Candidate

No: 70389 P a g e | 1

CONSUMER CONFORMITY & THE ROLE OF ENVY

What cross-cultural marketing implications do different reference groups have in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes?

Candidate Number: 70389 Date: 02.09.2011

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The research at hand has been developed to explore the cross cultural marketing implications that different reference groups have in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes. Explicitly, the powerful human emotion of envy is examined in order to assess the impact it has in affecting conformity levels and whether it can be seen to encourage a proposed form of consumer competition. The study includes a review of existing literature with regards to the main constructs and related aspects of importance. Whilst the purpose of the study is to explore and expand on current literature, a pilot study has been undertaken and research hypotheses have been empirically tested. The main results of the study are that: Cross-cultural values do not make a significant contribution to consumer conformity levels. Respondents can be seen to conform as a result of both parental and peer influence. Peer influence registered as a stronger force over parental influence. The credibility of a spokesperson or endorser is susceptible to change based entirely on the gender of the consumer. The use of a parental figure is more appropriate for products primarily targeted towards women. The use of a peer figure is more appealing to the male consumer. Individuals remain most susceptible to consumer conformity at an early age and campaigns primarily targeted towards teenagers should actively seek to emphasise the particular behaviour of others. A key pre-consumption attitude intricately linked to consumer conformity is the result of a basic desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation, with purchasing to join contributing to higher levels of consumer conformity than purchasing to compete. The role of envy, self-esteem and also purchasing in an attempt to compete, failed to make a significant contribution to consumer conformity and carried no genuine effect. Additional findings did suggest that an ulterior motive may have been driving the respondents and an acknowledged yet hidden internal emotion can be seen to play both an intricate and intriguing role in affecting consumer behaviour and pre-consumption attitudes.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 - PROLOGUE ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 2.0 - INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Background .................................................................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Research Question & Aspects Of Interest ......................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Dissertation Structure ............................................................................................................................................ 11 3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1 SOCIAL INFLUENCE .................................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................................................... 12 3.1.2 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.3 Defining The Differing Types Of Social Influence ..................................................................................................... 13 3.1.4 The Reference Group Construct ....................................................................................................................................... 14 3.1.5 Familial and Peer Based Reference Groups ................................................................................................................ 15 3.1.6 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 16 3.2 CONSUMER CONFORMITY ..................................................................................................................................... 17 3.2.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................................................... 17 3.2.2 - Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.3 Rule Of The Majority ............................................................................................................................................................. 19 3.2.4 The Frankenstein Effect ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.2.5 A Young Boy: The Social Animal ...................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2.6 - Measuring Consumer Susceptibility To Interpersonal Influence ....................................................................... 22 3.2.7 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 23 3.3 ENVY ............................................................................................................................................................................. 24 3.3.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................................................... 24 4.3.2 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................. 25 3.3.3 Social Comparison Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 26 3.3.4 Envy And Gratitude ............................................................................................................................................................... 28 3.3.5 Counter-Conformity & Self Esteem ................................................................................................................................. 29 3.3.6 We Are What We Desire ...................................................................................................................................................... 31 3.3.7 The Act Of Consumption ...................................................................................................................................................... 33 3.3.8 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 34 3.4 CROSS CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 35 3.4.1 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................................................... 35 3.4.2 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35 3.4.3 The Myth Of International Difference ............................................................................................................................ 36 3.4.4 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions ....................................................................................................................................... 37 3.4.5 Application Of The Hofstede Model ................................................................................................................................ 39 3.4.6 Global Impact Of Reference Groups ................................................................................................................................ 40 3.4.7 Global Impact Of Conformity ............................................................................................................................................. 41 3.4.8 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 42 4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 43 4.1 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 43 4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 43 4.3 Hypotheses Development ..................................................................................................................................... 44 4.3.1 Hypotheses 1: Reference Group Type ........................................................................................................................... 44 4.3.2 Hypotheses 2: Pre-Consumption Attitude ................................................................................................................... 45 4.4 Sampling Procedure ................................................................................................................................................ 46 4.4.1 Secondary School Sample ................................................................................................................................................... 46 4.4.2 University Campus ................................................................................................................................................................. 46 4.5 - Research Questionnaire ......................................................................................................................................... 47 4.5.1 The Scenario ............................................................................................................................................................................. 47 4.6 Empirical Scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 50

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4.6.1 Likert Scale ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 4.6.2 Consumer Conformity .......................................................................................................................................................... 50 4.6.3 Self Esteem ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 4.6.4 Cross Cultural Implications ................................................................................................................................................ 51

5.0 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ 52 5.1 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 52 5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 52 5.3 Screening The Data Set ........................................................................................................................................... 52 5.4 Parental Influence Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 53 5.4.1 Factor Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................ 53 5.4.2 One Sample T-Test ................................................................................................................................................................. 54 5.4.3 One Way ANOVA ..................................................................................................................................................................... 55 Age ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 5.4.4 Regression ................................................................................................................................................................................. 59 5.5 Peer Influence Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 62 5.5.1 Factor Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................ 62 5.5.2 One Sample T-Test ................................................................................................................................................................. 63 5.5.3 One Way ANOVA ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64 5.5.4 Regression ................................................................................................................................................................................. 67 6.0 INTERPRETATION ........................................................................................................................................ 69 6.1 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 69 6.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 69 6.3 Interpretation of Hypothesis 1: Reference Group Type .............................................................................. 70 6.3.1 Cross Cultural Findings ........................................................................................................................................................ 70 6.3.2 Reference Group Influence Findings .............................................................................................................................. 71 6.3.3 Additional Findings ............................................................................................................................................................... 72 6.4 Interpretation of Hypothesis 2: Pre-Consumption Attitude ...................................................................... 73 6.4.1 - Cross Cultural Findings ......................................................................................................................................................... 73 6.4.2 Pre-Consumption Attitude Findings .............................................................................................................................. 73 6.4.3 Additional Findings ............................................................................................................................................................... 74 7.0 IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 75 7.1 - Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................................................................... 75 7.2 - Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 75 7.3 The Jonses ................................................................................................................................................................... 76 7.4 Stealth Marketing ..................................................................................................................................................... 78 7.5 Overall Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 80 8.0 LIMITIATIONS & SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ........................................................... 82 9.0 EPILOGUE ........................................................................................................................................................ 84 10.0 - APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................................................... 85 10.1 Citroen DS4 Marketing Campaign .................................................................................................................... 85 10.2 - Twitter ....................................................................................................................................................................... 87 10.3 Peugeot 207 Envy .................................................................................................................................................. 88 10.4 Royal Russell Permission .................................................................................................................................... 91 10.5 Completed Peer Questionnaire ......................................................................................................................... 93 10.6 Completed Parental Questionnaire ................................................................................................................. 94 10.7 Questionnaire Explanation ................................................................................................................................ 95 10.8 Bzz Agent .................................................................................................................................................................. 99 10.9 Mob Mentality ...................................................................................................................................................... 101 10.10 SPSS Data Mean Scores ................................................................................................................................ 103 10.11 SPSS Parental Data ........................................................................................................................................... 106 10.12 SPSS Peer Data .................................................................................................................................................. 107

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 5 11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 108 Books ................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 Film ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 111 Journals ............................................................................................................................................................................... 112 Online .................................................................................................................................................................................. 115 Song ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 116 Website ............................................................................................................................................................................... 116

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1.0 - PROLOGUE

The forced marches of the great herds were like the flight of a routed army, in which helpless individuals were thrust into mortal peril by the irresistible force of the mass coming behind, which rushes blindly on after their leaders. In this way it was possible to decoy a herd toward a precipice and cause it to plunge over en masse, the leaders being thrust over by their followers, and all the rest following of their own free will, like the sheep who cheerfully leaped, one after another, through a hole in the side of a high bridge because their bell-wether did so.2

1 Hornaday, 1889, P. 421 2 Ibid, P.421

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2.0 - INTRODUCTION
2.1 Background
When we operate as consumers we deploy cognitive and normative frameworks which we have developed throughout our lives, starting from the particular position we occupy in the social structure, negotiating with a variety of roles which are not reducible to our experiences as consumers. Our identity as consumer interacts, as it were, with other social identities and relations.3

Everyday each of us utilise cognitive and normative frameworks in making decisions that concern every aspect of our daily lives, however such decisions are generally made without truly understanding what is involved in the particular decision-making process itself. It is of vital importance to a marketer to truly understand the consumer decision-making process when creating a global marketing communications strategy, yet often what remains largely overlooked is an individuals social structure.4 Indeed it has been known for some time now that individuals remain largely susceptible to conform to group opinion and to what social proof 5 tells them is proper. In many ways the unimaginable and horrific scenes from Jonestown and Jim Jones infamous Peoples Temple were largely brought about because of a basic desire to conform and succumb to the social pressures imposed by one another. In a vastly different light, rioters taking to the streets, binge drinking college students and indeed consumers following the latest fashion fads are further examples brought about by individuals following the herd and conforming to apparent socially acceptable norms. It is precisely this notion of social influence that plays an intricate role in affecting both consumer decision-making and pre-consumption attitudes today.

For the purpose of this study one distinct concept is chosen as a focal construct, namely that of consumer conformity. According to Rousseau (1762), individuals are not entirely free to act but remain shackled by the power of social influence and the subconscious desire to conform to natural belief. In certain situations 3 Sassatelli, 2007, P.84 4 Ibid, P.84 5 Cialdini, 2007, P.114

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 8 individuals must often look outside of themselves for evidence of how to best behave, whether subconsciously succumbing to the rule of the majority6 or rather in an attempt to avoid standing alone. The construct of consumer conformity in this study has been selected in an attempt to suggest that one fundamental pre-consumption attitude of the consumer today, is a basic desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation.

Alongside the notion of consumer conformity, this study further focuses on the subject of pre-consumption attitudes as a second major construct of interest. Within this context, two key pre-consumption attitudes have been defined: purchasing to join and purchasing to compete. The notion of consumer conformity can be largely used to explain an individuals desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation, however in todays seemingly overcrowded metropolis consumers often wish to signal their identity to others, both as members of a group and as individuals.7 This proposal fundamentally suggests that a key pre-consumption attitude stems from a basic desire to compete rather than to merely join. A fundamental human emotion that can be used to explain this apparent consumer competition is that of envy and literature suggests that individuals often feel envious when close referents own newer or better products in comparison to their own. Envy can be seen to not only drive consumers to compete with others but also to intrinsically affect their pre-consumption attitudes.

As a third construct of interest, this study will give an insight into reference group influence. Within this context, particular attention is paid to both parental and peer influence in affecting pre-consumption attitudes. Literature suggests that individuals largely appear to act in a manner that is homogenous with the social group to which they identify and perhaps one of the most powerful and influential referents are those closest to us: our family and peers. Familial and peer referents are representative of normative referents who

6 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.245 7 Sassatelli, 2007, P.64

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 9 are able to provide an individual with attitudes and values through direct interaction, furthermore they are capable of directly influencing the consumption choices made by an individual.

A fourth and final construct of interest in this study is that of culture. A wide number of cross-cultural models have been developed yet a primary focus will be placed on The Hofstede Model and in particular the notion of individualism/collectivism. It is fundamentally important to understand how different cultures react to social pressures and by comparing individualistic and collectivistic cultures an insight into the marketing and branding implications that must be considered when creating an effective global marketing communications strategy can be made.

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2.2 Research Question & Aspects Of Interest

Current literature has focused on both; the power of social influence in affecting consumer decisions, and also on the impact of envy, however, up until now these two streams of literature have been mostly investigated separately. My research aims to combine the two areas and as a result fill a proposed gap in existing literature by addressing the following statement:

What cross-cultural marketing implications do different reference groups have in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes?

Based on the topic of exploration above, the following research questions indicate the aspects of interest that will be primarily addressed: 1. Does the type of social influence effect consumer conformity? 2. Can consumer conformity help to explain the pre-consumption attitudes of the consumer?8

8 I propose that if envy does play a role in influencing consumer behavior, consumers are largely purchasing to compete.

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2.3 Dissertation Structure

Following the introductory chapter of this study, a thorough review of existing literature is undertaken. Each topic of the literature review begins with a chapter overview, closely followed by an introduction containing a reflective quotation designed to summarise the primary constructs and related aspects of importance. The literature review has been undertaken in an attempt to identify key issues surrounding the primary aspects of interest and it has been further designed to both assess and create empirical scales that can be used to effectively measure the results of the present questionnaire. Thereafter, the research methodology is presented and the formulated hypothesis accordingly tested. This is followed by the presentation of results along with a succinct interpretation of the implications that such results carry. Subsequently, the existing limitations and also suggestions for further research are described. Finally a conclusion is drawn.

