Welding Defects Happen

As much as we want our finished welds to be perfect, sometimes that is not the case. Welding defects occur even on welds that are created by the most experienced and skillful welders around. Awelding defect is any flaw that compromises the integrity of the finished weld. There are many different types of weld defects that can occur, some you may be familiar with and some you may not. Below we have listed many different types of defects and what causes them. Arc Strike Cracking

Arc strike cracking occurs when the arc is struck but there is no weld. This happens primarily because of the weld is heated above the materials upper critical temperature and is then basically quenched. When this happens brittle martensite and micro-cracks develop. To avoid this defect from occurring, the arc is struck in the weld groove, when it is struck outside of the weld groove then it must be welded over to avoid cracking from taking place.

Cold Cracking

Cold cracking occurs when residual stresses reduce the strength of the base material which can lead to catastrophic failure. Cold cracking is limited to steels and is commonly associated with the development of martensite as the weld area cools. The crackingappears in the heat-affected area of the base metal. In order to reduce the amount of residual stress and distortion the amount of heat should be limited and the welding sequence should be performed in segments instead of running the weld from end to end continuously. Crater Crack

Crater crack develops when a crater is not properly filled before the welding arc is broken. When this happens it causes the outer edges of the crater to cool faster than the interior of the crater which causes sufficient stresses to form a crack.

Hat Crack

Hat cracks typically begin to form at the fusion line and extend up through the length of the weld. This type of crack is typically caused by using too much voltage and not enough speed during the welding process. Hot Cracking

Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can happen in all metals and tends to occur at the site of the fusion weld. To help avoid this from happening excess material restraint should be avoided and proper filler should be used. This defect can also happen when too high of a welding current is used, arcs that are too long, when the welding speed is too fast and when impurities are present in the welding material.

Underbead Crack

Underbead cracking, also referred to as heat-affected zone cracking, is a crack that develops a short distance from the fusion line. It can occur in either a low alloy or high alloy steel. The cause of this type of crack has not been recognized, but it is known that the presence of dissolved hydrogenmust be present in order for the crack to develop. Another reason that this type of crack may occur is internal stress caused by unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal. Longitudinal Crack

A longitudinal crack usually runs along the length of a weld bead. There are three types of longitudinal cracks; check cracks, root cracks and full centerline cracks. Check cracks can be seen on the surface and may extend into the weld. Check cracks are typically caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes. Root cracks tend to develop at the start of the weld and travel partially into the weld. This is the most common type of longitudinal crack primarily because of the small size of the first weld bead. If a root crack is not taken care of right away it will usually spread into subsequent weld passes, which is the cause of a full centerline crack.

Reheat Cracking

Reheat cracking occurs in HSLA steels, particularly in chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels during the post heating process. They are caused by poor creep ductility of the heat affected zone. To prevent this type of crack from occurring, you should heat treat the steel first with a low temperature soak and then again with a rapid heating to high temperature. You may also want togrind or peen the weld toes using a two layer welding technique to refine the HAZ grain structure of the steel. Don't Be Discouraged By Welding Defects

These are a few of the most common types of welding defects that can occur. If you take your time and properly prepare your materials, the chances of a crack occurring are lessened. But remember, no weld can be perfect all of the time and imperfections and defects can occur. This doesn't make you less of a welder, but just a human being who can't be perfect all of the time. Welding defects can lead to dangerous situations, but if you do your best to try and catch them early you can help make the outcome less dangerous. No welding technique is perfect, there will always be imperfections, and the important thing is to not let them hinder you from continuing to weld. The amount of defects that occur will typically decrease as you become more experienced, but never become insensitive to the possibility that they may occur. Always check your finished welds and make sure that they are of the highest quality and stand up to the requirements of their primary use. Attention to detail is crucial when welding.

Weld Defects-Their Causes and How to Correct Them

With the correct welding conditions, techniques and material quality standards, the mig process will yield avery high quality weld deposit. However, as with any other welding process, weld defects can occur. Mostdefects encountered in welding are due to an improper welding procedure. Once the causes aredetermined, the operator can easily correct the problem.Defects usually encountered include incomplete penetration, incomplete fusion, undercutting, porosity, andlongitudinal cracking. This section deals with the corrective action that should be taken. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION This type of defect is found in any of three ways:1) When the weld bead does not penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate.2) When two opposing weld beads do not interpenetrate.3) When the weld bead does not penetrate the toe of a fillet weld but only bridges across it.Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration is usually caused by the useof too low a welding current and can be eliminated by simply increasing the amperage. Other causes canbe the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch angle. Both will allow the molten weld metal toroll in front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on the leading edgeof the weld puddle. Figure 10-1 - Examples of Lack of Penetration

LACK OF FUSION Lack of fusion, also called cold lapping or cold shuts, occurs when there is no fusion between the weld metaland the surfaces of the base plate. This defect can be seen in Figure 10-2. The most common cause of lackof fusion is a poor welding technique. Either the weld puddle is too large (travel speed too slow) and/or theweld metal has been permitted to roll in front of the arc. Again, the arc must be kept on the leading edge ofthe puddle. When this is done, the weld puddle will not get too large and cannot cushion the arc.Another cause is the use of a very wide weld joint. If the

arc is directed down the center of the joint, themolten weld metal will only flow and cast against the side walls of the base plate without melting them. Theheat of the arc must be used to melt the base plate. This is accomplished by making the joint narrower or bydirecting the arc towards the side wall of the base plate. When multipass welding thick material, a split beadtechnique should be used whenever possible after the root passes. Large weld beads bridging the entiregap must be avoided.Lack of fusion can also occur in the form of a rolled over bead crown. Again, it is generally caused by a verylow travel speed and attempting to make too large a weld in a single pass. However, it is also very oftencaused by too low a welding voltage. As a result, the wetting of the bead will be poor.When welding aluminum, the common cause of this type of defect is the presence of aluminum oxide. Thisoxide is a refractory with a melting point of approximately 35000F (19270C). It is also insoluble in moltenaluminum. If this oxide is present on the surfaces to be welded, fusion with the weld metal will be hampered. The best safeguard against this is to remove all oxide as soon before welding as possible.Although iron oxide (rust, mill scale) can be welded over in mild steel, an excessive amount can cause lackof fusion. Figure 10-2 Example of Lack of Fusion

UNDERCUTTING As shown in Figure 10-3, undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly alongthe edges of the weld. It is most common in lap fillet welds, but can also be encountered in fillet and buttjoints. This type of defect is most commonly caused by improper welding parameters; particularly the travelspeed and arc voltage.When the travel speed is too high, the weld bead will be very peaked because of its extremely fastsolidification. The forces of surface tension have drawn the molten metal along the edges of the weld beadand piled it up along the center. Melted portions of the base plate are affected in the same way. Theundercut groove is

where melted base material has been drawn into the weld and not allowed to wet backproperly because of the rapid solidification. Decreasing the arc travel speed will gradually reduce the size ofthe undercut and eventually eliminate it. When only small or intermittent undercuts are present, raising thearc voltage or using a leading torch angle are also corrective actions. In both cases, the weld bead willbecome flatter and wetting will improve.

However, as the arc voltage is raised to excessive levels, undercutting may again appear. This is particularlytrue in spray arc welding. When the arc becomes very long, it also becomes too wide. This results in anincreased amount of base material being melted. However, the heat transfer of a long arc is relatively poor,so actually the arc is supplying no more total heat to the weld zone. The outermost areas are very quicklycooled and again proper wetting is prevented. The arc length should be kept short, not only to avoidundercutting but to increase penetration and weld soundness.Excessive welding currents can also cause undercutting. The arc force, arc heat and penetration are sogreat that the base plate under the arc is actually blown away. Again, the outermost areas of the basematerial are melted but solidify quickly. Puddle turbulence and surface tension prevent the puddle fromwetting properly. It is always advisable to remain within the current ranges specified for each wire size. POROSITY Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified weld bead. As seen in Figure 10-4, these pores may vary in sizeand are generally distributed in a random manner. However, it is possible that porosity can only be found atthe weld center. Pores can occur either under or on the weld surface.The most common causes of porosity are atmosphere contamination, excessively oxidized work piecesurfaces, inadequate deoxidizing alloys in the wire and the presence of foreign matter. Atmosphericcontamination can be caused by:1) Inadequate shielding gas flow.2) Excessive shielding gas flow. This can cause aspiration of air into the gas stream.3) Severely clogged gas nozzle or damaged gas supply system (leaking hoses, fittings, etc.)4) An excessive wind in the welding area. This can blow away the gas shield.

The atmospheric gases that are primarily responsible for porosity in steel are nitrogen and excessiveoxygen. However, considerable oxygen can be tolerated without porosity in the absence of nitrogen. Oxygenin the atmosphere can cause severe problems with aluminum because of its rapid oxide formation. The gassupply should be inspected at regular intervals to insure freedom from leakage. In addition, excessivemoisture in the atmosphere can cause porosity in steel and particularly aluminum. Care should be exercisedin humid climates. For example, a continuous coolant flow in water cooled torches can cause condensationduring periods of high humidity and consequent contamination of the shielding gas.Excessive oxidation of the work pieces is an obvious source of oxygen as well as entrapped moisture.Again, this is particularly true for aluminum where a hydrated oxide may exist. Anodized coatings onaluminum must be removed prior to welding because they contain water as well as being an insulator.Porosity can be caused by inadequate wire deoxidation when welding semi-killed or rimmed steels. Theoxygen in the steel can cause CO porosity if the proper deoxidizing elements are not present.Foreign matter can be a source of porosity. An example is excessive lubricant on the welding wire. Thesehydrocarbons are sources of hydrogen which is particularly harmful for aluminum.Other causes of porosity may be extremely fast weld solidification rates and erratic arc characteristics.When solidification rates are extremely rapid, any gas that would normally escape is trapped. Extremelyhigh travel speeds and low welding current levels should be avoided.Erratic arc characteristics can be caused by poor welding conditions (voltage too low or high, poor metaltransfer) and fluctuation in the wire feed speed. All these occurrences cause severe weld puddle turbulence.This turbulence will tend to break up the shielding gas envelope and cause the molten weld metal to becontaminated by the atmosphere. LONGITUDINAL CRACKING

