safety, for personnel and the welding equipment by national safety council of every country. Guidance is also given often to the operator with regards to safety aspects to minimise the hazardous effects. However the operator or other people around sometime knowingly or unknowingly forget to follow the

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safety rules and hence face partial or fatal injuries. In this way valuable man-hours are lost due to injury. Therefore it is the duty of every operating personnel to understand the various welding processes and its possible health hazards so he can certainly safeguard himself as well as equipment. Welders are not a homogenous group. They work under variety of conditions: out doors, indoors, open as well as confined spaces, above the ground on construction site and under water, handle a number of welding and cutting processes. These welders use wide variety of metals for welding, producing fumes, gass radiation and other potentially harmful agents. Most commonly used processes in INDIA are: 1) Shielded manual metal arc . 2) MIG welding process FCAW/GMAW 2) GTAW (TIG welding process) 4) Submerged arc welding process 5) Plasma arc welding /cutting process 6) Carbon arc cutting process. The hazards, which accompany these welding proceszs, are 1. Electric Shock 2. Electromagnetic radiation damage to eyes, skin 3. Burns due to hot flying pieces of slag 4. Fire and explosion such as ignition of flammable materials 5. Fumes & gases 6. Noise pollution ELECTRIC SHOCK : Most of the welders who are doing arc welding have to deal with electric current, which may conduct through his body. Current up to 0.01 ampere is not dangerous to human life. Though they can cause painful sensations. Current upward 0.1 ampere is lethal. The current passing through a human body to make it lethal depends on the voltage difference between the points of contact and total resistance of the circuit including the body. The resistance of the body is not constant and depends on a variety of factors. The skin offers the highest resistance to the passage of current. Wet skin conducts current better than dry skin. Generally the secondary voltage of welding equipment is not a very dangerous and normally would not cause injury or severe shock. The secondary voltage inspite of being low, prove dangerous to life if

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handled carelessly. The danger is particularly marked in very hot weather when the welder sweats excessively or he is wet during rainy season. Therefore the welder should make himself dry and insulate himself from both the workpiece and electrode holder. He should always from safety shoes and gloves. They should never permit the metal part of the electrode or any part of the electrode holder to touch either his bare skin or any wet coverings on his body. However these equipments at the primary side the voltage generally around 400 - 440, which is dangerous. Therefore if there is any leakage of electricity in the equipment, the electric shock proves fatal. So it is the welding equipment, by any electric standard has to be grounded properly. Special care must be exercised when welding steel structure, inside of the boilers, inside of the tanks and pipes have ample contact with the ground, because due to low contact resistance, even the secondary open circuit voltage (OCV) of the welding power source may become dangerous to the operator. For this reason the operator when welding bulky steel structure, heavy boiler, shells, pipes close to the ground or on foundations should avoid touching simultaneously the structure and non insulated parts of the welding circuit, therefore it is essential that the operator should be fully insulated with safety shoes, handgloves aprons etc. For dry locations a safe voltage is less than 36 and for damo locations less than 12. Most of the welding power sources the open circuit voltage during is around 60 and less than 100 volts and the arc voltage during welding is around 10V - 35Volts and in special electrodes. With regards to safety of the welding equipments the starter for the generator should have overloads and low voltage protection and similar protection should be offered for welding rectifier and transformer with suitable capacity fuses. All the power sources should be suitably enclosed and protected. The secondary terminals of the welding machines have to be securely tightened in the secondary terminals if they are left loose, heavy arcing takes place damaging the terminal board, terminals, as well as cable lugends. Electrodes, like AWS E6010, E6012, E6013 covering when used on carbon or low alloy steel in a large or open area, no harmful results have been reported, chest X-ray examinations of men exposed for years under such conditions have not indicated any physical impairment. A fume from these types of electrodes consists chiefly of iron oxide and varying amounts of flux materials. The threshold limit for iron oxide is 10 milligrams per cubic meter of air, a concentration high enough to reduce visibility markedly. Concentration is of this nature is seldom produced in the general shop nature, when