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3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 SOCIAL INFLUENCE
3.1.1 Chapter Overview Within this chapter of the literature review, an overview of various concepts that are related to the topic of social influence are presented. First the differing types of social influence according to Deutsch and Gerard are discussed. Next the reference group construct is introduced with particular focus being placed on familial and peer based referents. Finally an explanation is given as to why consumers continue to be influenced by social influences.

Literature referring to social influence has been largely acquired to form the basis of my first aspect of interest: does the type of social influence effect consumer conformity?9 3.1.2 Introduction The pervasive use of spokespeople in product and service endorsements reflects the widely held belief that individuals who are admired or who belong to a group, which other individuals can aspire, can exercise an influence on information processing, attitude formation and purchase behaviour.10

The preceding quotation indicates the significant role social influence plays in affecting consumer behaviour and in encouraging consumer conformity. Furthermore, it aptly suggests that marketers are only too aware of the power of social influence today and are using the pervasive use of spokespeople11 in an attempt to influence consumers. I would like to further explore this notion and suggest that the most powerful and influential spokespeople12 are those closest to us: our family and peers.

9 Emphasis will be placed primarily on parental and peer influence. 10 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.198 11 Ibid, P.198 12 Ibid, P.198

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 13 3.1.3 Defining The Differing Types Of Social Influence A wide body of authors have conducted research about social influence yet Deutsch and Gerard (1955) claimed that most investigators have not distinguished among different kinds of social influences; rather, they have carelessly used the term group influence to characterize the impact of many different kinds of social factors.13 Although the breadth of literature in this field has certainly expanded since 1955, Deutsch and Gerards statement certainly points towards a fundamental gap in knowledge, something that my dissertation hopes to fill. In their study Deutsch and Gerard, consider two types of social influence: informational and normative. Informational Informational social influence can be defined as an influence to accept information obtained from another as evidence about reality.14 An example of informational social influence is that of a young consumer who both seeks and accepts information from an experienced store assistant, whom he considers to be somewhat of an expert. The young consumer will likely adjust his perception about a product based on the information he has received. Normative My proposed aspects of interest are particularly relevant to the notion of normative social influence upon individual judgment, fundamentally addressing a basic desire to conform to the positive expectations of others. An example of normative social influence is that of a young consumer who purchases an item of clothing after receiving a recommendation from a friend deemed as trustworthy or fashionable.

13 Deutsch & Gerard, 1955, P.629 14 Ibid, P.629

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 14 3.1.4 The Reference Group Construct In their study Park and Lessig (1977) expanded upon previous findings and explored the impact of reference groups. The notion of a reference group is more specific than the basic notion of susceptibility to interpersonal influence and can be defined as a person or group of people that significantly influences an individuals behaviour.15 Within this concept, three key motivational influences of reference groups were examined: informational, value-expressive and utilitarian influence. Informational Influence Informational reference group influence is similar to the informational or comparative influence suggested by Deutsch and Gerard16 and can be both internalized and carried out alone rather than in requiring actual interaction between the individual and the reference group.17 Value-Expressive Influence Value-expressive reference group influence relates to an individuals motive to enhance or support his self concept.18 In this instance an individual chooses to adopt certain behaviour because it is associated with a satisfying self-defining relationship.19 An example of this reference group influence is a young consumer who purchases a new racquet to convey an image to his peers about his standard of skill, whilst also presenting himself as a prospective tennis player. Utilitarian Influence Of the three forms of reference group influence it is the concept of utilitarian influence that will be most relevant to my study as it suggests that an individual in a product purchasing situation would be most expected to comply with the preferences or expectations of another individual or group20 in order to receive a reward, avoid punishment or if his behavior will be observed by others. This closely relates to Deutsch and Gerards notion of normative influence along with Aschs conformity concept of it-is-dangerous-not-toconform. 15 Bearden & Etzel, 1982, P.184 16 Park & Lessig, 1977, P.102 17 Ibid, P.103 18 Ibid, P.103 19 Ibid, P.103 20 Ibid, P.103

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 15 3.1.5 Familial and Peer Based Reference Groups It has long been suggested that individuals appear to act in a manner that is consistent with the social group with which they identify21 and in considering this fact from a consumer-behaviour perspective, Childers and Rao (1992) describe how reference groups are capable of directly influencing the products and brands an individual may select. In their study, Childers and Rao expanded on Bearden and Etzels (1982) previous work by primarily considering two types of reference groups: familial and peer based. Familial and peer based referents are representative of normative referents, who provide the individual with norms, attitudes and values through direct interaction22 as opposed to comparative referents such as celebrities, who stand removed from the individual. Family Referents The effect of a family in impacting an individuals norms, attitudes or values is referred to by Childers & Rao as intergenerational influence.23 They suggest that brand preferences and loyalties, information search and examination patterns, media reliance, price sensitivity, and adherence to price-quality beliefs24 are all largely influenced by interfamily communication,25 something I hope to further explore in my study by suggesting that pre-consumption attitudes are also largely influenced. By further separating product types and defining between: public luxuries, public necessities, private luxuries and private necessities, Childers and Rao suggest that familial based reference groups have most influence concerning products purchased primarily for private consumption. Peer Referents Like familial referents, peers also provide the individual with norms, attitudes and values through direct interaction26 yet they influence an individual in differing ways. Childers and Rao confirm earlier findings and state that peers largely assert a strong influence when purchasing products to be used in the public 21 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.198 22 Ibid, P.199 23 Ibid, P.198 24 Ibid, P.199 25 Ibid, P.199 26 Ibid, P. 199

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 16 domain. Furthermore a product that is perceived as luxurious further ensures that peers exert a strong influence, because the relatively high price and associated perceived risk necessitate reliance on such reference groups.27

By performing a similar study, my hypotheses, like theirs, fundamentally aims to assess the stability of the observed relationships over time28 and I concur that different types of referents likely will exert differing degrees of influence.29 3.1.6 Chapter Conclusion The literature presented in this chapter emphasises the influential role social influence has in affecting consumer behaviour and research has shown that normative influences, such as family members or peers, are capable of directly influencing the choices made by an individual. I concur with Ackerman, MacInnis & Folkes (2000), who suggest that consumption itself is in many ways a social phenomenon and how people think and feel about products is influenced by those around them,30 something that carries widespread implications for a marketer. Indeed these studies amongst numerous others31 I have read fundamentally suggest that the bottom line is that Humans are easily nudged by other Humans.32 One explanation for this, something I would like to further discuss in the following chapter, is that we like to conform.33

27 Ibid, P.207 28 Ibid, P.199 29 Ibid, P.199 30 Ackerman, MacInnis & Folkes, 2000, P.173 31 Deutsch & Gerard (1955); Bearden, Burnkrant & Cousineau (1975); Moschis & Moore (1979); Netemeyer and Teel (1989); Kieker & Hartman (1991); Ratner & Kahn (2002) and Dijksterhuis, Smith, Van Baaren & Wigboldus (2005). 32 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.55 33 Ibid, P.55

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3.2 CONSUMER CONFORMITY

3.2.1 Chapter Overview Within this chapter of the literature review, an overview of various concepts that are related to the notion of conformity are presented. Initially, the concept of conformity will be introduced and defined whilst giving an insight into the social experiments of Solomon Asch. Next Rousseaus Social Contract will be explored alongside Caildini and Goldsteins contemporary analysis of it. Next insights into the actionable implications elicited by the notion of consumer conformity are also uncovered. Finally a scale in which consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence is introduced as well as Scheffs Deference Emotion System, in an attempt to explain the emotions behind counter-conformity and independence.

Literature referring to consumer conformity has been acquired to form the basis of my second aspect of interest: can consumer conformity help to explain the pre-consumption attitudes of the consumer? The notion of consumer conformity is used to explain the first of two pre-consumption attitudes: purchasing to join a group.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 18 3.2.2 - Introduction Following Joness orders, and the social pressures imposed by one another, mothers and fathers duly poisoned their children. Then they poisoned themselves. Their bodies were found arm in arm, lying together.34

In many ways the unimaginable and horrific scenes from Jonestown were largely brought about because of a basic desire to conform and succumb to the social pressures imposed by one another. For the purpose of my study, conformity can be defined as a change in a persons behaviour and opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people. 35 According to Thaler and Sunstein (2008), one of the most effective ways to nudge is via social influence,36 an influence that in this instance was so powerful that an entire population fed poison to their children before drinking it themselves. I have decided to refer to the Jonestown case as an extreme example of a society willing to conform to socially acceptable norms, and I would like to propose that if an entire population can be influenced in such a horrific yet powerful way, that very same notion of conformity can be also be used to help explain the rather less radical preconsumption attitudes of consumers today.

34 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.53 35 Aronson, 1995, P.14 36 Ibid, P.55

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 19 3.2.3 Rule Of The Majority The experiments of social psychologist Solomon Ash (1955) were influential in highlighting the susceptibility of an individual to conform to group opinion. In these experiments participants were presented with line segments and made judgments about their relative lengths.37 Although confronted with a perceptually simple task, the participants of his experiments frequently gave wrong answers when a group of peers was also giving the wrong answer, raising a fundamental question of whether people capitulate to the group despite knowing that the group is wrong or whether they conform because the group has altered their perception.38 Aschs experiments were fundamental in suggesting that perception [itself] is not simply a passive process39 and that an individuals judgment could be largely influenced and modified under the pressure of a group. Such findings do in many ways concur with Jean Jacques Rousseaus (1762) Social Contract:

Individuals in democratic societies are free to make choices and express their opinions, but the price of such freedom is sometimes the subjugation of individual choice to the general will.40

According to Rousseau, an individual will often conform his judgment to match that of a group, when that persons judgment directly conflicts with a group. In this light, individuals are not entirely free to act but remain shackled by the power of social influence and the subconscious desire to conform to natural belief. Such findings have actionable implications and I would like to further explore the role consumer conformity has not only in affecting an individuals behaviour but how it can be seen to affect pre-consumption attitudes of the consumer today.

37 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.245 38 Ibid, P.245 39 Ibid, P.245 40 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.245

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 20 3.2.4 The Frankenstein Effect Cialdini and Goldstein (2004) further propose that individuals might capitulate to a group, not as part of the Social Contract but because the unpleasantness of standing alone makes the majority of opinion more appealing than ones own belief.41 Unlike Rousseau, Cialdini and Goldstein suggest that individuals do not conform merely as a result of the rule of the majority but rather in an attempt to avoid isolation. Rob Shields (1992) also fundamentally agrees with this view and states that individual opinions are willfully suppressed or tempered by individuals anxious to belong above all else; to fit in rather than the stand out as opinionated or idiosyncratic.42 For the purpose of this study I have decided to refer to such a notion as The Frankenstein Effect43 whereby just like Frankensteins monster, an individual will desperately seek to find acceptance from a group in order to escape isolation and abandonment.

41 Ibid, P.245 42 Shields, 1992, P.107 43 This view fundamentally forms the basis of my second aspect of interest and my first key preconsumption attitude: consumers conform to social pressure in an attempt to join a group (and thus avoid standing alone).

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 21 3.2.5 A Young Boy: The Social Animal A young boy excitedly puts on his new jumper and wears it to school. The other kids laugh at him for wearing it. He takes it off and it is never seen again.44

The above scenario beautifully describes the impact social influence has in affecting consumer behaviour. In accordance with the view of Cialdini and Goldstein, the young boy45 decides to remove his jumper and conform, rather than to remain standing as an excited individual with a new item of clothing. Aronson (1995) attempts to explain the behaviour of the young child46 by referring back to Aristotles infamous notion of the Social Animal: man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. 47 The behaviour of the young child can be explained by the simple fact that he is social by nature and a key consequence of this is that he is forced to live in a state of tension between values associated with individuality and values associated with conformity.48 Such beliefs suggest that the young boy is fundamentally shaped by society, something that helps to explain his willingness to continue in following the herd49 and conforming to socially acceptable norms, with the removal and subsequent loss of the item of clothing epitomising such values.

44 Aronson, 1995, P.2 45 Ibid, P.2 46 Ibid, P.2 47 Ibid, P.1 48 Ibid, P.1 49 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.53

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 22 3.2.6 - Measuring Consumer Susceptibility To Interpersonal Influence Whilst a vast body of literature has suggested that consumers are susceptible to interpersonal influence, very few have succeeded in empirically testing their beliefs. A study carried out by Bearden, Netemeyer and Teel (1989) attempted to do exactly that: our objective is to develop a scale to assess consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence, which is assumed to be a general trait that varies across individuals.50 Developing the work of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), Bearden, Netemeyer and Teel provided respondents with an imaginary shopping scenario in which they were asked to contemplate the purchase of a pair of jeans.