Longitudinal or centerline cracking, of the weld bead is not often encountered in mig welding. However, thatwhich does occur can be one of two types: hot cracks and cold cracks. Typical hot cracks are shown inFigure 10-5. Hot cracks are those that occur while the weld bead is between the liquidus (melting) andsolidus (solidifying) temperatures. In this temperature range the weld bead is mushy. Hot cracks usuallyresult from the use of an incorrect wire electrode (particularly in aluminum and stainless steel alloys). Thechemistry of the base plate can also promote this defect (an example would be any high carbon stainlesssteel casting). Any combination of the joint design, welding conditions and welding techniques that results ina weld bead with an excessively concave surface can promote cracking.One form of this defect which may often be encountered, particularly with any 5000 series aluminum, iscalled a crater crack. These are small cracks which appear at the end of the weld where the arc has beenbroken. Although small, these cracks are troublesome since they can propagate into the weld bead. A cratercrack is shown in Figure 10-6. The major reason for this defect is the incorrect technique for ending theweld. To properly end a weld, the crater should be filled. This is done by reversing the arc travel directionbefore breaking the arc. This technique is depicted in Figure 10-7. In addition, if the welding control isdesigned to supply gas for a short time after the arc is broken, the crater should be shielded until it iscompletely solidified. Figure 10-5 - Example of Longitudinal Cracking Figure 10-6 - Example of Crater Cracking

Those cracks that occur after the weld bead has completely solidified are called cold cracks. These defectsoccur only when the weld is too small to withstand the service stresses involved.For your convenience and quick reference, Table 10-1 lists all possible defects, their cause and correctiveaction.

Figure 10-7 Crater Filling Technique

Table 10-1 Weld TroubleshootingFAULT OR DEFECTCAUSE AND/OR CORRECTIVE ACTION 1) POROSITY A. OIL, HEAVY RUST, SCALE, ETC. ON PLATE B. WIRE MAY NEED WIRE HIGHER IN Mn AND Si C. SHIELDING PROBLEM; WIND, CLOGGED OR SMALL NOZZLE, DAMAGED GAS HOSE, EXCESSIVE GASFLOW, ETC. D. FAILURE TO REMOVE GLASS BETWEEN WELD PASSES

E. WELDING OVER SLAG FROM COVERED ELECTRODE 2) LACK OF PENETRATION A. WELD JOINT TOO NARROW B. WELDING CURRENT TOO LOW; TOO MUCH C. ELECTRODE STICKOUT WELD PUDDLE ROLLING IN FRONT OF THE ARC 3) LACK OF FUSION A. WELDING VOLTAGE AND/OR CURRENT TOO LOW B. WRONG POLARITY, SHOULD BE DCRP C. TRAVEL SPEED TOO LOW D. WELDING OVER CONVEX BEAD E. TORCH OSCILLATION TOO WIDE OR TOO NARROW F. EXCESSIVE OXIDE ON PLATE 4) UNDERCUTTING A. TRAVEL SPEED TOO HIGH B. WELDING VOLTAGE TOO HIGH C. EXCESSIVE WELDING CURRENTS D. INSUFFICIENT DWELL AT EDGE OF WELD BEAD 5) CRACKING A. INCORRECT WIRE CHEMISTRY B. WELD BEAD TOO SMALL C. POOR QUALITY QF MATER IAL BEING WELDED 6) UNSTABLE ARC A. CHECK GAS SHIELDING B. CHECK WIRE FEED SYSTEM 7) POOR WELD STARTS OR WIRE STUBBING A. WELDING VOLTAGE TOO LOW B. INDUCTANCE OR SLOPE TOO HIGH C. WIRE EXTENSION TOO LONG D. CLEAN GLASS OR OXIDE FROM PLATE 8) EXCESSIVE SPATTER

A. USE Ar-CO2 OR Ar-O2 INSTEAD OF CO2 B. DECREASE PERCENTAGE OF He C. ARC VOLTAGE TOO LOW D. RAISE INDUCTANCE ANO/OR SLOPE 9) BURNTHROUGH A. WELDING CURRENT TOO HIGH B. TRAVEL SPEED TOO LOW C. DECREASE WIDTH OF ROOT OPENING D. USE Ar-CO2 OR Ar-O2 INSTEAD OF CO2 10) CONVEX BEAD A. WELDING VOLTAGE AND/OR CURRENT TOO LOW B. EXCESSIVE ELECTRODE EXTENSION C. INCREASE INDUCTANCE D. WRONG POLARITY, SHOULD BE DCRP E. WELD JOINT TOO NARROW

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 1
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 1 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING BASICS Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an electric arc welding process that fuses together the parts to be welded by heating them with an arc between a solid metal electrode and the work. Filler metal is obtained from melting of the electrode wire, which is fed continuously into the arc by the welding equipment. Shielding is obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture. A diagram of equipment and the welding process is shown below.

The gas metal arc welding process is capable of welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals from thin (0.5mm) too thick sections. It can be used in all welding positions to produce weld deposits with little or no spatter. Higher deposition rates, travel speeds and welding efficiencies result in less welding time in production situations, as compared to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Metal Transfer The metal transfer refers to the method by which molten metal from the wire electrode crosses the arc to form the weld deposit. Several methods of metal transfer are used in the gas metal arc welding process. Short-circuiting transfer (sometimes called Dip transfer) when the welding wire moves towards the metal or weld pool until it contacts the material. At this point, a short-circuit is produced which causes the wire to be pinched off, producing a new arc. This cycle occurs many times a second depending on the amperage/voltage relationship that has been set. The short-circuiting method of metal transfer can be used in all positions and is commonly used to weld thin carbon steel, low alloy steel and stainless steels in plate and pipe. CO2 and Argon/CO2 gas shielding mixtures are commonly used. Globular transfer is similar to short-circuiting in that a droplet is formed at the end of the electrode wire. However, during the globular transfer the molten ball continues to grow until it is larger than the diameter of the electrode wire. The droplet detaches and crosses the arc to form the weld deposit. Because of this, the arc is less stable and more spatter is produced. Globular transfer is used to weld the same metals as shortcircuiting transfer, except in greater thickness. Globular transfer is limited to the flat and horizontal welding positions. CO2 is commonly used to shield the arc. Spray transfer is characterised by small droplets crossing the arc. The droplets are formed at the tip and pinched off due to electromagnetic forces. Argon or a mixture of argon or helium is used to shield the arc. Spray transfer can also be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels and stainless steels, using a mixture of argon and or other gas mixtures. Spray transfer on steel is normally used to weld medium to heavy thickness of steel in the flat and horizontal welding position. Electrode Classification The electrode wire for gas metal arc welding is normally supplied on a spool or reel and is solid and bare. The electrode wire size is determined by its diameter. Various wire diameters are available: e.g. 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.3, 1.6, 2.4 mm.

Canadian electrode classifications issued by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) are similar but not necessarily the same as the American Welding Society (AWS). The AWS system is normally in Imperial units whereas the CSA are typically in (SI) metric units. If the electrode classification is in SI units remember 1MPa = 145.03 psi. Advantages of GMAW for the Welding of Structural Steelwork Deposition rate is high with spray transfer Costs can be kept lower than with SMAW because there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), no slag removal and welder down-time due to changing electrodes is less compared to SMAW. Smoke and fumes are less than SMAW or FCAW. Obtains deeper penetration than SMAW in spray transfer mode. It is versatile. (All position welding process for carbon, low alloy and stainless steels). Disadvantages High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required on wire feed system. Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because of the size of the gun. Shielding gas is sensitive to wind and drafts. The length of the welding lead is restrictive. The equipment is not as portable as SMAW. Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in GMAW The following may occur and are a collection of the more common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections. Overlap, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. (Fusion problems is a main concern with this process). Porosity may occur as: Gas Pore, Isolated, Group (stop/start), Linear or Uniform. Cracking may occur in the following forms: Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Transverse, Crater. Note: Defects Faults and Discontinuities and the NDT method that can be used find them will be discussed more fully later in these series.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 2
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 2 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular

welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING - BASICS Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG) Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work. Filler metal may or may not be used with the process. Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Common and slang names for the process are TIG welding, Argonarc or Heliarc welding and Tungsten arc welding. A diagram of this process is shown below.

The GTAW process can be used to weld steel, stainless steel, aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, and others. The process can be used to weld a wide range of material thickness. However, due to the relatively low deposition rates associated with the process, thinner materials are most often welded. It is also often used for depositing the root pass on piping and tubing in the petrochemical and power generation industry where a radiographic quality weld is required and is also commonly used for the welding of dairy fabrications. Thin materials may also be welded autogenously i.e. no filler material is used. Welding Positions and Application The GTAW process can be used in all the welding positions (flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead) to produce quality welds on all metals used in industry. The GTAW process is normally applied using the manual or semi automatic method. The welder controls the torch with one hand and feeds filler metal with the other. In the manual method, a high degree of welding skill is required. The semi-automatic method is also sometimes used where filler metal is fed into the weld puddle by a wire feeder. Welding Power Source In general, power sources of the constant current mode are used for gas tungsten arc welding using alternating current (AC) or direct (DC). The selection of alternating or direct current depends on the material being welded. Alternating current is recommended for welding aluminium and magnesium and their alloys. Direct current is recommended for welding stainless steel, carbon steels, copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, and precious metals. Welding Torch The welding torch houses the tungsten electrode and directs the shielding gas and the welding power to the arc. Torches come in various sizes and the larger sizes are usually water-cooled. The torches normally come equipped with a cable assembly that directs the gas, welding power current, cooling water (when used) from the machine to the torch. Shielding Gas A shielding gas protects the weld puddle and tungsten electrode from oxidation during welding. The two most commonly used shielding gases with the gas tungsten arc welding process are argon and helium. Tungsten Electrodes and Filler Metals The electrodes used with the gas tungsten arc welding process are made of tungsten alloys. Tungsten has a high melting point of around 3400oC and is considered a non-consumable during welding. Electrodes are available in several alloys, e.g. Cerium, Lanthanum, Thorium, Zirconium and one of pure tungsten.