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welding is done inside tanks or other confined areas where fumes cannot be removed readily or diluted by convection currents, the hazard increases. Oxide and nitrogen, always produced by arc welding may accumulate to a point where they can cause damage to the lungs. In such cases external air supply furnised by the use of mask or special helmet may be required. In addition a second person should be stationed at the tank manhole to provide assistance to the welder if necessary. LOW HYDROGEN ELECTRODES : The flux covering of low hydrogen electrodes contains fluoride compound in the order of possibly 5 to 10%. The fumes produced also contain fluoride salts, usually in amount somewhat higher than the coverings. Under some conditions the fumes may also contain hydrogen fluoride but usually in extremely small amounts. The threshold limit fluoride as a salt is 2.5mg/m3, for hydrogen fluoride 2.0mg/m3. The amount of fluoride inhaled by the welder will depend upon the amount in the fumes, position of the work, or that he works with his head in the path of the fumes. As far as possible the welder should not keep his head in the path of the fumes. STAINLESS STEEL AND HIGH ALLOY ELECTRODES : The electrodes covering used for welding stainless steel, nickel, aluminium and other alloy usually contains fluorides. The same general comments that apply for low hydrogen electrodes will apply to these electrodes. Fumes from stainless steel electrodes may contain upto 6% chromates, apparently produced by oxidation of the chromium concentration in the breathing zone of the welder can exceed the threshold limit value of 0.lmg/m3, unless and adequate ventilation is provided. Precautions generally the welder has to make that his face and head should be away from the path of fumes. ARC WELDING OF COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS : Most copper alloys contains at least small amount of volatile toxic alloying elements. Zinc fumes will produce an illness known as "ZINC CHILLS, but effect is not cumulative. Small amount of arsenic, antimony, lead or tellurium also may be hazardous. Welding of beryllium compounds are health hazard if inhaled. Operation such as welding or grinding which create a fine inhalable dust or fume, should not be permitted to raise the beryllium concentration in the air above 0.002mg/m 3 threshold. A good safe system of providing the required ventilation may be needed to avoid unsafe occupational exposures . ELECTRO MAGNETIC RADITATION AND BURNS : An electric arc is a source of visible light and invisible INFRARED and ULTRAVIOLET rays its intensity is 10,000 times that of light unsafe to man's eyes. For this reason the arc should not be

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looked at with unprotected eye. Failure to observe this rule may result in various degrees of eye burn or arc flashed eye. Symptom of this malady is a pronounced irritation under the eyelids, a feeling as if there is "SAND PARTICALS" in the eye with the overflow of tears and redness of eye, the symptom remains 1-2 days. The uncomfortable feeling of the eyes persists more during the night. An eye ointment prescribed by the doctor for "ARC EYE" can reduce the uncomfortable feeling to early road to recovery. The arc eye does not impair the eyesight. Arc rays cause pain and burning not only to the eyes but also to the skin of the operator. The naked eye and the skin therefore should not be exposed to the rays within at least 12-15 meters of the arc where the effect and intensity of the arc rays is substantially reduced and grows practically imperceptible at a greater distance. The skin of the operator's body is sufficiently protected by his work clothing. The work clothing is preferable to thick cotton material. Any synthetic clothing material for the welder is bad while welding as excessive sweating gives rise to eczema of the skin or skin irritation Therefore terricot or terrylin dress for welders is prohibited in their own interest Welders are provided safety shoes spats, apron, chrome lather and hand gloves or asbestos hand gloves in case he has to handle the job during preheating and postheating the operation. Hand sleeves, leg guard, to protect him from burns to protect his face and eyes it is essential that a hand held face shield or head shield be used with dark green filter glasses as pacified for a particular arc welding or gas welding radiation as per table 1 furnished here.