In order to empirically test my own hypotheses, I will include elements of Bearden, Netemeyer and Teels Measurement of Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence Scale and similarly provide respondents with an imaginary shopping scenario. 51 It is however worth noting that the scale itself was largely open to criticism from critics who suggested that consumer perceptions of utilitarian and value-expressive influence are not easily distinguished empirically.52

50 Bearden, Netemeyer & Teel, 1989, P.473 51 See section 4.6 for further details concerning how the scale will applied to the present study at hand. 52 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.199

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 23 3.2.7 Chapter Conclusion In concluding this chapter I would like to reiterate Thaler and Sunsteins statement that the bottom line is that humans are easily nudged by other humans. Why? One reason is that we like to conform.53 The literature used in this chapter largely concurs with this statement and suggests that one fundamental preconsumption attitude encouraging consumer conformity is a basic desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation. However, there is no escaping the fact that consumers today often wish to develop and indeed enhance their personal and social identity and as a result can be seen to compete with others. This proposal is explored in the following chapter.

53 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.55

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3.3 ENVY
3.3.1 Chapter Overview Within this chapter of the literature review, an overview of various concepts related to the emotion of envy will be introduced. An initial insight will be given into the presupposed definition of envy and also on the consequences this powerful emotion plays in affecting consumer behaviour. Social comparison theory is then explored alongside the emotions that this elicits. Next, the works of Melanie Klien are used in forming a basic understanding of the emotion of envy. Subsequently the concept of self-esteem is explored and two arguments, each intricately connected to the notion of consumer competition and envy are presented. Finally the concept of envy in this study fundamentally alters the very conceptualisation of consumption, looking upon it as a symbolic and seemingly competitive action, whilst also emphasising the unstated role of the ego, a proposal that is both explored and supported through literature.

Literature referring to envy has been largely acquired to form the basis of my second aspect of interest: can consumer conformity help to explain the pre-consumption attitudes of the consumer? Envy can be used to explain the second of two pre-consumption attitudes: purchasing to compete with a group.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 25 4.3.2 Introduction

If you cant join them, beat them.54

Whilst previous chapters have explored the role social influence has in uniting consumers, I would also like to propose that consumers often do not merely wish to join, but to compete. Literature has often implied that consumers actively compare themselves to others in order to evaluate the suitability of their opinions, something that does in many ways encourage a form of consumer competition. The proposal that consumers are subconsciously (and indeed consciously) competing with one another can be further explored and explained by the powerful emotion of envy.

For the purpose of this study I will be following Langmans definition of envy: envy is a comparison of ones own subjectivity to that of the Other.55 Whilst Langman (1992) suggests that this creates what might be called a relative deprivation of selfhood,56 I would like to counter suggest that, in a controlled manner, envy can not only help to explain consumer conformity but it can also positively impact selfhood.

54 Going Through Hell, 2011, Song 55 Langman1992, P.71 56 Ibid, P.71

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 26 3.3.3 Social Comparison Theory In their study, Ackerman, MacInnis and Folkes (2000) examine the consequences and appraisals that result from the social comparisons of possessions. As a direct consequence of social influence, social comparison theory maintains that individuals compare themselves to others to evaluate the ability level and the suitability of their opinions.57 Whilst previous research on social comparison theory largely focused on the consequences of particular attitudes, Social Comparisons of Posessions placed particular emphasis on the emotions58 experienced: people experience such emotions as envy, jealousy and anger when they compare their abilities to others with superior talents.59

It is suggested that social comparison largely evokes negative feelings and acts in a way that is potentially threatening to ones self esteem. An example of this, according to Ackerman, MacInnis and Folkes, is the use of an attractive supermodel in an advertisement who stands removed from the individual whilst inviting unfavorable comparisons with the self.60 In their study however, they also state that social comparisons need not always elicit negative responses61 and that positive emotion can also be evoked. Elaborating on findings from both Cialdini (1976) and Tesser (1990), they infer that positive emotions can either be evoked as a result of downward comparison, or alternatively from a pride in another62 whereby an individual is seen to bask in the glory of a close friend.

In their experiment, Ackerman, MacInnis and Folkes asked respondents to describe two personal experiences involving the social comparison of possessions. By asking respondents to first report on a situation in which the social comparison made them feel good, and secondly on a situation in which the comparison made them feel bad, the differing emotions affecting the individuals could be placed under 57 Ackerman, MacInnis & Folkes, 2000, P.173 58 Ibid, P.173 - An emotion is itself defined as an affective state generated in response to ones perception of a situation. 59 Ibid, P.173 60Ibid, P.173 61 Ibid, P.173 62 Ibid, P.173

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 27 scrutiny. Out of the eleven emotions analysed, they intriguingly discovered that only envy was related to desire for the unowned product.63 Envy had differing impacts on the interviewed respondents and elicited both positive and negative feelings, an important factor directly linking the emotion to the concept of desire.64

Whilst I aim to expand on the findings of Ackerman, MacInnis and Folkes, it is a huge source of satisfaction to me that in doing so, I may able to contribute to the growing recognition of the full significance of their discoveries:

Research has previously focused on the informational aspects of social influence on consumer purchases or compliance with social norms to influence individual behaviour. Our results suggest that envy may also be an important part of social influence.65

Not only do I concur with their findings, but I would also like to state that they largely form the basis of my second aspect of interest and to a certain extent, my entire study. Consumers can feel envious when they discover that socially close others own newer and better products,66 something that I propose fundamentally leads to a subconscious desire to compete. Whilst envy is largely considered a negative and at times destructive emotion, Ackerman, MacInnis and Folkes suggest that a benign form of envy from social comparisons of possessions may lead to the positive spread of innovations of fashions.67 In their study, envy not only affects social influence but also it further stands as a potentially positive emotion capable of igniting both healthy competition and innovation.

63 Ibid, P.175 64 Please see section 3.3.6 for further details regarding the subject of desire. 65 Ackerman, MacInnis & Folkes, 2000, P.177 66 Ibid, P.177 67 Ibid, P.177

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 28 3.3.4 Envy And Gratitude Melanie Kleins text Envy & Gratitude: A Study of Unconscious Sources proved influential in exploring the originations of two powerful emotions present in the human psyche. Klien (1957) describes envy as both a powerful and entirely destructive emotion that first originated from an infants desire for the inexhaustible, ever-present breast.68 The mothers breast is the first object to be envied and the unlimited flow of milk and love which the breast keeps for its own gratification69 creates a powerful destructive force within the individual once removed.

Whist envious impulses often lead to a desire to counter-conform, gratitude is presented as an emotion that is essential in building up the relation to the good object and underlies also the appreciation of goodness in others and in oneself.70 Gratitude is also deeply rooted in the attitudes and emotions experienced at the earliest stage of infancy, yet unlike envy, it has a powerful derivative of the capacity for love, rather than destruction.

Melanie Kliens work beautifully presents two innate human emotions and I would like to suggest that each can be used to help explain two pre-consumption attitudes proposed in my study. Gratitude largely forms the basis for all latter relations with one loved person71 and so can be used to explain a consumers willingness to conform to utilitarian social pressures in order to join a group (aspect of interest 1). Envy on the other hand may at an early stage disturb this particular bond72 and largely encourage a consumer to fundamentally compete with a group (aspect of interest 2).

68 Klein, 1957, P.14 69 Ibid, P.10 70 Ibid, P.17 71 Ibid, P.17 72 Ibid, P.17

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 29 3.3.5 Counter-Conformity & Self Esteem In exploring the concept of consumer competition, other models of social response such as independence, counter-conformity and negativism must be acknowledged. According to Berns Et Al (2005), compared with behavioural research of conformity, comparatively little is known about the mechanisms of nonconformity or independence.73

Consider for a moment if you will, the scenario in which you stand at a formal dinner party only to discover that another guest has arrived wearing the same outfit as you. The occurrence of such a situation can be explained by the notion of conformity (both consumers may have followed a fashion trend) yet a number of evoked emotions can be largely explained using Scheffs counter conformist Deference Emotion System.74 He intricately links the concept of counter-conformity to an individuals sense of self-esteem and suggests that two emotions can be felt in response to this: shame (low self esteem) and pride (high self esteem). In the case of the above scenario, an individual can be said to feel either shame or pride in the fact that another is wearing the same outfit. According to Scheff, pride is to be felt when an individual is capable of both acknowledging and discharging the innate sense of shame, something that can only be achieved with a highself esteem. On the other hand the concept of low self-esteem can be seen as a gloss, implying a person who habitually feels shame rather than pride.75 Such a predicament makes it inherently difficult to counterconform, an action that would require an individual to confront, rather than avoid, the shame of appearing different from a group. Berns Et Al aptly define such a confliction as the pain of independence,76 a view that can be seen to direct a noticeable element of irony towards the current Citroen DS4 marketing campaign: Say No To Conformity.77

73 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.252 74 Scheff, 1994, P.93 75 Ibid, P.93 76 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.252 77 See Appendix 10.1 for further details regarding the Citroen marketing campaign.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 30 Scheffs study inherently opposes my notion of consumer competition and the role of envy, yet it does place a great emphasis on the role played by emotions in influencing behaviour. Whilst tresting for envy and a basic desire to compete, I would also like to empirically test the relationship between (counter) conformity and self-esteem by applying elements of Rosenburgs Self-Esteem Scale78 (1965) into my questionnaire.79

78 Rosenburg, 1965, P.1 79 See section 4.6 for further details regarding how this scale has been applied to the present study at hand.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 31 3.3.6 We Are What We Desire In direct contrast to the findings of Scheff, one reason explaining why individuals continue to conform to social norms and fashions, according to Thaler and Sunstein (2008), is because they elicit a high self-esteem value80 and think that others are closely paying attention to what they are doing. This notion largely concurs with the findings of Gilovich & Savitsky (2011) who indicated that people tend to overestimate the extent to which their behaviour and appearance are noticed and evaluated by others.81 This apparent anchoring of the self has been defined as The Spotlight Effect whereby people tend to believe that the social spotlight shines more brightly on them than it actually does.82 According to Thaler and Sunstein, individuals who do elicit a high self-esteem value and who do fall prey to The Spotlight Effect hold a subconscious belief that others have their eyes fixated upon them, and as a result they largely conform to what they think people expect of them. Mead (1992) further elaborates on such a concept and suggests that in the age of television, we learn to see Others as if our eye were a camera.83 According to Mead, consumers today continually take the role of the other and imagine that a wider audience of home viewers84 are focused on each of us, and that as a result being seen brings gratification through recognition of self.85 I would like to elaborate on such proposals and further suggest that each intricately hints at a basic human emotion, a desire to be looked at, and in many ways, a desire to be envied: In addition to

80 This view largely contradicts the earlier findings of Scheff. 81 Gilovich & Savitsky, 1999, P.165 82 Ibid, P.165 83 Langman, 1992, P.56 84 Ibid, P.56 85 Ibid, P.56 - Both theories do in many ways intricately link back to Freuds notion of scopophilia or the fascination to see. He suggested that narcissistic identification is about the establishment of a monitoring relationship in the interplay of self and other (Nixon, 1992, P.153).

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 32 craving desire itself, we desire to be desired by certain others.86 If envy is a comparison of ones subjectivity to that of the Other,87 it must then be considered from two fronts; consumers not only attempt to compete with one another in response to envy but also experience a basic desire to be gazed upon and to remain firmly within the spotlight.