Electrodes are colour-coded for ease of recognition and generally in diameters ranging from 0.5 mm up through 5.0 mm. The lengths of tungsten electrodes are normally 75 mm to 150 mm. The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a solid wire or rod. Filler metals are available in a wide range of sizes in an approximate range from 1.6, 2.4, 3.2 mm but can be obtained in larger diameters. Filler metals are manufactured in straight cut lengths (500mm to 1000mm) for manual welding and continuous spools for semi-automatic and automatic welding. Filler metals for joining a wide variety of materials and alloys are available; these should be similar, although not necessarily identical, to the material being joined. Generally the filler metal composition is adjusted to match the properties of the base material in its welded (cast) condition. Filler metals for gas tungsten arc welding are classified using the same system for gas metal arc welding electrodes, such as ER70S-6. The only difference is gas metal arc wires carry electric current and are considered electrodes (E), while gas tungsten welding wires or rods do not carry current and are considered filler rods (R). Advantages Capable of welding thin material Controls heat input extremely well because the heat source and the filler material are separately controlled. Welds can be made with or without adding filler material by fusing the base metals together. Full penetration welds that are welded from one side only can be made. Produces superior X-ray quality welds. Recommended for materials that form refractory oxides, like aluminium and magnesium. It can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal joints. It allows for excellent control of root passes and penetration. Disadvantages Cost of equipment and shielding gas is high. Deposition rate is slow, therefore less economical than other processes. A high degree of welder skill is required to produce quality welds Fit-up tolerances are restrictive. Difficulty in shielding the weld zone properly in windy conditions. Low tolerance for contamination on filler or base metal. Tungsten inclusions can occur Discontinuities and Defects Common to GTAW The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes, Tungsten inclusions. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start, Oxidation in stainless steel welds Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can also occur.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 3
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 3 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied

process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING - BASICS Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a flux covered metal electrode and the work. The filler metal is deposited from the core wire and the electrode covering (flux) that also provides the arc shielding along with other essentials. Other names for this process include the European term "Manual Metal Arc Welding" (MMAW), stick welding or stick electrode welding.

The shielded metal arc welding process is a simple and versatile arc welding process. This process is used predominantly to weld ferrous metals above 2mm thick in all the welding positions. The welding arc is visible and under the control of the welder. The electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of the electrode in relation to the material being welded. The arc is struck, maintained and stopped manually by the welder. Welding Positions The welding position is the orientation of the electrode with respect to the work piece to deposit the molten material, these positions are down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical (up or down), and overhead. Equipment The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power source, welding leads, electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. A diagram of the equipment is shown below.

Applications SMAW is widely mostly used for medium to heavy fabrication, and for maintenance and repair (including surfacing). It is particularly suited to onsite/field work such as buildings and bridges, and for pipelines for gas, oil or water. Materials that can Welded with SMAW include: Carbon and low alloy steels, cast irons (ductile and gray), copper and its alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, stainless steels, nickel and its alloys. Thickness range: all thicknesses over 2mm. Power Source Constant current (CC) static characteristic. Either AC or DC depends on type of electrode, joint type and position, power source. In DC the electrode can be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve). Choice of electrode polarity can be used to advantage. Electrode negative (DCEN or "straight polarity") generally produces a higher deposition rate. Electrode positive (DCEP or "reverse polarity") is generally used where deep penetration is needed. The polarity to be used is often governed by the type of electrode. Open circuit voltage (OCV) of 50 or 70 volts to reliably establish the AC arc. Arc voltage range of 16 to 40 volts (also strongly dependant on the arc length). Welding current will be set in the range 30 to 550 amps. Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel Most electrodes fall into 1 of 3 general types; cellulosic, rutile or basic. There are coatings that do not fall into these categories including non-ferrous and stainless steel types Electrode Classification The codes and standards commonly encountered in Canada, USA and internationally include: ANSI/AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2004, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding ISO 2560:2009, Welding consumables Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-ally and fine grained steels. The electrode classification system for mild steel and low alloy steel covered electrodes consists of the letter E and four or five digits. Sometimes a suffix is added to the classification following the digits for additional information. The letter E indicates an electrode. The first two or three digits indicate the minimum tensile strength. The third and fourth digits indicate the positions the electrode can be used, the type of current and the coating type*. Sizes available for example are: 2.5, 3.2, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 6.0 mm. *Sample Electrode Classification in SI units: E4818 4H5R *Sample Electrode Classification in Imperial units e.g. USA: E7018 1H4 R Advantages of SMAW SMAW is a widely accepted, versatile and well developed welding process. High quality welds are readily achieved on all steels in both the workshop and on site. The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable.

 The shielding gas provided by the burning flux is less sensitive to wind and drafts when compared to a process with an external shielding gas. Limitations of SMAW Deposition rate is generally lower than GMAW, FCAW or SAW. A layer of solidified slag that needs to be removed covers the deposited weld. A high welder skill level is required for high quality welds. Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start. Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can also occur.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 4
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 4 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. FLUX CORED ARC WELDING - BASICS Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an electric arc welding process which fuses together the parts to be welding by heating them with an arc between a continuously fed flux filled electrode wire and the work. Shielding is obtained through decomposition of the flux within the tubular wire (self shielded method). Additionally shielding may be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture (gas shielded method). Equipment is similar to that used for Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW) see CINDE Journal November/December 2009) The flux cored arc welding process can be used to weld carbon and alloy steels, cast and wrought iron and stainless steels. The process is also capable of producing hard surfacing deposits. The process is commonly used to weld medium to thick steels because of the high deposition rate (up to 4 times greater than SMAW) obtained with the larger electrode diameters. Welding is normally limited to the flat and horizontal positions with large diameter wires. Smaller diameter wires are used in all positions. A layer of slag is left on the weld bead that must be removed after welding.

Electrode Classification The electrode wire for flux cored arc welding is tubular and filled with flux. The flux provides arc shielding, deoxidation, arc stabilisation and slag formation. When required alloying elements can be added to the flux ingredients. An external shielding gas may or may not be required with these wires, depending on the type. Flux cored and metal cored arc welding electrodes are available in a variety of sizes of 0.8, 0.9, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3.0, 4.0 mm or equivalent in inches, the wire is contained on spools and coils. CSA W48.5M classifies FCAW and Metal-Cored wires for carbon steels by using a series of letters and digits broken into several groups e.g. EXX0T-X-CH Broken down the classification E4101T-1- H10 in the CSA system means: E = Electrode; 410 = Weld metal with tensile strength in MPa; 1 = Welding all positions; T = Wire is Tubular; H10 = 10mls H2 / 100g of deposited weld metal.

The American Welding Society AWS A5.20 also classifies flux cored arc welding electrodes for carbon steels, using a series of letters and numbers. A typical cored wire classification in the AWS system is E70T-1MJH4 E = electrode; 7 = nominal tensile strength of the filler wire in increments of 10,000 pounds per square inch e.g. 7 =70 ksi. (70,000 psi); 0 indicates the positions the wire can be used T = wire is tubular; 1 gives the performance characteristics of the electrode wire. This number ranges from 1 to 14; MJH4 indicates M is the gas mixture e.g. 75%Ar = 25% CO2, J is the impact toughness and H4 is the diffusible hydrogen content. AWS 5.22 is for Chromium and Chromium Nickel, AWS 5.29 is for low alloy steels. Advantages of FCAW Deposition rate is high with larger diameter wires, and for positional welding. Costs can be kept lower than with MMAW because there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), and welder down time due to changing electrodes is less compared to MMAW. Deeper penetration is possible than with MMAW. FCAW has high operator appeal: process is easy to use and welds are of good appearance. Good quality welds and appearance. Wide range of steel types over a range of thickness. Disadvantages High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required on wire feed system. Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because of the size of the gun. FCAW-gas shielded is sensitive to wind and drafts (self-shielded version has high draft tolerance). The available length of the welding lead can be restrictive. The equipment is not as portable as MMAW. Electrode is more expensive ($/kg) than GMAW. Produces more smoke and fumes than GMAW. Slag covering needs to be removed. Storage of wires must be stored and handled to prevent damage and corrosion. Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in FCAW The following and are a collection of the more common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes, Hollow Bead. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform. Cracking may occur in the following forms: Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Transverse, Crater. The above defects, Faults and discontinuities and the NDT method that can be used to find will be discussed more fully later in these series