GUIDE FOR SHADE NUMBERS OF FILTER GLASSES OPERATION : SUGGESTED SHADE NUMBER 0F FILTER GLASSES : Table 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------OPERATION BER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Shielded metal 60 - 160 10 ARC CURRE NT SUGGESTE SHADE NUM-

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Arc Welding 160 - 250 250 - 500 Gas Metal arc Welding and flux cored arc welding 60 - 160 160 - 250 250 - 500 Gas tungsten arc Welding 50 150 150 500 Air carbon - Light Air carbon Heavy Plasma arc welding Less than 500 500 1000 Less than 20 20 100 100 400 400 800 Plasma arc Cutting - Light - Medium - Heavy Torch Brazing Torch soldering Carbon arc welding Gas welding - Light - Medium - Heavy Oxygen cutting - Light - Medium - Heavy Less than 300 300 400 400 800 3-4 2 14 4 or 5 5 or 6 6 or 8 3 or 4 4 or 5 5 or 6 12 14 11 12 14 12 14 12 14 68 10 12 14 9 12 14

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As a thumb rule, start with a shade that is too dark to seethe weld zone without giving below the minimum. The Oxy fuel welding or cutting produces a high yellow light hence it is desirable to use a filter lens that absorbs the yellow or sodium line in the visible light of the spectrum. These values apply where the actual arc is clearly seen. On the basis of the experience, it is possible to use lighter filters when the arc is hidden by the workpiece. To protect other workmen and also him from buck burns, there must be fire proof partitions, curtains and colour of the paint should be dull with zinc white, yellow paint or titanium white because they absorb ultraviolet rays and reduce reflection. Place a signboard where there are explosive materials stored stores of flammable materials, volatile liquids and gases. Sometime adjacent area, welding and cutting is in operation fire can start anywhere. All it needs is a combustible material (Paper, wood, oil, and alike materials) an oxidising agent, most often-atmospheric oxygen and temperature to ignite the combustible material. A stray spark from a welding torch can be a small beginning of shop fires, which perhaps may flare up throughout the plant uncontrolled. Little wonder that the shop managers, foreman and workers emphasize for fire protection. It is not enough to buy the fire extinguishers but hang them in convenient spots. Workers must be trained in safety practices, keep shops free of inflammable materials whenever it is possible and watch for fires and put it off before it spreads. Handle the gas cylinders with care. Firms that do a lot of welding and cutting contend with built-in fire hazards, provide fire extinguishers then the employees to use the right type of fire extinguishers. Indeed large shops need fire brigade complete with formal training to combat various types of fires. Display the warning signals with posters. putting safety first . FUMES AND GASES : Major problem in evaluating many of the human toxicity studies due to the lack of information with respect to the welders health habits and welding environment, one cannot pinpoint the problem due to exclusively welding environment when welders health problem aggravate accompanied with smoking, drinking, use of drug, poor diet, previous occupational exposure, physical conditions, among other extraneous factors upon the health of the welding community; the effect of the welding exposure cannot be isolated and studied without considering these variables.

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There is no doubt that the welders are exposed potentially to the particulates, gases, radiation and noise created as byproducts of most of the welding processes currently in use the extent to which welders may be exposed depends upon several factors such as concentration of fumes and the duration of exposure to these fumes. The location of welding personnel protection and engineering control employed. The effect of fumes on the health of welders will also depend upon the composition of the fumes and its particle size distribution. Some constituents of the fumes may pose more potential hazards than others, depending upon their inherent toxicity, source of these constituents of special concern include silica fluoride, lead, zinc, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, manganese, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone etc. These above elements are produced either from the filler and base metal or flux-covering constituents. The total fume generation depends largely on the process of welding used and parameters in practice.

In comparison to SMAW process, GMAW and GTAW processes produce lesser fumes due to the obvious reasons that there are no flux ingredients in use. However these slagless welding processes tend to generate more level of 03 (ozone) in the air due to the intense radiation of ultraviolet rays produced specially while welding aluminium and stainless steel materials. See the graph for rate of fume generation in arc welding processes. Ozone is produced by the action of ultraviolet light on the oxygen of the air. The amount formed, varies with the metal and gas used, and the current with humidity. Results of a large number of samples collected under the helmet and around are have shown that the average concentration to which the welder is exposed generally with safe limits. It has been shown that the generation of ozone increases at an accelerating rate with increased argon flow. The flow of argon should be controlled to a minimum, consistent for a good welding. The arc to produce carbonmonoxide decomposes carbon dioxide used as a welding gas. The total amount of corbonmonoxide so produced is quite small at the arc area and it converts immediately to carbon dioxide with the combination of oxygen from the air. There is no health hazard except in confined places during CO2 welding operation only when the welder works with his head directly in the path of the fumes ,it will affect his upper respiratory parts. Ventilation is usually required under these conditions.