86 Belk, Ger & Askegaard, 2000, P.102 See Appendix 10.2 for further details regarding the concept of envy and how social media can be seen to exacerbate such emotions. 87 Langman, 1992, P.71

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 33 3.3.7 The Act Of Consumption The literature explored in this chapter has been used to suggest how envy and emotion can be used to help explain the notion of consumer competition, yet it must be considered that such a proposal fundamentally changes the very concept of consumption. In this context, consumption can be seen to take on a symbolic role, one in which commodities become valued for their aura of symbolic meanings and values.88 According to Shields (1992), social influence has directly altered the nature of commodity consumption, so much so that commodities have become re-enchanted rather than valued for their exchange value or indeed use.89 Shieldss view of the act of consumption does not stand alone in the literature of this subject but is indeed widely supported. Girard (1987) in particular infamously stated that the imagined pleasure of possessing an object depends upon the existence of others who desire it.90 Whilst Ackerman Et Al (2000) proposed that envy is intricately linked to the concept of desire, Girard further argues that desire is mimetic. We desire things because others desire them.91 In such a light, the fetishistic value92 of products is based purely on a fluid, symbolic and ever-changing construct rather than on any intrinsic qualities that that product may possess. In the eyes of Girard, this fact alone ensures that others become our models as we become their rivals,93 or in other words that a key pre-consumption attitude stems from a basic desire to compete with those around us. Indeed such values appear to be driving numerous marketing campaigns today, most noticeably with the launch of the current Peugeot 207 Envy, a campaign whose tagline warns: Be Aware of the Consequences of Envy.94 88 Shields, 1992, P.99 89 Ibid, P.99 90 Belk, Ger & Askegaard, 2000, P.106 91 Ibid, P.105 92 Ibid, P.106 93 Ibid, P.105 94 See Appendix 10.3 for further details regarding the Peugeot 207 marketing campaign.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 34 3.3.8 Chapter Conclusion Current literature has focused on both; the power of social influence in affecting consumer decisions, and also on the impact of envy, however, up until now these two streams of literature have been largely investigated separately. The aim of this chapter was to combine the two areas and attempt to fill a proposed gap in existing literature. Furthermore, whilst literature has often focused on the role emotion plays in influencing behaviour, comparatively little remains known about the impact of envy, something this chapter has attempted to address. This chapter has been fundamentally used in an attempt to understand how envy drives consumers to compete with others and in doing so affects their pre-consumption attitudes. In order to empirically test my own hypothesis I have attempted to develop a scale in which the motivation to compete with others can be analysed, something that began with the findings of this literature review.

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3.4 CROSS CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS

3.4.1 Chapter Overview Within this chapter of the literature review, an overview of various concepts related to the notion of culture are presented. First, the myth of international difference is introduced and explored. Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions are then discussed and applied so they can be used in a way to analyse consumer behaviour. A primary focus is maintained on the concept of individualism/collectivism, as this dimension most closely correlates with the concept of conformity and social influence. Finally an understanding is made into the cultural impacts on reference group influence and indeed the very concept of consumer conformity.

3.4.2 Introduction Branding is profoundly affected by individualism and collectivism. For example, Western branding tends to encourage elements like: personal choice; style and character through brands; role models to demonstrate uniqueness through originality [and] standing out from the crowd Asian branding on the other hand emphasizes trust, confidence and security in popular, famous brand names and corporations; imitations and emulation of values in group role models; peer approval; and rapid adoption.95

According to Hofstede, Wedel and Steenkamp (2002), the key to success [when expanding globally] is to understand the attitudes and behaviour of the consumers in these segments and to tailor strategies to their needs.96 The introductory quotation used in this chapter suggests that in order to effectively do so, a number of cultural barriers must be both overcome and understood, as consumers from different cultures inevitably react differently to social-orientated marketing messages. Furthermore, the very notion of culture97 is itself is a difficult one for any marketer to truly understand, nevertheless, this chapter primarily aims to gain a closer understanding of how susceptibility to social influence differs from culture to culture. 95 Mooij, 2004, P.165 96 Hofstede, Wedel & Steenkamp, 2002, P.161 97 Soares, Farhangmeh & Shoham, 2007, P.277 - For the purpose of this study I will follow Taylors early definition of culture: the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 36 3.4.3 The Myth Of International Difference Before a thorough understanding of cross-cultural differences is undertaken, it is important to not disregard those critics who believe international difference to be merely a myth.98 Levitt (1983) was one of the first critics to argue that multinational firms should seek to target consumer segments which span the globe, and thus benefit from the scale economies of global branding.99 Whilst he faced a wide number of critics, his suggestion that as new media and technology shrank the world, peoples tastes would converge creating a single global market that would be dominated by the worlds most successful brands.100 Farley and Lehman further suggest that the myth in international marketing is that everything is different,101 a belief that largely concurs with those of Kenichi Ohmae (1999) who intricately describes the managing implications that arise in The Borderless World. Boundaries between countries may exist on a political map102 but people everywhere are more and more able to get the information they want directly from all corners of the world.103 In describing the implied global nature of todays consumer, Kenichi Ohmae directly stated that customer needs have globalized, and we must globalize with them.104

98 Marketing Week, 2003, Online 99 Ibid, Online 100 Levitt, 1983, P.191 101 Farley & Lehman, 1994, P.111 102 Ohmae, 2009, P.153 103 Ibid, P.153 104 Ibid, P.161

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 37 3.4.4 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Culture has long remained an elusive concept and to date no universal definition of culture exists. Broad definitions of culture include a shared pattern of behaviour (Margaret Mead, 1953), a system of shared meaning or understanding (Claude Levi-Strauss, 1971; Clifford Geertz, 1983) or a set of basic assumptions, shared solutions to universal problems handed down from one generation to another (Edward Schein, 1985).105 Culture itself then largely remains a fuzzy concept106 yet the work of Hofstede was influential in making it more concrete and indeed quantifiable. In asking respondents about their preferences in both management styles and work values he discovered that national cultures could be divided into four main dimensions: individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance & power distance. Individualism/Collectivism Of the four dimensions it is that of individualism/collectivism that remains most important to my study. Individualism refers to a culture in which individuals primarily look after their own immediate interests, in comparison to a collectivist culture that commonly places society ahead of the individual. Research suggests that most Western countries score higher individualistic values, whilst Asian and Latin American countries remain largely collectivistic. The concept of individualism/collectivism is fundamentally concerned with the relationship between individuals and his or her peers and it will be used in my study to gain a closer understanding of how susceptibility to social influence differs from culture to culture. Furthermore, the notion of individualism/collectivism is also intricately linked to the idea of conformity and research has suggested that consumers in collectivistic cultures are more likely to succumb to the social pressures of others, in comparison to individualistic cultures. Masculinity/Femininity Masculinity/Femininity describes the high or low values given to assertive and competitive behaviour. Whilst masculine cultures are driven by dominance feminine cultures remain non-aggressive and maintain a 105 Lasserre, 2007, P.302 106 Mooij, 2003, P.183

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 38 fundamental concern for weak and dominant values. Mooij states that the concept of femininity is also intricately connected to that of conformity, something I hope to further explore: feminine cultures can be characterized by a need for leveling; they are also said to be jealous societies. Envy [can even be] a motive to buy or not buy products or brands.107 Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance describes the need for well-defined rules for prescribed behaviour and in the words of Hofstede, the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations.108 Power Distance Power distance is a dimension that is concerned with hierarchical influences and also the consequences of power inequality within society. For the purpose of the present study, all dimensions will be individually measured.

107 Mooij, 2004, P.163 108 Ibid, P.35

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 39 3.4.5 Application Of The Hofstede Model A wide number of cross-cultural models have been developed, yet very few have been primarily created for analysing consumer behaviour and according to Hofstede: when using them, the manifestations of culture that are relevant for consumer behaviour have to be [both] selected and interpreted.109 The Hofstede Model, a study undertaken by Mooij and Hofstede (2010), was specifically designed to help overcome this and it succeeded in describing the elements of the model that are most relevant to both branding and advertising.

In maintaining a primary focus on the Hofstede dimension that is of particular importance to my study, that of individualism/collectivism, I would like to refer Mooij and Hofstedes statement that: in the sales process in individualistic cultures, parties want to get to the point fast, whereas in collectivistic cultures it is necessary to first build a relationship and trust between parties.110 Mooij and Hofstede describe the crosscultural implications that must be considered when marketing in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures and whether a global marketing communications strategy should be designed to first persuade the consumer (individualistic cultures) or to generate trust (collectivistic cultures).

Their study reflects a number of cultural dimensions that must be taken into consideration by an international marketer and in an attempt to empirically test my own hypothesis, a number of their findings will be included into my questionnaire.111

109 Mooij & Hofstede, 2010, P.88 110 Ibid, P.89 111 See section 4.6 for further details.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 40 3.4.6 Global Impact Of Reference Groups In creating a global marketing communications strategy there are a number of factors that must be assessed and I would like to further explore how susceptibility to interpersonal reference group influence differs from culture to culture. In their study Childer and Rao (1992) explored whether social influences were specific to one culture or whether susceptibility to reference group influence is a universal human trait.112

In maintaining a primary focus on the country of Thailand they were able to conclude that for Thai subjects, the relatively larger number and variety of family members generate relatively strong influences, which then reduce the influence of peers.113 Perhaps due to the presence of a large family structure, Thai subjects were shown to be greatly affected by their family when purchasing products. According to Childers and Rao, in Thailand the older generation is traditionally accorded a great deal of respect114 and therefore owning the same brand as ones parent is widely acceptable, in the United States however that is considered somewhat of a social faux pas115 and peers instead appear to exert stronger influence. When deciding to use a spokesperson to represent an individuals most influential referent, an international marketer must correctly assess and understand the intricately linked cultural factors that come with such a decision.

112 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.198 113 Ibid, P.207 114 Ibid, P.208 115 Ibid, P.208

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 41 3.4.7 Global Impact Of Conformity Literature has suggested that conformity itself is perceived differently across cultures and that whilst consumers may inherently hold a desire to compete with one another in individualistic cultures, they may be more likely to conform in collectivistic cultures. Mooij (2004) states that whereas conformity, obedience and compliance are viewed negatively in American culture, they generally are positively valued behaviour in collectivistic cultures,116 a factor that carries widespread marketing implications.

In exploring different cultural reactions to conformity Mooij suggests that: the Chinese prefer brands they judge to be middle-of-the-road, even if they can afford to pay for expensive brands that make them look different. This is in contrast to Americans who prefer to stand out from the crowd.117 His findings imply that individuals in collectivistic cultures focus more on the social adjustment function118 whereas those in individualistic cultures have a wider focus on the value-expressive function that serves the need for self expression.119 Cultural reactions to consumer conformity must therefore be intricately understood, after all, where the key to marketing in one culture may be that of perceived popularity and the be like others appeal,120 a contrasting culture may alternately desire uniqueness and favour individuality. Literature suggests that cultural factors directly impact an individuals attitude towards social-orientated marketing, something my study hopes to further explore.

116 Mooij, 2004, P.163 117 Ibid, P.163 118 Ibid, P.164 119 Ibid, P.164 120 Ibid, P.164

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 42 3.4.8 Chapter Conclusion The literature used in this chapter has been fundamentally used to gain a closer understanding of how susceptibility to social influences differs from culture to culture. Indeed understanding how different cultures are affected by social influence and their attitude towards consumer conformity carry fundamental implications that must be considered when creating a global marketing communications strategy. In positioning brands or in developing marketing appeals it is crucial for any international marketer to both understand and recognise the variations in how consumers are motivated across the globe and the literature used in this chapter has been specifically acquired to assist with developing a scale to empirically measure the results of my own questionnaire.

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4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Chapter Overview
In this chapter, the methodology of the research that has been conducted for the study at hand will be introduced. Initially the developed hypotheses are both explained and described. Next, information regarding the sampling procedure and acquired respondents will be provided followed by a close illustration of the scenario and various empirical scales used in the questionnaire.

4.2 Introduction
Whilst my dissertation aims to explore and expand on current literature I also propose to adopt a pilot study. For this purpose, two independent variables, each containing two levels, will be included: Reference Group Type and Pre-Consumption Attitude. Concerning Reference Group Type the two levels are: parental and peer influence. With Pre-Consumption Attitude the two levels are: purchasing to join and purchasing to compete. A multiple regression will be conducted to measure the varying impact both independent variables have on the selected dependent variable: Consumer Conformity.

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4.3 Hypotheses Development

4.3.1 Hypotheses 1: Reference Group Type Previous literature has emphasised the influential role social influence has in affecting consumer behaviour and research has suggested that normative influences, such as family members or peers, are capable of directly influencing the choices made by an individual. Childers and Rao (1992) fundamentally explored the differing impact both parents and peers have in influencing consumer behaviour yet sound empirical findings exploring whether susceptibility to reference group influence is a universal trait continue to remain somewhat limited.

I propose that as international borders are crossed the image of a conventional family structure is shifted and as a result, intergenerational influence121 inevitably fluctuates. Based on the research I have undertaken and on the results I expect to find, the following hypothesis has been derived:

H1.Within an individualistic culture, consumers are more susceptible to conformity in the presence of a peer compared to the presence of a parent.