Weld Defects - Cracks

Causes and Types of Cracking that may occur in Welds Cracking in WeldsWe know that several types of imperfections may occur in a weld or the heat affected zone. Welds may contain porosity (see last months HERA News) slag inclusions, lack of fusion or cracks. Cracks in a weld are almost certainly the most unwanted of all weld imperfections. Because of the various materials and applications used in welding today, cracking is a complex subject. The base material's crack sensitivity may be associated with its chemistry and its susceptibility to conditions that reduce its ductility.The welding operation itself can produce stresses in and around the weld, introducing extreme localized heating, expansion, and contraction that may also cause cracking. Hot - Cold Cracks: Cracks can be classified hot or cold. Hot cracks develop at elevated temperatures, propagate between the grains of a material, and commonly form during solidification of weld metal. Cold cracks develop after solidification of the weld, as a result of stresses, and propagate both between grains and through grains. Cold cracks in steel sometimes are called delayed cracks and often are associated with hydrogen embrittlement. Base Material Cracks: Heat-affected zone (HAZ) cracking most often occurs with base material that has hardenability. High hardness and low ductility in a HAZ often are the result of a metallurgical response to welding thermal cycles. In ferritic steels, hardness increases and ductility decreases with an increase in carbon content and a faster cooling rate.The HAZ hardness depends on the base material's ability to be hardened, which in turn depends on the base material's chemical composition. Carbon has a predominant effect on steel's hardenability along with other elements. For instance, material with a carbon equivalent (CE) of over 0.4 may suffer from cracking unless precautions are taken during welding such as electrode choice, considering cooling rates and residual stress invariably may result in base material cracking. Cracks types: Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and Underbead cracks (sometimes called toe cracks or delayed cracking) are generally cold cracks that form in the heat-affected zone of the parent material. The following needs to be considered: hydrogen a microstructure of relatively low ductility high residual stress temperature below 200 deg C Heat-affected zone and underbead cracks are normally longitudinal. They may be found at in the weld toe area of the heat affected zone or under the weld bead where residual stresses are highest. Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the direction of the weld. These are generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage stresses acting on weld metal of low ductility. Crater cracks occur in the crater when the welding arc is terminated prematurely. Crater cracks are normally shallow, hot cracks usually forming single or star cracks. These cracks usually start at a crater pipe and extend longitudinal in the crater. However, they may propagate into longitudinal weld cracks in the rest of the weld. Solidification cracks are longitudinal cracks in the weld face in the direction of the weld axis. They are generally hot cracks. These cracks are typically caused by excessive transverse stress, high depth to width ratio in excess of 2:1, high sulphur and phosphorus content. Toe cracks are generally cold cracks. They initiate and propagate from the weld toe where shrinkage stresses are concentrated. Toe cracks initiate approximately normal to the base metal surface. These cracks are generally the result of thermal shrinkage stresses acting on a weld heat-affected zone. Some toe cracks occur because the transverse tensile properties of the base metal cannot accommodate the shrinkage stresses that are imposed by welding. Root cracks are longitudinal cracks at the weld root. They may be hot or cold forms of cracks. Stress corrosion cracking in stainless steel is due to caustic or chloride contaminants. The cracking is predominantly inter-crystalline. Reheat cracking is almost exclusively restricted to creep resistant steels and must be considered a very serious form of cracking. Reheat cracking can be caused by the generation of excessive thermal stress during the post-weld heat treatment leading to the initiation of cracking from existing very small hot or cold cracks. This can be controlled by correct heating rates; temperature variations and avoiding where possible stress concentrations. Another form of reheat cracking occurs at high temperatures in the materials creep range where inter-crystalline cracking in the "larger" grained heat affected zone results from insufficient creep ductility. This occurs during post weld heat treatment or during high temperature service. Miscellaneous cracks include other forms of cracking such as chevron and lamellar tearing. Generally, the following guidelines can be applied: (d) Chevron cracking in high strength welds metals in ferritic steels only.

(e) Lamellar tearing-in principle possible in any material but in practice restricted to structural and pressure vessel ferritic steels. Cracks are unacceptable defects and are detrimental to weld performance. A crack, by its nature, is sharp at its extremities, so it acts as a stress concentration. The stress concentration effect of a crack is greater than that of most other discontinuities. Cracks have a tendency to propagate, contributing to weld failure under stress. Regardless of their size, cracks; except for crater cracks in class GP welds of AS/NZS 1554.1, are not permitted in welds governed by most fabrication standards. They must be removed by grinding or gouging, and the excavation filled with sound weld metal. Successful welding procedures for the materials be joined include the controls that are necessary to overcome the tendency for crack formation. Such controls are preheating temperature, interpass temperature, consumable type and preparation, and post weld heat treatment.

The Expense of Quality

A term widely used and widely often misunderstood... The expense of quality is not the price of constructing a quality product or service. Its the expense of NOT fabricating a quality product or service. Every time any work needs to be repeated or a repair carried out the overall cost increases. Generally, anything that adds to its original price contributes to the overall expense of not applying quality control. Expenses Expenses are the total of the outlay incurred by: Not investing in the prevention of nonconformance to the requirements. Not appraising a product or service for conformance to the requirements. - Failing to meet the contractual requirements. Prevention of unplanned expenses The expenses of all activities specifically designed to prevent poor quality in products or services. Examples of not applying quality control: No new product review No quality planning No supplier capability surveys No process capability evaluations No quality improvement team meetings No quality improvement projects No quality education and training Evaluation expenses The expenses associated with measuring, evaluating or auditing products or services to assure conformance to quality standards and performance requirements. These include the expenses of: Incoming and source inspection/test of purchased material In-process and final inspection/test Product, process or service audits Calibration of measuring and test equipment Equipment and resource cost Internal failure expenses due to not having quality control Failure expenses may occur prior to delivery or shipment of the product, or the furnishing of a service, to the customer. Examples are the expenses of are: Scrap Rework Re-inspection Re-testing Material review Downgrading External failure expenses of not having quality control Failure expenses may occur after delivery or shipment of a product, during or after providing of a customer service. Examples of expenses are: Processing customer complaints Customer returns Warranty claims Product recalls Repair work Travel and associated expenses Total quality expenses The sum of the above expenses. This represents the difference between the actual expense of a product or service and what the reduced expense would be if there were no possibility of substandard service, failure of products or defects in their manufacture.

Effective Quality Management

Quality is often viewed subjectively, for example, a luxury car is often considered to be of a higher quality than the average family car. However, quality must be seen as the degree of conformance to the specified contract. If this concept is used a luxury car is the same quality as a family car. Quality cannot be inspected into a product; quality control personnel only measure how the fabrication meets the specified contract requirements, code, standard or specification. Quality is designed and built into a product. Quality is achieved by correct design, by using the correct materials and fabrication processes and by a constructive and appropriate control of each step of the fabrication process. The only remaining requirement is having a workforce that understands what it does and is proud of what they do. This consideration helps to create a content and happy working environment that in itself assists greatly in achieving a quality product. It is the responsibility of all involved - guided by management - to play their part in achieving a costeffective andquality product that will benefit the company itself, the workforce and the customer. A fundamental responsibility of management and those involved is to evaluate all fabrication costs and benefits; these include sales, advertising and also any exposure to product liability or other purchaser action law suits. Generally, casual or occasional observations during fabrication are not enough to estimate the total cost of quality control. All factors must be carefully measured. If production costs are being applied to unnecessary actions such as employing a costly method where a less expensive one could be used or viceversa, then the cost-effective method must be employed and used unless it is not allowed by the customer, industry standards, codes or specification. In this increasingly contentious and litigious society, the best protection one has is to have a cost-effective quality system and to do it right, first time and every time. This can only be accomplished in the long-term by having well paid, competent and trained employees working within and following an efficient and wellwritten quality system and the challenging demands of a fabrication industry. The above outlines the information that should be considered to help ensure your company is successful and that employment is maintained along with reputation. Consider the above and put into practice those requirements that help achieve the quality you need to meet. Remember you must be able to demonstrate what you have done: Remember the saying when dealing with quality control: Dont tell me, Show me

Functions of a Welding Inspector

Functions of a welding inspector may include: (1) Codes, standards and specifications: Interpretation of the intent and ensuring the requirements of codes, standards and specifications are met. (2) Welding procedures: Ensuring that a procedure is available, has been approved and is being employed in production. (3) Witnessing of welder and procedure approval tests: Witnessing the preparation of test plates and destructive tests and verifying compliance with appropriate standards and specifications. (4) Welder approvals: Verifying that adequate and valid welder approvals are available, and that only approved welders are used in production. (5) Parent material: Verifying parent material against documentation and markings. (6) Welding consumables identity: Verification of correctness of welding consumables (electrodes, filler wires, consumable inserts, gases, fluxes etc.) (7) Pre-weld inspection: Verification that dimensions, fit-up and weld preparations are in accordance with specifications. (8) Preheating: Verification that any required preheat is in accordance with the specified procedure. (9) In-process welding inspection and surveillance: Surveillance during welding to verify compliance with specified procedures including any preheat, interpass temperature control and post heat requirements. (10) Inspection and Test Plans: Assistance and agreement with the preparation of Inspection and Test Plans (ITPs) (11) Post-weld heat treatment: Verification, when required that post weld heat treatment has been conducted in accordance with specification requirements. (12) Post-weld visual inspection: Visual inspection and dimensional check of completed weldment against specification requirements and drawings. (13) NDT reports: The study and cognisance of NDT results on any welding work for which the welding inspector is responsible. Where the duties of the welding inspector include using NDT methods such as liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, radiography or ultrasonic inspection then it is suggested that he/she obtains certification in accordance with the related approval schemes. (14) Reports: Evaluation of and preparation of inspection reports for the employer or the client. (15) Records: Maintenance of records of inspections carried out

A welding inspector should act in a professional manner: - When reporting unacceptable conditions, always use the correct terminology. - Never approve the start of welding until the welding procedure has been approved. - Always ensure the welding is being carried out within the limits of the approved procedure. - Always be prepared to learn and listen. - Have inspection experience and knowledge - Never approve anything that does not meet the requirements unless it has been accepted by the client. - Always work with people and not against them. - Use engineering judgment and commonsense. - Always seek to obtain respect and cooperation. - Be in a good physical condition and be able to go where the welder has been.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 1
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 1 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. GAS METAL ARC WELDING BASICS Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an electric arc welding process that fuses together the parts to be welded by heating them with an arc between a solid metal electrode and the work. Filler metal is obtained from melting of the electrode wire, which is fed continuously into the arc by the welding equipment. Shielding is obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture. A diagram of equipment and the welding process is shown below.