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NOISE : Excessive noise can damage hearing and cause headache, uneasiness, loss of concentration, anger, loss of sleep. Noise exposure beyond 120 decibel can cause either temporary or permanent hearing loss. In welding, cutting and allied operations, noise results from the process and from the equipment. Processes that may have high noise levels are air carbon arc cutting and gouging and plasma arc cutting. Equipments, which sometime have a high noise level, are engine driven generators. When noise control method fails to bring down the noise exposure level within allowable limits, personnel protective devises such as earmuffs or earplugs need be employed. The maximum permissible noise limits as per international standard is 55 decibel only. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION: With increasing activities of inspection in welding shop, radiographic inspection is essential. One of the important tools to ensure defect free joints. The area where radiographic inspection is conducted, should be fenced off by portable screens in addition, radio hazard warning signs should be installed along the boundaries of such areas so that one can see them fairly well from distances not less than 3m. To select proper distances between the work places and a place where radiographic inspection is performed, measure the radiation doses at the various points of interest with a radiometer. There are now lots of safety gadgets available for radiation and fume controls, safety standards have been incorporated for guidance with detailed work such as threshold limit values for materials commonly. encountered in welding and cutting. Materials coated even accidentally with toxic materials such as lead cadmium or mercury or zinc paints produce what is probably the greatest health hazard in welding or cutting. Any such coatings should be removed prior or rigid control measures established. Welding on materials containing beryllium may produce an extremely dangerous condition. No such welding should be performed until complete control of fumes has been provided. Welding on tanks, pipelines or containers with hydrocarbon even after removal, tend to produce fumes, which are dangerous during welding, and cause for explosion like a bomb. Therefore such tanks should be washed or cleaned with nitrogen gas before welding. UNDERWATER WELDING : Another new area focused nowadays for welding is under water welding. Its main use has been

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in the emergency repair of ships or cutting of steel structures constructed in the dock area of sea. With the expansion of OFFSHORE drilling for oil and gas, it is becoming increasingly important in the construction and maintenance of drilling rigs and associated equipment. Under water largely Navy for salvaging purposes has developed Welding to a stage previously to a practical utility Welding processes used are carbon arc, tubular carbon arc with oxygen, Metal arc or tubular metal arc with oxygen for cutting purposes. For sophisticated application for joining, GTAW, GMAW processes are in use. So the diver cum welder has to face a hazardous unknown environment including pressure of water, Electric shock, and sea animals, nowadays special. Welding power sources are designed to give only low arc voltage. Open circuit voltage is nil. There are various technique of Welding such as wet type Welding, dry spot Welding, dry box Welding or hyperbole ship for higher depth of Welding. Therefore divers/welders are provides with diving suit, portable oxygen kit, and proper communication network from the shore for emergency needs. But some time diver cum welder succumbs to death on account of lack of life support in an emergency when communication is disrupted. Therefore communication to the diver cum welder is paramount to meet his urgent needs in emergency. FUME CONTROL MEASURES : General ventilation - Natural ventilation is usually considered adequate to prevent the accumulation of excessive amounts of fumes when welding on mild steel with electrodes that do not contain fluorides in the covering, provided that the room volume is not less than 10000 cubic feet per welder, the ceiling height is at least 16 feet and ventilation across is not blocked by partitions. Safety awareness must be brought to the knowledge of every individual engaged in the industry and any other misconception if any on safety aspect should be removed otherwise efficiency will suffer due to unnecessary fear. Once they know what is good and bad they take care of themselves. Only effective communication technique will clear their doubts. Let the safety merely not remain as a slogan of our industry but it should be practiced thoroughly.

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KAILASH AUTO BUILDERS

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