121 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.199

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 45 4.3.2 Hypotheses 2: Pre-Consumption Attitude Past literature has explored the susceptibility of an individual to conform to group opinion when a persons judgment directly conflicts with a group. The concept of consumer conformity carries widespread implications for a marketer yet the pre-consumption attitudes behind the act of conformity must first be understood. Previous literature, and in particular the work of Cialdini and Goldstein (2005), suggest that one reason explaining conformity is that the unpleasantness of standing alone makes the majority of opinion more appealing than ones own belief.122 From a consumer perspective, this proposal can be used to understand the first fundamental key pre-consumption attitude: purchasing to join a group (and thus avoid isolation). However, in todays seemingly overcrowded metropolis, the need to enhance personal and social identity can be seen to actively encourage a form of competition whereby consumers are not joining together but competing against one another. This study has used the emotion of envy to explain the second preconsumption attitude: purchasing to compete with a group.

Once again, as international borders are crossed, differing cultural reactions to conformity must be understood. Literature suggests that cultural factors do directly impact an individuals attitude towards social orientated marketing, a factor that led to the creation of my second hypotheses:

H2.Within an individualistic culture, purchasing to compete will contribute to higher levels of consumer conformity than purchasing to join.123

122 Berns, 2005, p.245. 123 This hypothesis has been largely created to test my proposal of the role envy plays in affecting consumer behaviour.

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4.4 Sampling Procedure

In total, 189 participants completed one of the two questionnaires used in the present study at hand. In an attempt to generate as effective a sample as possible, respondents were largely124 acquired from two primary locations: one secondary school and one university campus.

4.4.1 Secondary School Sample The majority of participants were secondary school students from Royal Russell School in Croydon, England. Royal Russell was selected as the school of choice as it remains home to a wide number of both home and international students. As a boarding school, Royal Russell enabled an accurate sample to be collected whereby students of all ages and nationalities could participate in the study. The age of participants at this location ranged from 13-18 years, a factor that ensured written permission125 was obtained by the deputy headmaster and also that the questionnaire itself was both engaging understand. to all ages and easy to

4.4.2 University Campus A large body of respondents was also acquired from the University of Sussex campus. As a University that prides itself on its international body of students, the campus provided a great location in which to gather further responses to the questionnaire.

124 Further responses were collected anonymously from an online source. 125 See Appendix 10.4 for details regarding written consent.

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4.5 - Research Questionnaire

A questionnaire was decided as the most appropriate form in which to collect the responses of the participants of the present study at hand. Each questionnaire consisted of a short introduction concerning the nature of the study, followed by a hypothetical scenario whereby the respondents were asked to imagine themselves on a shopping trip for an evening outfit, joined by either a parent or a close friend. The questionnaire itself was used to understand the differing thought processes of the respondent at different stages in the scenario and therefore effectively measure the differing impacts social influence has in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes.

The purchase of an item of clothing was primarily selected because the empirical findings of Childers and Rao suggest that of the four product types, public luxuries126 potentially provide the strongest data set. Furthermore, the work of Midgely, Dowling and Morrison (1989) suggests that the inherent social symbolism of clothing enhances the likely strength of the phenomenon under investigation (interpersonal influence).127

4.5.1 The Scenario Each participant was exposed to one of two hypothetical scenarios whereby they were to be joined by either a parent or a peer, therefore allowing the impact of each reference group in affecting pre-consumption attitudes to be closely and individually assessed. Furthermore, this process also enabled the sample to be randomly split into two subsets whereby estimate factor models for each subset could be later compared as a test for data reliability.

126 Childers & Rao, 1992, P.198 127 Midgely, 1989, P.137

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 48 Parental Scenario128 In an attempt to directly measure the impact parental influence has in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes, the respondents were presented with the following scenario:

Tonight you will be attending what is said to be the biggest student party of the year. Both yourself and your entire year group have been excited for weeks and anybody who is anybody will be there. You decide that the occasion calls for a shopping trip with your mother / father129 so that you can buy a new outfit for the night. You get on really well with your mother / father and have always admired her / his sense of style, something you feel might help when picking your outfit today. Although shopping for yourself, you walk into your favourite shop and your mother / father so happens to find an outfit that she / he would like to try on. You are asked to give your opinion and you agree that it looks great. Before long you find your perfect outfit for tonight and try it on in one of the changing rooms. You then decide to show your mother / father in order to get a second opinion. Your mother / father likes what you are wearing and suggests that it is something they would also normally pick. You must admit that the two outfits have certain similarities but you remain reassured by your mother / father who recommends that you purchase the outfit. You walk up to the till still deciding on whether or not this is the right outfit for your big night ahead

128 See Appendix 10.5 to view a completed parental questionnaire. 129 It is important to note that in order to gain an acceptable data set, respondents presented with this scenario were asked in the questionnaire introduction to imagine themselves being joined by the parent of the same sex as them. I.e.: male respondents to be joined by their father and female respondents by their mother.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 49 Peer Scenario130 In an attempt to directly measure the impact peer influence has in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes, the respondents were presented with the following scenario:

Tonight you will be attending what is said to be the biggest student party of the year. Both yourself and your entire year group have been excited for weeks and anybody who is anybody will be there. You decide that the occasion calls for a shopping trip with your best friend so that you can each buy a new outfit for the night. You have always admired your best friends sense of style, something you feel might help when picking your outfit today. You walk into your favourite shop and your best friend immediately finds an outfit. You are asked to give your opinion and you agree that it looks great. Before long you too find the perfect outfit and try it on in one of the changing rooms. You then decide to show your best friend in order to get a second opinion. Your friend likes what you are wearing and suggests that it is something they would also normally pick. You must admit that the two outfits have certain similarities but you remain reassured by your friend who recommends that you purchase the outfit. You walk up to the till still deciding on whether or not this is the right outfit for your big night ahead

130 See Appendix 10.6 to view a completed parental questionnaire.

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4.6 Empirical Scales131

The development of the present questionnaire and empirical scales fundamentally began with the findings of the literature review. A number of empirical scales were used throughout my questionnaire fundamentally enabling a close statistical analysis to be conducted. Where an established scale has not been used, a bespoke scale has been independently developed. 4.6.1 Likert Scale A seven-point Likert scale was adopted for use throughout the questionnaire, enabling each respondent to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the statements provided. 4.6.2 Consumer Conformity Elements of Bearden, Netemeyer and Teels (1989) Measurement of Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence Scale were used in the present questionnaire and similarly respondents were provided with an imaginary shopping scenario. The shopping scenario was adapted in order to assess reference group impact on pre-consumption attitudes, rather than merely measuring consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence. In their scale, motivation to comply with others was operationalized as the sum of two statements: (1) With respect to this purchase, I would very much like to / very much not like to do what my close friend thinks I ought to do. (2) Regarding this purchase I want to do what my close friend thinks I should do. Both questions have been incorporated into my questionnaire and a third has been additionally added: (3) I feel that I am very likely to purchase the outfit. 4.6.3 Self Esteem In an attempt to further expand on the findings of Scheff (1994), elements of Rosenburgs Self-Esteem Scale have been applied in order to test the role played by emotion and self-esteem in encouraging consumer conformity. (1) On the whole I am satisfied with myself. (2) I feel I have a number of good qualities. (3) I am able to do things as well as most other people.

131 See Appendix 10.7 for full details explaining each element of the questionnaire along with the empirical scales used.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 51 4.6.4 Cross Cultural Implications In an attempt to avoid wrongly grouping respondents based purely on their country of birth, elements of The Hofstede Scale have been adopted into the present questionnaire, therefore enabling cross-cultural implications to be empirically measured. The following questions developed from the findings of The Hofstede Model have been introduced into the questionnaire: (1) I feel that luxury brands are a way of expressing status.132 (2) I often purchase unknown brands.133 (3) I feel that high status brands are a way of demonstrating success.134 (4) I express a high degree of innovation and desire to change products.135 (5) I consider myself to be a well-informed consumer.136

132 This is a common feature found in high power distance cultures. 133 This is common n individualistic cultures. 134 This is common in masculine cultures. 135 This is a common feature in high uncertainty avoidance cultures. 136 This is common in all: low power distance cultures, low uncertainty avoidance cultures and individualistic cultures.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 52

5.0 DATA ANALYSIS

5.1 Chapter Overview
Having explained the research methodology, the present chapter will follow each phase of the multivariate process and enable a close statistical analysis to be conducted. An initial insight will be given into the data screening procedure followed by an explanation of the individual phases of the multivariate process. A number of interesting findings will be interpreted and discussed throughout.

5.2 Introduction
The statistical analysis undertaken for the present study at hand was carried out using the statistical software SPSS 18.0. The multivariate process has been individually undertaken for each data set and the statistical results of the data individually compared. Not only did this process prove most effective in analysing the data itself, it also provided a key validation tool whereby factor models for each subset could be later compared as a test for data reliability.

5.3 Screening The Data Set

In order for the data analysis to be reliable, the data set must first be checked to ensure its suitability. There were very few cases of missing data and it was determined that the extent of missing data was low enough not to affect results and was also scattered randomly, with no distinct patterns present. In order to maintain as close as possible the original distribution of values, a remedy was chosen whereby missing data was replaced with the mean score of that variable. Calculating reliable means is necessary in order to provide investments in multivariate insurance137 and all the mean values in this case seem appropriate, suggesting that there is no further indication for concern.138 On the basis of this data screening process, both data sets at hand can be considered suitable for subsequent analysis.

137 Hair Et Al, 2010, P.36 138 See Appendix 10.10 for complete details.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 53

5.4 Parental Influence Data Analysis

Initially the results from the Parental data set were analysed. 5.4.1 Factor Analysis An exploratory factor analysis is performed to define the underlying structure among variables in the analysis and to retain the nature of the original variables whilst condensing their number into a smaller set of factors. The factor analysis at hand condensed the 30 variables into 8 factors and in addition a Cronbachs Alpha () test was run on each to indicate their reliability.139 Factor Name 1) Peer Influence 2) Self Esteem 3) Parental Influence 4) Consumer Conformity 5) Inner Emotion 6) Purchase to Compete 7) Purchase to Join 8) Individualism 9) Sex Cronbach Alpha Test Score .898 .894 .788 .776 .815 .803 .823 .794 .803

Outcomes reveal that all factors have an acceptable internal consistency with all Cronbachs Alpha () scores >.7. On the basis of this reliability test, all factors can be considered suitable for subsequent analysis.

139 See Appendix 10.11 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 54 5.4.2 One Sample T-Test A one sample T-test is performed to measure the distribution of the data compared to the theoretical mean. A T-test including all the variables that remain suitable for subsequent analysis140 has been presented and summarised below.141 Variable 22) I feel that I have a number of good qualities 23) I am able to do things as well as most other people 21) On the whole I am satisfied with myself 10) I would be happy to have an outfit that looked as nice as my mothers / fathers 1) My final purchase was significantly influenced because I was not shopping alone 5) I feel that I am very likely to purchase the outfit 11) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked nicer than my mothers / fathers 9) I would prefer to have found an outfit before my mother / father Factor Self Esteem Self Esteem Self Esteem Parental Influence Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.037 Mean Difference 1.297 1.407 1.593 .363

Consumer Conformity

0.000

.791

Consumer Conformity Purchase to Compete Purchase to Compete

0.000 0.002

9.89 .593

0.050

.363

The above table indicates that the difference between the mean in a number of conditions was large enough to not be a chance result and that in particular; consumer conformity (9.89), self-esteem (1.407) and purchasing to compete (.593) had the biggest positive impact on the respondents, whilst also remaining statistically significant. As the significance for each of the variables above is <0.05 it can be concluded that respondents attitude is significantly different from that of the theoretical mean.

140 Cross loadings from the rotated factor analysis were deemed insignificant and excluded from data analysis. 141 See Appendix 10.11 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 55 5.4.3 One Way ANOVA A one-way analysis of variance acts as an extension of the T-Test and is fundamentally used to assess whether a model fits its data. Whilst running the ANOVA it was decided to extend the parameter of the study at hand in order to gain a deeper insight into how both age and gender affect the factors at hand. Past literature suggests that females more frequently report and express inner-directed emotions142 a notion that not only leaves them potentially more susceptible to consumer conformity, but also one that allows self esteem to perhaps play a more intricate role in affecting their pre-consumption attitudes. Gender and age are both critical factors that must be considered when exploring the impact different reference groups have in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes.