The gas metal arc welding process is capable of welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals from thin (0.5mm) too thick sections. It can be used in all welding positions to produce weld deposits with little or no spatter. Higher deposition rates, travel speeds and welding efficiencies result in less welding time in production situations, as compared to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Metal Transfer The metal transfer refers to the method by which molten metal from the wire electrode crosses the arc to form the weld deposit. Several methods of metal transfer are used in the gas metal arc welding process. Short-circuiting transfer (sometimes called Dip transfer) when the welding wire moves towards the metal or weld pool until it contacts the material. At this point, a short-circuit is produced which causes the wire to be pinched off, producing a new arc. This cycle occurs many times a second depending on the amperage/voltage relationship that has been set. The short-circuiting method of metal transfer can be used in all positions and is commonly used to weld thin carbon steel, low alloy steel and stainless steels in plate and pipe. CO2 and Argon/CO2 gas shielding mixtures are commonly used. Globular transfer is similar to short-circuiting in that a droplet is formed at the end of the electrode wire. However, during the globular transfer the molten ball continues to grow until it is larger than the diameter of the electrode wire. The droplet detaches and crosses the arc to form the weld deposit. Because of this, the

arc is less stable and more spatter is produced. Globular transfer is used to weld the same metals as shortcircuiting transfer, except in greater thickness. Globular transfer is limited to the flat and horizontal welding positions. CO2 is commonly used to shield the arc. Spray transfer is characterised by small droplets crossing the arc. The droplets are formed at the tip and pinched off due to electromagnetic forces. Argon or a mixture of argon or helium is used to shield the arc. Spray transfer can also be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels and stainless steels, using a mixture of argon and or other gas mixtures. Spray transfer on steel is normally used to weld medium to heavy thickness of steel in the flat and horizontal welding position. Electrode Classification The electrode wire for gas metal arc welding is normally supplied on a spool or reel and is solid and bare. The electrode wire size is determined by its diameter. Various wire diameters are available: e.g. 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.3, 1.6, 2.4 mm. Canadian electrode classifications issued by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) are similar but not necessarily the same as the American Welding Society (AWS). The AWS system is normally in Imperial units whereas the CSA are typically in (SI) metric units. If the electrode classification is in SI units remember 1MPa = 145.03 psi. Advantages of GMAW for the Welding of Structural Steelwork Deposition rate is high with spray transfer Costs can be kept lower than with SMAW because there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), no slag removal and welder down-time due to changing electrodes is less compared to SMAW. Smoke and fumes are less than SMAW or FCAW. Obtains deeper penetration than SMAW in spray transfer mode. It is versatile. (All position welding process for carbon, low alloy and stainless steels). Disadvantages High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required on wire feed system. Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because of the size of the gun. Shielding gas is sensitive to wind and drafts. The length of the welding lead is restrictive. The equipment is not as portable as SMAW. Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in GMAW The following may occur and are a collection of the more common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections. Overlap, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. (Fusion problems is a main concern with this process). Porosity may occur as: Gas Pore, Isolated, Group (stop/start), Linear or Uniform. Cracking may occur in the following forms: Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Transverse, Crater. Note: Defects Faults and Discontinuities and the NDT method that can be used find them will be discussed more fully later in these series.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 2
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 2 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING - BASICS Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG) Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work. Filler metal may or may not be used with the process. Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or inert gas mixture. Common and slang names for the process are TIG welding, Argonarc or Heliarc welding and Tungsten arc welding. A diagram of this process is shown below.

The GTAW process can be used to weld steel, stainless steel, aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, and others. The process can be used to weld a wide range of material thickness. However, due to the relatively low deposition rates associated with the process, thinner materials are most often welded. It is also often used for depositing the root pass on piping and tubing in the petrochemical and power generation industry where a radiographic quality weld is required and is also commonly used for the welding of dairy fabrications. Thin materials may also be welded autogenously i.e. no filler material is used. Welding Positions and Application The GTAW process can be used in all the welding positions (flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead) to produce quality welds on all metals used in industry. The GTAW process is normally applied using the manual or semi automatic method. The welder controls the torch with one hand and feeds filler metal with the other. In the manual method, a high degree of welding skill is required. The semi-automatic method is also sometimes used where filler metal is fed into the weld puddle by a wire feeder. Welding Power Source In general, power sources of the constant current mode are used for gas tungsten arc welding using alternating current (AC) or direct (DC). The selection of alternating or direct current depends on the material being welded. Alternating current is recommended for welding aluminium and magnesium and their alloys.

Direct current is recommended for welding stainless steel, carbon steels, copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, and precious metals. Welding Torch The welding torch houses the tungsten electrode and directs the shielding gas and the welding power to the arc. Torches come in various sizes and the larger sizes are usually water-cooled. The torches normally come equipped with a cable assembly that directs the gas, welding power current, cooling water (when used) from the machine to the torch. Shielding Gas A shielding gas protects the weld puddle and tungsten electrode from oxidation during welding. The two most commonly used shielding gases with the gas tungsten arc welding process are argon and helium. Tungsten Electrodes and Filler Metals The electrodes used with the gas tungsten arc welding process are made of tungsten alloys. Tungsten has a high melting point of around 3400oC and is considered a non-consumable during welding. Electrodes are available in several alloys, e.g. Cerium, Lanthanum, Thorium, Zirconium and one of pure tungsten. Electrodes are colour-coded for ease of recognition and generally in diameters ranging from 0.5 mm up through 5.0 mm. The lengths of tungsten electrodes are normally 75 mm to 150 mm. The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a solid wire or rod. Filler metals are available in a wide range of sizes in an approximate range from 1.6, 2.4, 3.2 mm but can be obtained in larger diameters. Filler metals are manufactured in straight cut lengths (500mm to 1000mm) for manual welding and continuous spools for semi-automatic and automatic welding. Filler metals for joining a wide variety of materials and alloys are available; these should be similar, although not necessarily identical, to the material being joined. Generally the filler metal composition is adjusted to match the properties of the base material in its welded (cast) condition. Filler metals for gas tungsten arc welding are classified using the same system for gas metal arc welding electrodes, such as ER70S-6. The only difference is gas metal arc wires carry electric current and are considered electrodes (E), while gas tungsten welding wires or rods do not carry current and are considered filler rods (R). Advantages Capable of welding thin material Controls heat input extremely well because the heat source and the filler material are separately controlled. Welds can be made with or without adding filler material by fusing the base metals together. Full penetration welds that are welded from one side only can be made. Produces superior X-ray quality welds. Recommended for materials that form refractory oxides, like aluminium and magnesium. It can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar metal joints. It allows for excellent control of root passes and penetration. Disadvantages Cost of equipment and shielding gas is high. Deposition rate is slow, therefore less economical than other processes. A high degree of welder skill is required to produce quality welds Fit-up tolerances are restrictive. Difficulty in shielding the weld zone properly in windy conditions. Low tolerance for contamination on filler or base metal. Tungsten inclusions can occur Discontinuities and Defects Common to GTAW The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes, Tungsten inclusions. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start, Oxidation in stainless steel welds

Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can also occur

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 3
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 3 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING - BASICS Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a flux covered metal electrode and the work. The filler metal is deposited from the core wire and the electrode covering (flux) that also provides the arc shielding along with other essentials. Other names for this process include the European term "Manual Metal Arc Welding" (MMAW), stick welding or stick electrode welding.

The shielded metal arc welding process is a simple and versatile arc welding process. This process is used predominantly to weld ferrous metals above 2mm thick in all the welding positions. The welding arc is visible and under the control of the welder. The electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of the electrode in relation to the material being welded. The arc is struck, maintained and stopped manually by the welder. Welding Positions The welding position is the orientation of the electrode with respect to the work piece to deposit the molten material, these positions are down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical (up or down), and overhead.

Equipment The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power source, welding leads, electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. A diagram of the equipment is shown below.

Applications SMAW is widely mostly used for medium to heavy fabrication, and for maintenance and repair (including surfacing). It is particularly suited to onsite/field work such as buildings and bridges, and for pipelines for gas, oil or water. Materials that can Welded with SMAW include: Carbon and low alloy steels, cast irons (ductile and gray), copper and its alloys, aluminium and aluminium alloys, stainless steels, nickel and its alloys. Thickness range: all thicknesses over 2mm. Power Source Constant current (CC) static characteristic. Either AC or DC depends on type of electrode, joint type and position, power source. In DC the electrode can be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve). Choice of electrode polarity can be used to advantage. Electrode negative (DCEN or "straight polarity") generally produces a higher deposition rate. Electrode positive (DCEP or "reverse polarity") is generally used where deep penetration is needed. The polarity to be used is often governed by the type of electrode. Open circuit voltage (OCV) of 50 or 70 volts to reliably establish the AC arc. Arc voltage range of 16 to 40 volts (also strongly dependant on the arc length). Welding current will be set in the range 30 to 550 amps. Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel Most electrodes fall into 1 of 3 general types; cellulosic, rutile or basic. There are coatings that do not fall into these categories including non-ferrous and stainless steel types Electrode Classification The codes and standards commonly encountered in Canada, USA and internationally include: ANSI/AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2004, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding ISO 2560:2009, Welding consumables Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-ally and fine grained steels. The electrode classification system for mild steel and low alloy steel covered electrodes consists of the letter E and four or five digits. Sometimes a suffix is added to the classification following the digits for additional information. The letter E indicates an electrode. The first two or three digits indicate the minimum tensile strength. The third and fourth digits indicate the positions the electrode can be used, the type of current and the coating type*. Sizes available for example are: 2.5, 3.2, 4.0, 4.8, 5.0, 6.0 mm. *Sample Electrode Classification in SI units: E4818 4H5R *Sample Electrode Classification in Imperial units e.g. USA: E7018 1H4 R

Advantages of SMAW SMAW is a widely accepted, versatile and well developed welding process. High quality welds are readily achieved on all steels in both the workshop and on site. The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable. The shielding gas provided by the burning flux is less sensitive to wind and drafts when compared to a process with an external shielding gas. Limitations of SMAW Deposition rate is generally lower than GMAW, FCAW or SAW. A layer of solidified slag that needs to be removed covers the deposited weld. A high welder skill level is required for high quality welds. Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start. Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can also occur.

Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For NDT Technicians Part 4
Welding Processes, Welding Faults, Defects & Discontinuities For Non-Destructive Testing Technicians Part 4 The purpose of this series is to outline to NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING TECHNICIANS the basics of the common welding processes. It is important that NDT technicians involved in the inspection of welds have a basic understanding of the popular welding processes. Welding is an extremely interesting and varied process, and there are a variety of different welding processes in use today. Some of the more popular welding processes in use in industry are SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW, (FLUX CORED)), GTAW (TIG) SAW (SUB ARC). Fabricators may choose from a variety of metal alloys and a range of filler metals and shielding gases. FLUX CORED ARC WELDING - BASICS Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an electric arc welding process which fuses together the parts to be welding by heating them with an arc between a continuously fed flux filled electrode wire and the work. Shielding is obtained through decomposition of the flux within the tubular wire (self shielded method). Additionally shielding may be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture (gas shielded method). Equipment is similar to that used for Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW) see CINDE Journal November/December 2009) The flux cored arc welding process can be used to weld carbon and alloy steels, cast and wrought iron and stainless steels. The process is also capable of producing hard surfacing deposits. The process is commonly used to weld medium to thick steels because of the high deposition rate (up to 4 times greater than SMAW) obtained with the larger electrode diameters. Welding is normally limited to the flat and horizontal positions with large diameter wires. Smaller diameter wires are used in all positions. A layer of slag is left on the weld bead that must be removed after welding.