Gender The results of the one way ANOVA measuring the impact of gender have been presented and summarised below:143 Factor Dependent List Consumer Conformity Parental Influence Peer Influence Purchase to Join Purchase to Compete Inner Emotion Self Esteem Envy Sig. 0.556 0.043 0.037 0.593 0.711 0.026 0.243 0.186 Gender Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Mean 2.48 2.62 4.06 3.33 3.13 2.33 -

Gender

142 Osei, 2009, Online 143 See Appendix 10.11 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 56 As the observed significance values for parental influence, peer influence and inner emotion are < 0.05 we can say that gender significantly affects reference group influence. When comparing the means of each it is apparent that females are more influenced by their parents whilst males are more greatly influenced by their peers. Furthermore, the data suggests that male respondents are more greatly affected by an inner emotion that they wish to be kept hidden, in comparison to their female counterparts.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 57 Age The results of the one way ANOVA measuring the impact of age have been presented and summarised below:144 Factor Dependent List Consumer Conformity Sig. 0.032 Age 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 Mean 3.60 3.39 4.38 3.87 2.40 3.40 2.27 2.39 2.25 3.13 2.50 3.60 3.83 3.26 3.63 3.93 4.00 4.60 -

Parental Influence

0.015

Peer Influence

0.046

Purchase to Join Age

0.565

Purchase to Compete

0.580

Inner Emotion

0.573

144 See Appendix 10.11 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 58 Self Esteem 0.003 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 4.80 5.09 5.13 6.07 5.90 6.00 -

Envy

0.464

As the observed significance values for consumer conformity, parental influence, peer influence and self esteem are <0.05 we can say that age carries a number of implications affecting reference group influence and in encouraging consumer conformity. It is interesting to note that individuals remain most susceptible to consumer conformity at an early age and that levels of conformity are highest before the age of twenty. Furthermore, it appears that influence exerted by both parents and peers grows stronger with the age of the consumer.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 59 5.4.4 Regression Regression is a statistical technique that can be used to analyse the relationship between a single dependent variable and several independent variables. In keeping with the methodology, Consumer Conformity has been selected as the dependent variable and Parental Influence, Peer Influence, Purchase to Join, Purchase to Compete and Individualism as the independent variables. Three additional factors have been further selected based on the findings from prior analysis, including: Inner Emotion, Self Esteem and Envy.

The results of the Regression analysis have been presented below:145

145 See Appendix 10.11 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 60 Model Summary

Mode l 1 d i m e n s i o n 0 R a .589 R Adjusted R Square Square .347 .283 Std. Error of the Estimate 1.239

a. Predictors: (Constant), Envy, Inner Emotion, Individualism, Purchase to Join, Parental Influence, Self Esteem, Purchase to Compete, Peer Influence

ANOVAb
Model Sum of Squares 66.146 124.343 190.489 df 8 81 89 Mean Square 8.268 1.535

Regression Residual Total

F 5.386

Sig. .000a

a. Predictors: (Constant), Envy, Inner Emotion, Individualism, Purchase to Join, Parental Influence, Self Esteem, Purchase to Compete, Peer Influence b. Dependent Variable: Consumer Conformity

Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 3.595 .502 .135 .204 .135 .146 .131 .138 .132 .126 Standardized Coefficients Beta

(Constant)

t 7.160 3.228 1.398 4.114 .338 2.448 -1.296 -1.600 -.219

Sig. .000 .002 .008 .000 .736 .017 .199 .114 .827

Parental Influence .437 Peer Influence .485 Purchase to Join .557 Purchase to .049 Compete Inner Emotion .322 Self Esteem -.178 Individualism -.211 Envy -.028 a. Dependent Variable: Consumer Conformity

.299 .395 .380 .034 .220 -.122 -.144 -.033

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 61 The Model Summary table suggests that the independent variables used can account for 34.7% of the reasoning behind consumer conformity. The remaining 65.3% of the variation is unexplained using this model.

The ANOVA table suggests that there is less than 0.01% chance that an F ratio this large would happen by chance alone and the regression model results therefore represent a significantly better explanation of consumer conformity than if the mean values of each independent variable were used.

The Coefficients table helps to explain the individual contribution of variables in the model and fundamentally suggests that different reference groups encourage differing levels of consumer conformity. Whilst respondents can be seen to conform on the basis of both their parents and peers, it appears that peer influence is marginally stronger. Furthermore, a key pre-consumption attitude is purchasing to join, whilst purchasing to compete remains statistically insignificant. Individualism is also statistically insignificant suggesting that cross-cultural implications do not affect reference group influence or pre-consumption attitudes in this particular model. Finally the Coefficients table suggests that whilst envy cannot be seen to reflect a genuine effect on consumer conformity levels, an inner emotion that the individual wishes to be kept hidden does play an intricate and intriguing role.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 62

5.5 Peer Influence Data Analysis

Having completed the multivariate process for the Parental data set, the exact measures were carried out to analyse the results of the Peer data set.

5.5.1 Factor Analysis The factor analysis condensed the 30 variables into 9 factors and in addition a Cronbachs Alpha () test was run on each to indicate their reliability:146 Factor Name 1) Peer Influence 2) Self Esteem 3) Consumer Conformity 4) Individualism 5) Inner Emotion 6) Purchase to Join 7) Parental Influence 8) Purchase to Compete 9) Sex Cronbach Alpha Test Score .865 .877 .795 .769 .903 .810 .837 .832 .709

Outcomes reveal that all factors have an acceptable internal consistency with all Cronbachs Alpha () scores >.7. On the basis of this reliability test, all factors can be considered suitable for subsequent analysis.

146 See Appendix 10.12 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 63 5.5.2 One Sample T-Test A T-test including all the variables that remain suitable for subsequent analysis147 has been presented and summarised below:148 Variable 23) I am able to do things as well as most other people 22) I feel that I have a number of good qualities 21) On the whole I am satisfied with myself 1) My final purchase was significantly influenced because I was not shopping alone 5) I feel that I am very likely to purchase the outfit 25) I often purchase unknown brands 9) I would prefer to have found an outfit before my mother / father 11) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked nicer than my mothers / fathers Factor Self Esteem Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Mean Difference 1.402

Self Esteem

0.000

1.418

Self Esteem Consumer Conformity

0.000 0.000

1.258 .898

Consumer Conformity Individualism Purchase to Compete

0.000

.980

0.000 0.000

.806 .959

Purchase to Compete

0.000

.867

The above table indicates that the difference between the mean in a number of conditions was large enough to not be a chance result and that in particular; self-esteem (1.418), consumer conformity (.980), and purchasing to compete (.959) had the biggest positive impact on the respondents, whilst also remaining statistically significant.

147 Cross loadings from the factor analysis were deemed insignificant and excluded from data analysis. 148 See Appendix 10.12 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 64 5.5.3 One Way ANOVA Gender The results of the one way ANOVA measuring the impact of gender have been presented and summarised below:149 Factor Dependent List Consumer Conformity Parental Influence Peer Influence Purchase to Join Gender Purchase to Compete Inner Emotion Self Esteem Envy 0.245 0.024 0.204 0.531 Sig. 0.243 0.023 0.045 0.143 Gender Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Mean 2.30 2.64 3.60 3.45 4.38 3.88 -

As the observed significance values for parental influence, peer influence and inner emotion are <0.05 we can say that gender significantly affects reference group influence. It is encouraging to note that such findings confirm those of the earlier data set. Once again it appears that females remain largely influenced by their parents whilst males are more greatly influenced by their peers. Furthermore, the data once again confirms that male respondents are more greatly affected by an emotion they wish to keep hidden when purchasing products.

149 See Appendix 10.12 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 65 Age The results of the one way ANOVA measuring the impact of age have been presented and summarised below:150 Dependent List Factor Consumer Conformity 0.038 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 3.90 3.71 4.38 3.33 2.40 3.11 2.52 2.67 2.22 2.50 3.00 1.44 2.67 3.10 3.40 3.43 4.50 3.78 4.79 4.95 3.22 3.42 Sig. Age Mean

Parental Influence

0.014

Peer Influence

0.040

Purchase to Join Age

0.275

Purchase to Compete

0.298

Inner Emotion

0.10

150 See Appendix 10.12 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 66 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 12-14 15-17 18-20 21-23 24-26 27+ 4.33 3.11 2.56 3.52 2.56 4.71 3.83 4.00

Self Esteem

0.666

Envy

0.21

As the observed significance values for consumer conformity, parental influence, peer influence, inner emotion and envy are <0.05 we can say that age carries a number of implications affecting reference group influence and in encouraging consumer conformity. Similarities between the two data sets remain however this particular analysis of variance suggests that an inner emotion, and in particular, envy largely affect the respondent. Conformity levels once again remain highest for consumers younger than twenty years of age whilst both parental and peer influence also grow in parallel with the age of the individual. Age appears to positively encourage an inner emotion inside the mind of the respondent, a notion that appears strongest amongst young consumers aged seventeen and under. Furthermore, whilst age significantly affects an individuals susceptibility to the envy, it appears that this particular emotion grows in tangent with age, with consumers above the age of twenty-one scoring the highest mean values.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 67 5.5.4 Regression The results of the Regression analysis have been presented below:151 Model Summary
Model R d1 i m e n s i o n 0 .503
a

R Square .253

Adjusted R Square .184

Std. Error of the Estimate 1.419

a. Predictors: (Constant), 20) Envy, Self Esteem, Parental Influence, Inner Emotion, Purchase to Join, Purchase to Compete, Individualism, Peer Influence

ANOVAb
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. a Regression 58.757 8 7.345 3.647 .001 Residual 173.201 86 2.014 Total 231.958 94 a. Predictors: (Constant), Envy, Self Esteem, Parental Influence, Inner Emotion, Purchase to Join, Purchase to Compete, Individualism, Peer Influence b. Dependent Variable: Consumer Conformity Model 1

Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 3.092 .445 .040 .146 .293 .217 .318 .147 .054 .147 .147 .146 .147 .111 Standardized Coefficients Beta .025 .187 .202 .034 .186 -.127 -.003 .242 t 6.954 1.272 1.351 2.164 .369 1.992 -1.366 -.030 1.736 Sig. .000 .005 .022 .033 .713 .050 .175 .976 .086

(Constant) Parental Influence Peer Influence Purchase to Join Purchase to Compete Inner Emotion .292 Self Esteem -.200 Individualism -.004 Envy .192 a. Dependent Variable: Consumer Conformity

151 See Appendix 10.12 for data.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 68 It is encouraging to note that findings from the second regression succinctly concur with earlier findings. The Model Summary table suggests that the independent variables used can account for 25.3% of the reasoning behind consumer conformity.

The ANOVA table suggests that there is less than 0.02% chance that an F ratio this large would happen by chance alone. The regression model results therefore represent a significantly better explanation of Consumer Conformity than if the mean values of each independent variable were used.

The Coefficients table confirms that different reference groups encourage differing levels of consumer conformity and that whilst consumers can been seen to conform as a result of both parental and peer influence, peer influence itself appears stronger. Once again purchasing to join carries a significant contribution to consumer conformity whereas purchasing to compete fails to reflect a genuine effect. In parallel with the earlier data set, individualism is also statistically insignificant suggesting that cross cultural implications do not affect reference group influence or pre-consumption attitudes in this particular model. Finally the Coefficients table suggests that whilst envy cannot be seen to reflect a genuine effect on consumer conformity levels, an inner emotion that the individual wishes to be kept hidden does exist.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 69

6.0 INTERPRETATION
6.1 Chapter Overview
Having followed the multivariate process for each data set, a subsequent assessment and interpretation of the findings in accordance with the developed hypotheses will be presented, along with additional findings that were alternately uncovered. In exploring each hypotheses, the findings will be divided into three distinct categories: (1) Cross-Cultural Factors, (2) Reference Group Influence or Pre-Consumption Attitude and (3) Additional Findings.

6.2 Introduction
We are drowning in information and starved for knowledge.152

The objective of the study at hand was to generate actionable knowledge in determining the cross-cultural marketing implications that different reference groups have in encouraging consumer conformity and in affecting pre-consumption attitudes. Validation checks were used to ensure the reliability of the data, yet whilst additional samples would have provided the most appropriate empirical validation approach, it was decided to divide the sample into two distinct parts in an attempt to overcome restraining time pressures. The multivariate process has been followed for each data set and it was encouraging to note that similarities between the two existed, allowing a number of succinct conclusions to be drawn.