Electrode Classification The electrode wire for flux cored arc welding is tubular and filled with flux. The flux provides arc shielding, deoxidation, arc stabilisation and slag formation. When required alloying elements can be added to the flux ingredients. An external shielding gas may or may not be required with these wires, depending on the type. Flux cored and metal cored arc welding electrodes are available in a variety of sizes of 0.8, 0.9, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3.0, 4.0 mm or equivalent in inches, the wire is contained on spools and coils. CSA W48.5M classifies FCAW and Metal-Cored wires for carbon steels by using a series of letters and digits broken into several groups e.g. EXX0T-X-CH Broken down the classification E4101T-1- H10 in the CSA system means:

E = Electrode; 410 = Weld metal with tensile strength in MPa; 1 = Welding all positions; T = Wire is Tubular; H10 = 10mls H2 / 100g of deposited weld metal. The American Welding Society AWS A5.20 also classifies flux cored arc welding electrodes for carbon steels, using a series of letters and numbers. A typical cored wire classification in the AWS system is E70T-1MJH4 E = electrode; 7 = nominal tensile strength of the filler wire in increments of 10,000 pounds per square inch e.g. 7 =70 ksi. (70,000 psi); 0 indicates the positions the wire can be used T = wire is tubular; 1 gives the performance characteristics of the electrode wire. This number ranges from 1 to 14; MJH4 indicates M is the gas mixture e.g. 75%Ar = 25% CO2, J is the impact toughness and H4 is the diffusible hydrogen content. AWS 5.22 is for Chromium and Chromium Nickel, AWS 5.29 is for low alloy steels. Advantages of FCAW Deposition rate is high with larger diameter wires, and for positional welding. Costs can be kept lower than with MMAW because there is less electrode waste (no electrode stubs), and welder down time due to changing electrodes is less compared to MMAW. Deeper penetration is possible than with MMAW. FCAW has high operator appeal: process is easy to use and welds are of good appearance. Good quality welds and appearance. Wide range of steel types over a range of thickness. Disadvantages High capital cost of machinery, maintenance required on wire feed system. Accessibility to the welding joint is restrictive because of the size of the gun. FCAW-gas shielded is sensitive to wind and drafts (self-shielded version has high draft tolerance). The available length of the welding lead can be restrictive. The equipment is not as portable as MMAW. Electrode is more expensive ($/kg) than GMAW. Produces more smoke and fumes than GMAW. Slag covering needs to be removed. Storage of wires must be stored and handled to prevent damage and corrosion. Defects, Faults and Discontinuities that may occur in FCAW The following and are a collection of the more common types of weld defects, faults or imperfections: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete penetration, Excess penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Unequal leg lengths, Wormholes, Hollow Bead. Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root fusion. Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform. Cracking may occur in the following forms: Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Transverse, Crater. The above defects, Faults and discontinuities and the NDT method that can be used to find will be discussed more fully later in these series

Non-Destructive Testing

The purpose of inspection and quality control is to determine the suitability of materials or a weldment to perform their intended service. One method of inspection is to subject the material or weldment to destructive tests which would provide information about the performance of that test object. The disadvantage of destructive testing is that, as the name implies, the test object is destroyed in the process. Therefore testing methods have been developed to provide the information required of the test object without rendering it unusable for service. These inspection methods are referred to as non-destructive testing (NDT), because they permit the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of the material or component. Destructive testing can be expensive and assumes that the untested parts are the same quality as those tested. Non-destructive tests give indirect, yet still valid, results and by definition, leave the test object fit and usable for its intended use. There are a variety of non-destructive testing methods that can be used to evaluate materials, components and welded joints. All non-destructive testing methods share several common elements. These elements are:

Some source Discontinuity Some means Some means Some means

of probing energy or some type of probing medium. must cause a change or alteration of the probing medium. of detecting this change. of indicating this change. of observing and/or recording this indication so that an interpretation can be made.

The suitability of any non-destructive testing method for a given application will be determined by considering and applying the above elements. The source of the probing energy or probing medium must be suitable for the test object and for detecting the defect or discontinuity sought. If present, a defect or discontinuity must then be capable of somehow modifying or changing the probing medium. Once changed, there must be some way of detecting these changes. These changes to the probing medium by the discontinuity must form some indication or otherwise be recorded. Finally, this indication must be reviewed in order for it to be interpreted and classified. A variety of non-destructive testing methods have been developed. Each one having advantages and limitations making it more or less appropriate for a given application. With the variety of NDT methods available, it is important to select the method that will provide the required assurance and results. A combination of different NDT methods may be applied to provide the assurance that the materials or component is fit for use. Common non-destructive testing methods include:

Visual Inspection Liquid Penetrant Inspection Magnetic Particle Inspection Radiographic Inspection Ultrasonic Inspection

(VT) (PT) (MT) (RT) (UT)

Defects/Imperfections in Welds ?Type of Porosity

Porosity is the presence of rounded cavities in the weld metal caused by the entrapment of gas as the weld solidifies. Porosity can occur in several forms: Uniform porosity Isolated porosity Group porosity Linear porosity Surface porosity Wormholes Crater pipe CAUSES AND PREVENTION: Uniform, isolated, linear, group and surface porosity Uniform porosity is normally found as fine pores throughout the weld. Isolated porosity occurs infrequently throughout the weld. Linear porosity occurs in a straight line and is also indicative of lack of fusion. Surface breaking pores usually indicate a large amount of uniform porosity. Cause Porosity is caused by the absorption of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the molten weld pool which is then released on solidification to become trapped in the weld metal. Nitrogen and oxygen absorption in the weld pool usually originates from poor gas shielding. As little as 1% air in the shielding gas will cause uniform porosity and greater than 1.5% may result in surface breaking pores. Draughts and excessive turbulence in the weld pool are also frequent causes of porosity. Hydrogen can originate from a number of sources including moisture from inadequately dried electrodes, fluxes or the work piece surface. Grease and oil on the surface of the work piece or filler wire are also common sources of hydrogen. Prevention The gas source should be identified and removed as follows: Avoid weld pool turbulence - reduce excessively high gas flow - avoid draughts - dry the electrode and flux - clean and degrease the work piece surface clean the joint edges immediately before welding - check any weldable primer, if used, is below the recommended maximum thickness Wormholes Wormholes are elongated pores. Causes Wormholes are indicative of a large amount of gas being formed which is then trapped in the solidifying weld metal. Prevention Eliminating the gas and any cavities prevents wormholes - avoid a joint geometry which creates a cavity Crater pipe A crater pipe forms during the final solidified weld pool in a weld crater. Causes This imperfection results from shrinkage on weld pool during solidification. Rapid termination of the arc will result in the rapid solidification of a large weld pool. In GTAW welding, autogenous techniques, or stopping the wire before switching off the welding current, will cause crater formation and may result in a crater pipe imperfection. Prevention Crater pipe imperfections can be prevented by preventing any rapid arc termination and filling the crater by improving welder technique - use run-off tag in butt joints - grind out the stop before continuing with the

next electrode or depositing the subsequent weld run. For welder technique - gradually reduce the welding current to reduce the weld pool size - add filler (GTAW) to compensate for the weld pool shrinkage.

Weld Defects - Miscelleanous

Arc Strikes: Damage on the parent material resulting from the accidental striking of an arc outside the weld area. Causes: Electrode straying onto parent material, Careless practice; Poor access; Electrode holder with poor insulation touching work piece; Poor contact of the earth clamp. Remedies: Correct insulation ; Improve earth clamp contact ; Improve welder access ; Improve welder training. Spatter: Small droplets of electrode material which have been ejected from the arc, which may or may not have fused to the parent plate. Causes: Excessive arc energy; Excessive arc length; Damp electrodes; Arc blow; Incorrect electrode angle; incorrect polarity; poor gas shielding. Technique used; Low inductance in Mig/Mag welding. Remedies: Use correct parameters; Eliminate arc blow, Improve technique; Increase inductance. Undercut: An irregular groove at the toe of a weld run and the parent material, or in previously deposited weld metal. Causes: Excessive welding current; Welding speed too high; Incorrect electrode angle; Excessive weaving; Electrode too large; Electrode make Remedies: Reduce welding current and use correct parameters; Improve manipulation technique; Change electrode make. Incompletely Filled Groove: A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld Causes: Insufficient weld metal deposited; Improper welding technique. Remedy: Fill weld grove; Correct welding technique. Root Concavity: A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a butt weld. Causes: Root face too large; Excessive purge pressure with GTAW welding; Too heavy a hot pass; Too heavy a hot pass. Remedies: Reduce or restrict back-purging pressure; optimize weld root preparation; Reduce hot pass thickness. Overlap: An imperfection at the weld toe of a weld caused by molten metal flowing on to the surface of the parent material without fusing to it. Causes: Contaminated weld preparation; Travel speed too slow; Too low arc energy; Poor welding technique; Position of work.

Remedies: Increase travel speed; Increase arc energy; Correct position of work; Improve welding technique. Burn through: A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration or loss of control, resulting in a hole/cavity in the weld root run. Causes: Excessive amperage during the welding of the root or hot pass on butt welds; Excessive root grinding, which may cause the hot pass to burn through; Poor welding technique. Remedy: Identify cause, correct and apply.

Weld Defects - Miscellaneous 2

Weld Crater : A depression left in a fusion weld at the point where weld energy input was discontinued. Causes: Rapid removal of the welding arc (heat) from the deposited weld metal. Not adding sufficient filler material at the termination of welding. Remedies: Use crater fill option on welding machine; Remove the arc slowly from the deposited weld metal ensuring the required amount of weld consumable is added to the molten weld pool. Crater Pipe : A surface connected pipe created by metal shrinkage in the weld crater. Causes: Rapid shrinkage of the weld pool, a combination of interrupted de-oxidation reactions and the liquid to solid volume change; Remedies: Improve weld termination technique; Use crater fill option; Use run off plates. Misalignment: Parent metal surfaces without the desired alignment of one to the other. It may be angular, linear or longitudinal. It is the centreline offset of two pipes, plates or other components in a welded butt joint. Misalignment or mismatch can be a stress raiser and can cause difficulty during welding. It is sometimes referred to as high low. For pipes mismatch refers to internal alignment. Causes: Poor set up/assembly prior to welding; unequal material thickness; sections/pipes out of round to each other. Remedies: Check set up/assembly prior to welding; inspect pipes for roundness; inspect thickness of materials that are going to be welded to each other. Hammer Mark (Tool mark): An indentation in the surface of the parent material or of a weld due to hammer blows. Causes: Excessive use of a chipping hammer to remove slag fro the deposited weld. Remedy: Improved slag removal technique. Torn Surface: A surface irregularity due to the breaking off of temporary attachments. Causes: Uncontrolled removal of temporary attachments that have been used to hold the parts being welded in alignment. Remedies: Use controlled technique/method to remove attachments. Dress the weld prior to removal. Overlap: An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it Causes: Contaminated weld preparation; Travel speed too slow; Amperage to high; Poor welding technique; Position of work Remedies: Increase travel speed; Position work correctly; Additional welder training

Ultrasonic Inpsection
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Ultrasonic methods of NDT use beams of mechanical waves (vibrations) generated from a piezoelectric crystal that has converted electrical energy to mechanical energy. The pulsed beams of ultrasound are used and in the standard ultrasonic inspection a single probe, hand held, is placed on the test specimens surface. In A-scan (a display method) a cathode ray tube (CRT, oscilloscope) with a time-base displays a signal that shows the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse to travel to a reflector (a flaw, defect, back wall or other type of reflect) in terms of distance, see photo No 1 below. The height of the reflector signal is related to the flaw size as seen from the transmitting probe. The relationship of flaw size, flaw distance and flaw reflectivity are complex, and technicians need considerable skill to interpret the display.

CRT showing crack-like reflector There are several forms of mechanical vibrations, depending on the manner in which the ultrasound passes through the material being inspected. The most common and widely used being compression (longitudinal) and transverse (shear) waves. Various designs of probes, see photo No 2 below, are used these vary from having a probe that will transmit the ultrasound through the material at right angles to the material surface to probes that will transmit the ultrasound into the material at different angles to the material surface. Additional display methods are sometimes used with these methods displaying the signals from the flaw in B-scan, a side view presentation of the flaw or C-scan which gives top view presentation of the flaw. Generally a single probe will acts as a transmitter and receiver, this enables the inspection to be carried out from one side only. Large grained materials such as austenitic stainless steel welds and some castings produce severe attenuation and scattering of the ultrasound, such materials without the use of special probes and techniques can be difficult to inspect using ultrasound. However significant thicknesses of fine grained materials such as steel and steel alloys can be inspected without difficulty. Because the way the flaw is shown on the CRT the flaws need to be characterised and also sized.

Photo showing probes and probes that have been sectioned to illustrate the probe design Once flaws have been detected they need to be sized, side drilled holes and flat bottomed holes are used to set a calibration to which the flaw is sized against. The sizing techniques include the 6dB, 20dB and the maximum amplitude technique. However the interaction between the impinging ultrasonic beam and the flaw type and its orientation, crack, slag, lamination, porosity etc limits the effectiveness of these sizing techniques. Advanced techniques such as time-of-flight diffraction have been developed. Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) is an advanced ultrasonic technique that measures the time of flight of a ultrasonic sound pulse as it as it travels from a transmitting probe to a receiving probe. Divergent ultrasound beams are used and it is necessary to scan the TOFD probes over the flaw to enable the technique to function properly. What distinguishes the TOFD inspection method from a standard ultrasonic inspection is the D part of the acronym which stands for diffraction. The TOFD technique relies on the detection of the diffracted sound wave signal which is generated from both ends of a planer defect such as a crack. The time of arrival of the diffracted signals from the tips (ends) of the defect is measured with respect to the probe pulse time. This time measurement can be done with great accuracy. Therefore the combination of this accuracy and the fact that the diffracted sound waves are coming from the defect tips forms the basis of a highly accurate sizing technique.

Mechanical Testing of Welds - Part 1

Destructive Testing, Inspectors Role, Macro Specimens, Hardness Testing Destructive Testing Destructive testing is typically used to imitate one or more of the required service conditions. Results of destructive testing are normally quantifiable measurements of load for failure, significant distortion, or damage, or time to failure under specified loading, operating and environmental conditions. Consequently results of testing yields numerical data useful for designers, standards, codes and specifications. It should be remembered that the results of a single destructive test may only measure one of the many properties that may be required under operating service conditions. Inspectors Role The inspectors role is to make sure that the specified tests are conducted properly, and to make a judgement based on the results of the tests carried out. To be able to make judgements in accepting or rejecting results from mechanical tests that have been carried out, the inspector needs to be well-informed with the tests. The inspector should also have an appreciation of the effect any imperfection found during the specified test may have on the production weld. While standards, codes and specifications are carefully written judgement is still left to the inspector as to whether the test results are acceptable. Therefore the inspector must have a sound knowledge of the test done to reach a decision. Macro Specimens Macro (metallurgical) specimens are sometimes called up in a standard such as AS/NZS 1554.1 Structural steel welding. Macro specimens can be used to determine: a) Soundness of the weld b) Distribution of any inclusions such as slag and porosity c) Metallurgical structure in the deposited weld metal and fusion zone d) Number of weld passes e) Extent of heat affected zone f) Location and depth of weld penetration The above tests are normally examined with the naked eye or using magnification usually less than 10x, The macro sample is prepared by sectioning a test weld, polishing the cut surface smooth and bright and then etching with a suitable reagent.

Hardness Testing Hardness of a metal is affected by the composition of the parent metal and the deposited weld metal, the metallurgical effects of the welding process used, cold work of the parent metal, heat treatment stress relief or post weld, along with several additional factors. Routine hardness testing methods are well established, these include; Vickers - most popular for weld tests, Brinell and Rockwell. Other methods may also be used.

Hardness can be approximated to the tensile strength of steel; however these need to be used with caution because of the varied makeup of the welded joint. Hardness can be related to service properties of the weld and the welding inspector may find that the maximum weld or heat affected zone hardness has been specified. The Vickers hardness measurement is made using a 136 diamond pyramid indenter and variable loads enabling the use of one hardness scale for all ranges from very soft materials such as lead to very hard materials such tungsten carbide. This type of test is generally used to determine the harness in a welded joint. Following the indentation two diagonals (d1 and d2) are measured, averaged and the surface area calculated then divided into the load applied and the achieved measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables.

The Brinell hardness is made using a hardened steel or carbide ball of specific diameter under a specified load into the steel and measuring the diameter of the impression made. The average of two diameters at right angles to each other is determined and the Brinell hardness number is obtained from a chart or slide rule. The Rockwell hardness tester measures the depth of residual penetration made by a hardened steel ball or a diamond cone. The test is performed by applying a minor load of 22kg, seating the penetrator on the surface, turning a dial to set and then applying the major and then reading the Rockwell hardness of the dial. Rockwell hardness numbers are based on the difference between the depths of penetration between the minor load and the major load, therefore the greater the difference, the less the hardness number and the softer the material. Various scales are used with the B and C scales being the more popular.

Mechanical Testing of Welds - Part 2

Destructive Testing, Inspectors Role, Tensile Testing Destructive Testing Destructive testing is typically used to imitate one or more of the required service conditions. Results of destructive testing are normally quantifiable measurements of load for failure, significant distortion, or damage, or time to failure under specified loading, operating and environmental conditions. Inspectors Role The inspectors role is to make sure that the specified tensile tests have been carried out; normally by an IANZ Accredited Laboratory, and to make a judgement based on the results of the tests carried out. Tensile Testing Tensile testing is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test used to qualify a welding procedure or material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By performing this test, you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength along with how much it will elongate. The point of failure of the specimen is of much interest and is typically called its "Ultimate Strength" or UTS on the load extension diagram.

Proof stress For metals, which do not have a yield point like mild steel, a proof stress is used. This is defined as the stress which produces a non-proportioned extension, (while the load is still applied) equal to a specified percentage e.g. (0.2%) of the original gauge length. The proof load is derived from the load/extension diagram shown above. To determine the proof load a distance equal to the % of gauge chosen (say 0.2%) is marked along the horizontal axis. A line is then drawn from point (M), parallel to the straight-line portion of the load/extension curve. The point at which the dotted line M.N cuts the curve (i.e. point N) provides the proof load, e.g. the force that would produce a permanent extension of 0.2% of the gauge length marked on the specimen. From this value of force the 0.2% proof stress can be calculated by dividing the proof load by original cross section area of the test piece. Modulus of elasticity The modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region. This mechanical property is a measure of stiffness. The modulus of elasticity is of crucial importance in material selection. It determines the elastic deflections of a structural member under load.

Types of Weld metal tensile tests Typical samples of weld metal tensile tests are: All weld metal test The all weld metal tensile test is used to determine the tensile properties of weld metal for qualification tests of filler metals and for conformation of filler metal specifications. The test specimen orientation is parallel to the weld axis and is mechanically removed from the weld metal. Transverse weld test This test if often used to qualify welding procedure (WPS), i.e. to confirm that the weldment will be equal to or exceed the design strength requirements. Its orientation is at right angles to the axis of the weld, and therefore contains a full cross section of the weld and parent material, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and weld metal. It should be noted that only the location of the fracture and the tensile strength of the material are usually reported. Longitudinal weld test In the longitudinal weld test the direction of loading of the specimen is parallel to the weld axis, but contains weld metal, HAZ and parent material in its cross sections. During testing, all of the zones must strain equally and simultaneously. Only the tensile strength of longitudinal weld tests is usually reported.