152 Hair Et Al, 2010, P.3

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 70

6.3 Interpretation of Hypothesis 1: Reference Group Type

H1.Within an individualistic culture, consumers are more susceptible to conformity in the presence of a peer compared to the presence of a parent. 6.3.1 Cross Cultural Findings The multivariate results, and in particular those of the final regression, were important in indicating that cross-cultural values do not make a significant contribution to consumer conformity levels in this particular model. In both data sets the factor individualism failed to register genuine effect in the regressional model, a finding that fundamentally contradicts my earlier hypothesis. Whilst such a finding was not anticipated, it does stand as somewhat of a curious phenomenon, fundamentally suggesting that ethnicity does not imply predisposition toward a defined cultural orientation. Indeed Hoftstedes cultural model has been widely criticised for assuming exactly this: Hofstede assumes there is a one-to-one correspondence between culture and the nation-state, but as we saw earlier, many countries have more than one culture. Hofstedes results do not capture this distinction.153 The findings of my study, in combination with such criticisms, certainly imply that clusters do exist whereby individuals reflect a wide combination of characteristics, no matter their culture, race or ethnicity, an issue that seemingly creates somewhat of a hybrid segment.154 Every effort was made to ensure my sample included as wide an array of international respondents as possible, and the subsequent findings can be seen to largely confirm the existence of Ohmaes borderless world.155

153 Hill, 2009, P.113 154 A segment that in this instance was recognised yet proved to be statistically insignificant. 155 Ohmae, 2009, P.153

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 71 6.3.2 Reference Group Influence Findings Despite cross-cultural findings proving statistically insignificant, susceptibility to conformity in the presence of a peer over that of a parent was confirmed. Indeed normative reference group influence made a significant contribution to consumer conformity levels with both parental and peer influence registering genuine effects. Such findings concur with the initial hypothesis and with previous literature in emphasising the influential role social influence has in affecting consumer behaviour and in influencing the choices made by an individual. The study at hand confirms that Humans are easily nudged by other Humans,156 a notion that as Thaler and Sunstein suggest, is intricately linked to conformity. Furthermore, it appears that different types of referents [do] exert differing degrees of influence157 and that whilst respondents can been seen to conform as a result of both parental and peer influence, peer influence itself appears the stronger force. Such a conclusion was largely anticipated as the decision to include the purchase of an item of clothing for a student ball in the questionnaire effectively created an element of perceived risk, something that commonly necessitates increased reliance on such referents.

156 Deutsch & Gerard, 1955, P.55 157 Childers & Rao, 1992, p.198

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 72 6.3.3 Additional Findings Reference group influence certainly carries a significant contribution to consumer conformity levels, but the present study further discovered that such influence is largely dependent on an individuals gender. The results unanimously confirmed that female respondents were most influenced by their parents, whilst male respondents were deemed more susceptible to peer influence. Such findings carry widespread implications for a marketer and could be further explored in an attempt to uncover differing responses to spokespeople and endorsers. Whilst the effectiveness of the spokesperson is related to the message itself,158 the findings from this study suggest that the credibility of a spokesperson or endorser is susceptible to change based entirely on the gender of the consumer. The use of a parental figure may be more appropriate for products targeted towards women whereas the power of social and peer influence appears more influential to the male consumer.

Furthermore, levels of consumer conformity were also found to be largely dependent on an individuals age. Whilst all ages recorded positive levels of conformity, consumers under the age of twenty years were consistently deemed to be the most susceptible. From a marketing perspective it can be concluded that teenagers remain most liable to conform and that marketing campaigns primarily targeted towards this particular age bracket should actively seek to emphasise the particular behaviour of others. Such findings indicate that we are willing to place an enormous amount of trust in the collective knowledge of the crowd,159 a notion that appears strongest amongst younger consumers.

158 Ibid, P.198 159 Cialdini, 2007, P.163

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 73

6.4 Interpretation of Hypothesis 2: Pre-Consumption Attitude

H2.Within an individualistic culture, purchasing to compete will contribute to higher levels of consumer conformity than purchasing to join. 6.4.1 - Cross Cultural Findings As previously suggested, cross-cultural values did not make significant contribution to consumer conformity levels in the present study at hand. 6.4.2 Pre-Consumption Attitude Findings The statistical findings uncovered during the multivariate process directly oppose the initial hypothesis and alternately suggest that purchasing to join contributes to higher levels of consumer conformity than purchasing to compete. A key pre-consumption attitude intricately linked to consumer conformity is the result of a basic desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation, a finding that largely confirms the existence of The Frankenstein Effect, as proposed during the initial literature review.

Alternately, purchasing to compete, the second pre-consumption attitude explored in the present study, failed to make a significant contribution to consumer conformity and carried no genuine effect. Such findings suggest that consumers are not actively seeking to enhance their social identity by competing with others and that the desire to join overpowers the proposed sense of consumer competition. In an additional test envy was also individually measured and carried no genuine effect in rates of conformity. The proposal that envy can be seen to ignite a form of healthy competition and indeed encourage the spread of innovations seems flawed when interpreting the results of this model. There is a twofold explanation to this; firstly the distributed questionnaire contained a scenario whereby the respondent was joined by a family member or a close friend, and in each instance the basic desire to compete may have been largely subdued by the intimate connection formed with the reference group member. Secondly, motivations to compete with others may largely be either a subconscious desire or indeed one that consumers are unwilling to admit to. Whilst respondents were encouraged to be as honest and open as possible when answering the questionnaire,

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 74 it is perhaps not surprising that purchasing to compete and indeed envy failed to make a significant contribution to consumer conformity levels as they are largely viewed in a negative light. 6.4.3 Additional Findings Not only did the role of envy fail to carry a significant contribution to levels of consumer conformity, selfesteem was also deemed insignificant. In order to empirically test The Spotlight Effect as well as the findings of Scheff (1994), further research must be conducted. Additional findings however did suggest that an ulterior motive may have been largely driving the respondents. Throughout each phase of the multivariate process, the impact of the factor aptly named Inner Emotion became apparent. Independent variables falling inside of this factor included respondent agreement to statements such as: although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to compete and although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to join The findings of the present study at hand suggest that an inner emotion, one the respondents were aware of, yet one that they did not wish to expose or share, fundamentally drove their actions whilst registering genuine effects on consumer conformity rates. As previously confirmed, respondents were not willing to admit to this inner emotion being that of envy, yet after all, if they did it would no longer remain an inner emotion. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that a recognised yet hidden internal emotion can be seen to play both an intricate and intriguing role in affecting consumer behaviour and pre-consumption attitudes, something that was further found to be stronger amongst males.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 75

7.0 IMPLICATIONS
7.1 - Chapter Overview
In exploring the implications of the present study at hand, a recent marketing film called The Jonses will be introduced alongside the concept of stealth marketing. A final and overall conclusion will also be presented.

7.2 - Introduction
By examining the differing impacts parents and peers have in affecting consumer behaviour across the globe, I hope to have uncovered valuable information that could be used by a marketer. In exploring the marketing implications that arise as a result of my study I would like to suggest how such findings do in many ways closely correlate to the concept of stealth marketing, a powerful technique that is capable of using social influence to sell in a way that conventional marketing cannot. In lieu of this I would like to closely analsye a recent marketing film, The Joneses (2009). This film interestingly portrays a number of the findings in my study and beautifully captures a neighbourhoods desire to always keep up with the Jonses, it explores the true power of stealth marketing in encouraging conformity, whilst simultaneously uncovering a number of potential inner emotions deep inside the mind of the consumer.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 76

7.3 The Jonses

You were a great car salesperson; people trusted you and they liked you, so they brought what you were selling. But you are not selling things any more. To succeed here you cant just sell things. Youre here to sell a lifestyle, an attitude. If people want you, theyll want what youve got.160

Upon the arrival of a seemingly perfect family into a wealthy and suburban neighbourhood it soon becomes clear in The Joneses that all is not as it first appears. Indeed The Joneses are not a family at all, but a unit161 of marketing experts designed to introduce luxury products to all those around. In fully maximising the potential of social influence and in primarily selling a lifestyle,162 The Joneses succeed in affecting sales across the town in a way that conventional marketing simply cannot. They single handedly encourage a wave of consumer conformity, as neighbours, friends, acquaintances, hair salon owners, golf shop employees and even strangers begin purchasing the products used by them.

In exploring the effect of individual reference groups, the film largely concurs with the gender related findings of my study and describes a daughter influenced by her mother and a son primarily motivated by his peers.163 In one particular scene, Jen, the daughter of the family asks her mother if she can borrow some of her perfume in order to attend a party, to which she is asked: is that a brand you really think they would be interested in? 164 Jens reply that kids these days are totally wearing upscale brands 165 fundamentally suggests the importance of parental influence in selling certain brands and products, especially towards women or young female adolescents. Furthermore, in concurrence with the findings of my study, Mick, the son of the family, influences and is influenced not primarily by family referents but by his peers: You have this whole cult like following at school. Youve been here two months. Everyone is 160 The Jonses, 2009, Film 161 Ibid, Film 162 Ibid, Film 163 This correlates with the results of my study, that suggests female consumers remain most influenced by their parents, with male respondents being deemed more susceptible to peer influence. 164 The Jonses, 2009, Film 165 Ibid, Film

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 77 drinking your coolade.166 The Joneses can be seen then to provide an intriguing insight into the power of social influence in encouraging consumer conformity, and also into the impact of different reference groups.

On a deeper level the film can be further applied in order to gain an insight into the potential preconsumption attitudes of consumers today. A number of emotions are alluded to throughout the duration of the film, ranging from; jealousy, greed, embarrassment, satisfaction as well as a desire for positive alignment alongside the seemingly successful family. Indeed the emotions of envy and jealousy are continually referred to throughout, with the word jealousy appearing more than four times, all at differing stages: What are you jealous? Im jealous. Are you jealous? Youre jealous of me!167 Whilst the findings of my study suggest that an inner emotion can be largely seen to drive consumer conformity, this film certainly portrays a neighborhood desperately striving to keep up with and indeed out-compete the Joneses, behaviour that in this instance is largely explained by the emotion of envy and jealousy.

166 Ibid, Film 167 Ibid, Film

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 78

7.4 Stealth Marketing

Mick: Oh hey Sir, do you mind helping us out, we just want to get a quick video, its real simple, use the view finder, hit the button, then I can send the video to my grandma. Stranger: Is this new? What is this? Mick: Yeah its the new HTC Hi grandmaaa.168

The release of The Joneses was certainly timely with a wide number of cases of stealth marketing coming to the fore, primarily in the United States of America. Stealth marketing is itself a widely contested area due to its ethically dubious nature yet I would like to propose that its ability to embrace social influence makes it an increasingly powerful tool that is capable of complimenting traditional marketing techniques.

At its launch, the Sony Ericsson T68i was primarily targeted to young early adopters who are greatly influenced by either a hands-on-trial or peer recommendations.169 In an act remarkably similar to the opening scene of The Jonses, it was decided to place the technology into the hands of actors and actresses who were required to directly engage with consumers by asking if they would kindly take a photograph using the phone. Indeed recent examples of similar marketing campaigns, all fundamentally built around social influence, are widespread with; an unreleased iPhone suspiciously being left inside a bar; scantily dressed women wearing orange tshirts in an attempt to promote the Bavaria brand at the 2010 South African World Cup and finally with the Blackberry Pearl being provocatively placed into the hands of attractive young women who were asked to flirt with men who would then continue to store their numbers directly into the device when asked.170

Stealth marketing campaigns have rightly come under widespread criticism from a wide body of critics who consider the approach unethical, dishonest and misleading. Indeed marketing as a practice is not only about 168 Ibid, Film 169 Lenderman, 2002, Online 170 Osterhout, 2010, Online

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 79 fulfilling consumer needs but also about building valuable relationships, a process that should not establish its foundations upon deception and defamation. However, such campaigns have crucially produced both effective and measurable results. Furthermore, one company in particular, boldly claiming to represent the future of marketing, is attempting to change such perceptions of stealth marketing and to actively promote honest peer-to-peer communication.171 By fully embracing the power of social influence and indeed the very notion of conformity, BzzAgents have a rapidly growing network of over 800,000 trendsetters, or agents,172 who are sent products to be used in a social environment, in the hope that others will follow the herd173 and purchase the product. Such a marketing approach is only capable of existing because of high levels of conformity that exist amongst consumers today. This approach is capable of complimenting conventional marketing techniques by fully embracing social influence, social media and word of mouth. Whilst word of mouth is a concept that could comfortably fill a dissertation by itself, it is worth noting that for whatever reason, we have this natural instinct to tell a friend about a product,174 a motivation that has been further enforced through the use of social media today. Perhaps then it is to be suggested that one explanation for the apparent inner emotion intricately linked to consumer conformity levels as uncovered in my study is not that of envy at all, but rather an emotion that is largely brought about by the simple fact that social influence itself feels good: even in the small orbit of your own social circle, knowing about something first telling a friend about a new CD, or discovering a restaurant before anyone else does in the office is satisfying.175

171 Walker, 2004, Online 172 Bzz Agent, 2011, Website. See Appendix 11.8 for further information regarding the Bzz Agent service. 173 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.53 174 Walker, 2004, Online 175 Ibid, Online

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 80

7.5 Overall Conclusion

Understanding how different cultures are affected by social influence and their attitude towards consumer conformity carry fundamental implications that must be considered when creating a global marketing communications strategy. Whilst my study failed to indicate how cross-cultural values make significant contribution to consumer conformity levels it succeeded in confirming the power of social influence.