Mechanical Testing of Welds - Part 3

Destructive Testing, Inspectors Role, Charpy Impact Testing Destructive Testing Destructive testing is typically used to imitate one or more of the required service conditions. Results of destructive testing are normally quantifiable measurements of load for failure, significant distortion, or damage, or time to failure under specified loading, operating and environmental conditions. Inspectors Role The inspectors role is to ensure that the specified impact testing requirements have been carried out to make a judgement based on the results of the tests carried out against the requirements of the code, standard or specification. Charpy impact testing should carried out at an IANZ Accredited Laboratory. Charpy Impact Testing Before discussing impact testing we need to define what is meant by 'toughness' since the impact test is only one method by which this material property is measured. Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece from material that is to be used in a fabrication e.g. bridge, pressure vessel, boiler etc - to fracture and fail for a given temperature. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material. In a Charpy impact test, we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions. It was during World War II that attention was focused on this property of 'notch toughness' due to the brittle fracture of all-welded Liberty ships, then being built in the USA. From this work the science of fracture toughness developed and gave rise to a range of tests used to characterise 'notch toughness' of which the Charpy-V test described in this article is one. The testing involves striking a standard specimen with a controlled weighted pendulum travelling at a set speed. The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece is measured and this gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material. The testing shows that metals can be classified as being either 'brittle' or 'ductile'. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal a large amount of energy.

It should be emphasised that these tests are qualitative, the testing results can only be compared with each other or with a requirement in a code, standard or specification - they cannot be used to calculate the fracture toughness of a weld or parent metal. The Charpy V-notch specimen is the specimen of choice for weld procedure testing.The standard Charpy-V specimen, illustrated below is 55mm long, 10mm square and has a 2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face. Subsidiary test piece thicknesses are 7.5mm, 5mm and 2.5mm other dimensions stay the same.

To carry out the test the prepared specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the notch by a pendulum as shown below The specimen is fractured and the pendulum swings through, the height of the swing being a measure of the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen and is recorded. Conventionally three specimens are tested at any one temperature, and the results averaged. In welding procedure approvals the notch is positioned in that area that needs to be tested. Typically for welds the absorbed energy is required to be at least 27Joules (J) at minus 20C, however, depending on specified requirements any acceptance needs to be meet such requirements. The conditions for performing Charpy V-notch impact testing can be found in AS 1554.2.

Welding Defects
1. Introduction Common weld defects include:

i. Lack of fusion ii. Lack of penetration or excess penetration iii. Porosity iv. Inclusions v. Cracking vi. Undercut vii. Lamellar tearing

Any of these defects are potentially disastorous as they can all give rise to high stress intensities which may result in sudden unexpected failure below the design load or in the case of cyclic loading, failure after fewer load cycles than predicted. 2. Types of Defects i and ii. - To achieve a good quality join it is essential that the fusion zone extends the full thickness of the sheets being joined. Thin sheet material can be joined with a single pass and a clean square edge will be a satisfactory basis for a join. However thicker material will normally need edges cut at a V angle and may need several passes to fill the V with weld metal. Where both sides are accessible one or more passes may be made along the reverse side to ensure the joint extends the full thickness of the metal. Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas or electric). Excess penetration arises from to high a heat input and / or too slow transverse of the welding torch (gas or electric). Excess penetration burning through - is more of a problem with thin sheet as a higher level of skill is needed to balance heat input and torch traverse when welding thin metal. ii. Porosity - This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity of the weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in

dry conditions and work is carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding. iv. Inclusions - These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining thick plate using flux cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run before the following run. v. Cracking - This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain accompanying phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a combination of poor design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual stresses and cracking. Where alloy steels or steels with a carbon content greater than about 0.2% are being welded, self cooling may be rapid enough to cause some (brittle) martensite to form. This will easily develop cracks. To prevent these problems a process of pre-heating in stages may be needed and after welding a slow controlled post cooling in stages will be required. This can greatly increase the cost of welded joins, but for high strength steels, such as those used in petrochemical plant and piping, there may well be no alternative. Solidification Cracking This is also called centreline or hot cracking. They are called hot cracks because they occur immediately after welds are completed and sometimes while the welds are being made. These defects, which are often caused by sulphur and phosphorus, are more likely to occur in higher carbon steels. Solidification cracks are normally distinguishable from other types of cracks by the following features:

they occur only in the weld metal - although the parent metal is almost always the source of the low melting point contaminants associated with the cracking they normally appear in straight lines along the centreline of the weld bead, but may occasionally appear as transverse cracking solidification cracks in the final crater may have a branching appearance as the cracks are 'open' they are visible to the naked eye

A schematic diagram of a centreline crack is shown below:

On breaking open the weld the crack surface may have a blue appearance, showing the cracks formed while the metal was still hot. The cracks form at the solidification boundaries and are characteristically inter dendritic. There may be evidence of segregation associated with the solidification boundary. The main cause of solidification cracking is that the weld bead in the final stage of solidification has insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as the weld pool solidifies. Factors which increase the risk include:

insufficient weld bead size or inappropriate shape welding under excessive restraint material properties - such as a high impurity content or a relatively large shrinkage on solidification

Joint design can have an influence on the level of residual stresses. Large gaps between conponents will increase the strain on the solidifying weld metal, especially if the depth of penetration is small. Hence weld beads with a small depth to width ratio, such as is formed when bridging a large wide gap with a thin bead, will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. In steels, cracking is associated with impurities, particularly sulphur and phosphorus and is promoted by carbon, whereas manganese and sulphur can help to reduce the risk. To minimise the risk of cracking, fillers with low carbon and impurity levels and a relatively high manganese content are preferred. As a general rule, for carbon manganese steels, the total sulphur and phosphorus content should be no greater than 0.06%. However when welding a highly restrained joint using high strength steels, a combined level below 0.03% might be needed.

Weld metal composition is dominated by the filler and as this is usually cleaner than the metal being welded, cracking is less likely with low dilution processes such as MMA and MIG. Parent metal composition becomes more important with autogenous welding techniques, such as TIG with no filler. Avoiding Solidification Cracking Apart from choice of material and filler, the main techniques for avoiding solidification cracking are:

control the joint fit up to reduce the gaps clean off all contaminants before welding ensure that the welding sequence will not lead to a buildup of thermally induced stresses choose welding parameters to produce a weld bead with adequate depth to width ratio or with sufficient throat thickness (fillet weld) to ensure the bead has sufficient resistance to solidificatiuon stresses. Recommended minimum depth to width ratio is 0.5:1 avoid producing too large a depth to width ratio which will encourage segregation and excessive transverse strains. As a rule, weld beads with a depth to width ratio exceeds 2:1 will be prone to solidification cracking avoid high welding speeds (at high current levels) which increase segregation and stress levels accross the weld bead at the run stop, ensure adequate filling of the crater to avoid an unfavourable concave shape

Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) - also referred to as hydrogen cracking or hydrogen assisted cracking, can occur in steels during manufacture, during fabrication or during service. When HIC occurs as a result of welding, the cracks are in the heat affected zone (HAZ) or in the weld metal itself. Four requirements for HIC to occur are:

a) Hydrogen be present, this may come from moisture in any flux or from other sources. It is absorbed by the weld pool and diffuses int o the HAZ. b) A HAZ microstructure susceptible to hydrogen cracking. c) Tensile stresses act on the weld

d) The assembly has cooled to close to ambient - less than 150oC

HIC in the HAZ is often at the weld toe, but can be under the weld bead or at the weld root. In fillet welds cracks are normally parallel to the weld run but in butt welds cracks can be transverse to the welding direction. vi Undercutting - In this case the thickness of one (or both) of the sheets is reduced at the toe of the weld. This is due to incorrect settings / procedure. There is already a stress concentration at the toe of the weld and any undercut will reduce the strength of the join. vii Lamellar tearing - This is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate that has a low ductility in the through thickness direction, which is caused by non metallic inclusions, such as suphides and oxides that have been elongated during the rolling process. These inclusions mean that the plate can not tolerate the contraction stresses in the short transverse direction. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds, but the most vulnerable joints are 'T' and corner joints, where the fusion boundary is parallel to the rolling plane. These problem can be overcome by using better quality steel, 'buttering' the weld area with a ductile material and possibly by redesigning the joint. 3. Detection Visual Inspection Prior to any welding, the materials should be visually inspected to see that they are clean, aligned correctly, machine settings, filler selection checked, etc. As a first stage of inspection of all completed welds, visual inspected under good lighting should be carried out. A magnifying glass and straight edge may be used as a part of this process. Undercutting can be detected with the naked eye and (provided there is access to the reverse side) excess penetration can often be visually detected.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection Serious cases of surface cracking can be detected by the naked eye but for most cases some type of aid is needed and the use of dye penetrant methods are quite efficient when used by a trained operator. This procedure is as follows:

Clean the surface of the weld and the weld vicinity Spray the surface with a liquid dye that has good penetrating properties Carefully wipe all the die off the surface Spray the surface with a white powder Any cracks will have trapped some die which will weep out and discolour the white coating and be clearly visible

X - Ray Inspection Sub-surface cracks and inclusions can be detected 'X' ray examination. This is expensive, but for safety critical joints - eg in submarines and nuclear power plants - 100% 'X' ray examination of welded joints will normally be carried out. Ultrasonic Inspection Surface and sub-surface defects can also be detected by ultrasonic inspection. This involves directing a high frequency sound beam through the base metal and weld on a predictable path. When the beam strikes a discontinuity some of it is reflected beck. This reflected beam is received and amplified and processed and from the time delay, the location of a flaw estimated. Porosity, however, in the form of numerous gas bubbles causes a lot of low amplitude reflections which are difficult to separate from the background noise. Results from any ultrasonic inspection require skilled interpretation. Magnetic Particle Inspection This process can be used to detect surface and slightly sub-surface cracks in ferro-magnetic materials (it can not therefore be used with austenitic stainless steels). The process involves placing a probe on each side of the area to be inspected and passing a high current between them. This produces a magnetic flux at right angles to the flow of the current. When these lines of force meet a discontinuity, such as a longitudinal crack, they

are diverted and leak through the surface, creating magnetic poles or points of attraction. A magnetic powder dusted onto the surface will cling to the leakage area more than elsewhere, indicating the location of any discontinuities. This process may be carried out wet or dry, the wet process is more sensitive as finer particles may be used which can detect very small defects. Fluorescent powders can also be used to enhance sensitivity when used in conjunction with ultra violet illumination. 4. Repair Any detected cracks must be ground out and the area re-welded to give the required profile and then the joint must be inspected again.