The concluding results of the present study at hand not only highlight the power of consumer conformity, but in particular the individual impact of different reference groups. One key marketing implication uncovered as a result of this study is that the gender, rather than nationality, of the consumer plays an intricate and statistically significant role in measuring referent group success and that products targeted towards women should include a parental figure where appropriate, in comparison to products targeted towards men, who remain more susceptible to peer influence.

Indeed marketers today seem only too aware of the sheer power of social influence and frequently emphasise that most people prefer their own product or that growing numbers of people are switching from another brand,176 a message that can be seen to influence all of us, yet as the findings of my study suggest, a message that is most powerful and indeed appealing to teenagers and young consumers. By telling consumers what most people are now doing, marketers are actively using the powerful notion of social influence in a way that encourages individuals to join a group and conform, rather than to stand-alone.

Perhaps however, the most intriguing implication uncovered as a result of this study stems from a recognised yet seemingly hidden inner emotion that can be seen to directly affect consumer conformity. At this stage the emotion remains largely unknown yet the study has been designed in a way to convey that it fundamentally stems from a basic desire to compete: either through a benign form of envy or, as subsequent explorations suggest, rather in an attempt to embrace social influence by discovering a product first and 176 Thaler & Sunstein, 2008, P.64

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 81 therefore succumbing to the power of wanting to be the trend setter. Whilst further research will need to be conducted in order to accurately unveil the inner emotion, its existence suggests an ulterior motive behind the consumers pre-consumption attitudes and willingness to conform. Furthermore, such motivations appear to be driving new marketing approaches, marketing approaches that if capable of truly being built around honest peer-to-peer communication,177 will be able to fully maximise the recognised power of social influence by embracing consumer conformity.

177 Walker, 2004, Online

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8.0 LIMITIATIONS & SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The results obtained in this study along with the subsequent interpretations are potentially constrained by a number of limitations that can be overcome by future research with regard to the topic at hand.

Firstly, in an attempt to overcome narrow time constraints, the general body of respondents who received the questionnaire were students from a local secondary school. The secondary school was selected because it enabled a diverse range of students from different cultures and age brackets to participate in the study, nevertheless, the results themselves may be largely biased, in preference of individualistic values, and therefore may not be completely generaslisable to a wider population.

Secondly, although everything was carried out to ensure an appropriate cross-cultural scale was used in the questionnaire, the concluding results were both restricted and limiting. Either the cross-cultural scale itself was too weak or as suggested, ethnicity does not imply predisposition towards a defined cultural orientation. Past literature however does suggest that different cultures react differently to the notion of conformity, something that would require further research before actionable implications can be concluded.

Thirdly, the distributed questionnaire contained a scenario whereby the respondent was joined by either a family member or a close friend. When assessing the individuals desire to compete with referents, the results of this research have to be considered with caution, after all, an individual is unlikely to truly compete against someone with whom an emotional and intimate bond has been formed. Concerning the effect of differing types of social influence, further research should be conducted so that a wider body of referents is included. Future results may uncover differing levels of consumer competition, primarily with reference group members such as neighbours or indeed strangers, neither of whom will have established as intimate a bond with the respondent, as the referents used in the present study at hand.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 83 Finally, future research might benefit from the inclusion of a wider number of variables concerning emotion, therefore allowing a deeper and more profound insight into the Inner Emotion influencing consumer conformity to be made. Although respondents were encouraged to be as honest and open as possible when answering the questionnaire, the concluding results point towards an emotion that respondents wish to remain hidden. With more time, respondents could be attached to a heart monitor in an attempt to accurately record such emotions or alternately an observational survey or fieldwork design could be introduced.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 84

9.0 EPILOGUE

There are two features of the buffalo that make them especially susceptible to erroneous social evidence. First, their eyes are set in their heads so that it is easier for them to see to the side than to the front. Second, when they run as in a stampede, it is with their heads down low so they cannot see above the herd. As a result, the Indians realized it was possible to kill tremendous numbers of buffalo by starting a herd running toward a cliff. The animals, responding to the thundering social proof around them and never looking up to see what lay ahead did the rest.178

Much like the American bison, humans also remain easily nudged by other humans through a basic desire to conform. Perhaps the consequences of such large scale conformity combined with extreme peer pressure have never been felt so strongly in the United Kingdom than with the recent wave of rioting that swept the nation.179 When running in a stampede, our heads rarely rise above the herd and we continue to respond to the social proofs surrounding us. Finally, whilst our eyes may provide perfect vision, our motivations differ to that of the American buffalo and appear to be the result of an acknowledge yet hidden inner emotion.

178 Cialdini, 2007, P.153 179 See Appendix 11.9 regarding the issue of mob mentality and the devastation that conformity is capable of creating.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 85

10.0 - APPENDIX
10.1 Citroen DS4 Marketing Campaign
WE ARE YES MEN. IM A YES MAN, YOUR A YES MAN, WE ARE ALL YES MEN. CAN YOU WORK ON SUNDAY? YES BOSS. CAN YOU EXECUTE ORDERS? YES SIR. CAN YOU GO SHOPPING WITH ME? YES. YES. YES. OF COURSE. YES. LETS REPEAT TOGETHER. I AM A YES MAN. YES. WHAT DO YOU WANT? LOVE? MONEY? POWER? HOW MANY YESES DID YOU SAY? FIVE? SIX? TEN THOUSAND? YES. YOU ARE THE PERFECT YES MAN. MOVE YOUR HEAD UP AND DOWN, UP AND DOWN. IN YOUR LFIE ALL YOU DAY IS SAY YES, BUT HAVE YOU EVER TRIED TO SAY NO? NO TO CONFORMITY. DISCOVER A CAR WHICH RESEMBLES NO OTHER. CITROEN DS4.180 1) 2) 3)

4) 5) 6)

180 Citroen DS4 Say No To Conformity, 2011, Website 7)

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 86 Above I have inserted both the script and numerous images taken from the current Citroen DS4 marketing campaign that is seemingly built around the very concept of conformity. The campaign recognises the susceptibility of an individual to conform and continually answer yes to questions posed throughout life. Whilst it provides a seemingly satirical outlook on individuals defined as yes men I would like to suggest that saying no to conformity and directly moving against the majority is no easy feat. As my study suggests, a key pre-consumption attitude intricately linked to consumer conformity is the result of a basic desire to be part of a group and to avoid isolation, something this campaign directly confronts and attempts to alter. In answer to the campaigns tagline: why conform? the answer is simple, because it is a far easier option, one that avoids the numerous pain[s] of independence.181

Images taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKf8ekfuZwk Citron DS4 TV Spot - Say no to conformism

181 Berns Et Al, 2005, P.252

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 87

10.2 - Twitter
Whilst my study suggests that the primary response to envy results in a basic desire to compete, it must also be recognised that individuals also experience a basic desire to be gazed upon and indeed envied. Social media today can be seen to exacerbate such feelings, as these recent posts on Twitter confirm:

TheOneTo_Marie D. Marie I actually like the attention. Envy me! DrRobTV Daarnel robinson Its hard being friendly with a friend who envy's you...why do some people find it hard to congratulate? RelateToLife Real Life Quotes Envy me. All I want is for you to envy me. august_esm Augusta Esmeralda Someimes, I feel envy and I dont know why. Maybe its because shes more perfect than me, I think Whoshotya_Tah C-Noter Teezy Good morning everyone yeah even the people that dont like me, envy me
182

Tweets taken from: www.twitter.com 182 Twitter, 2011, Website

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 88

10.3 Peugeot 207 Envy

HAVE YOU SEEN IT? EVERYONE HAS! AIR CON. ALLOY WHEELS. FOG LIGHTS. I KNOW. BLUETOOTH. YOU CAN EVEN PLUG IN YOUR MP3. BUT CAN IT SWIM?183 1) 2)

3) 4)

5)

183 Peugeot 207 Envy, 2011, Website

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 89 Peugeot 207 images and script taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1Xx0vf11so - Peugeot 207 Envy

The new Peugeot 207 marketing campaign has been centered upon the very concept of envy and the consequences that such an emotion is capable of evoking. The advertisement itself has a sinister tone and portrays the Peugeot slowly drowning in dark water (it is later discovered that the car has been pushed into its owners own swimming pool) whilst two voices comment on the various features the car has to offer. The campaign appears to recognise that a key pre-consumption attitude driving the consumer is one of competition, rather than conformity, and it beautifully shows the extent to which one particular individual refuses to be beaten by his neighbour. Whilst the campaign warns the consumer of the consequences of envy, it also intriguingly encourages the consumer to purchase the car and therefore evoke such emotions upon those around. The new Peugeot 207 appears confident in its own ability to generate envy and consumer competition. Indeed numerous campaigns today are built around such an emotion and further encourage consumers to succumb to the notion of envy and compete rather than to conform:

Image taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awIRXQth1r4 Dr Dre HP Envy Commercial

184

Image taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR02fGojv44&fe ature=related Envy by Gucci

185

184 HP Envy, 2011, Website 185 Gucci Envy, 2011, Website

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 90

Image taken from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpSwjxASDBo Herbal Essences Body Envy Shampoo Ad

186

186 Herbal Essances, 2007, Website

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 91

10.4 Royal Russell Permission

As the respondents at Royal Russell School were largely under eighteen years of age, written consent was required from the deputy headmaster. This has been succinctly provided.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 92

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 93

10.5 Completed Peer Questionnaire

Below I have inserted a completed questionnaire aimed at recording the response to peer reference group influence.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 94

10.6 Completed Parental Questionnaire

Below I have inserted a completed questionnaire aimed at recording the response to parental reference group influence.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 95

10.7 Questionnaire Explanation

The questionnaire has been designed to test a number of factors. Each of these is individually explained above the relevant sets of questions below:

Having read the above scenario, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements: DESCRIBING YOUR FEELINGS TEST INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 1: REFERENCE GROUP INFLUENCE 1) My final purchase was significantly influenced because I was not shopping alone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

2) My final purchase was made in an attempt to receive reward (e.g.: compliment) or avoid punishment (e.g.: laughter) from my friend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree TEST DEPENDENT VARIABLE: CONSUMER CONFORMITY. TAKEN FROM BEARDEN ET ALS MEASUREMEMNT OF SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INTERPERSONAL INFLUENCE SCALE 3) With respect to this purchase, I would very much like to do what my close friend thinks I should do 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

4) Regarding this purchase I want to do what my close friend thinks I should do 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

5) I feel that I am very likely to purchase the outfit 1 2 3 4 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

TEST INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 2: PRE-CONSUMPTION ATTITUDE (JOIN OR COMPETE) 6) Although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to be accepted by my friend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

7) Although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to be compete with my friend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 96 DUAL QUESTIONS TO TEST TWO PRE-CONSUMPTION ATTITUDES JOIN VS. COMPETE 8) I would be happy that my friend found an outfit before me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

9) I would prefer to have found an outfit before my friend 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

10) I would be happy to have an outfit that looked as nice as my friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree 11) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked nicer than my friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

Strongly Agree

12) I would be happy to have an outfit that had similarities to my friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

13) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked different to my friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

A LITTLE BIT ABOUT YOU (nearly there) GENERAL TEST OF THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL INFLUENCE 14) I am strongly influenced by my parents when buying products 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

15) I often buy what my parents buy 1 2 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

GENERAL TEST OF THE IMPACT OF PEER INFLUENCE 16) I am strongly influenced by my peers when buying products 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

17) I often buy what my peers buy 1

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 97 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

GENERAL DEPENDENT VARIABLE TEST: CONSUMER CONFORMITY 18) I am strongly influenced by those around me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

17) I often change my behaviour and opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from those around me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree

DIRECT QUESTION RELATING TO THE EMOTION OF ENVY INTERESTING TO MEASURE RESULTS ALTHOUGH NOT EXPECTING A POSITIVE REACTION 18) Although I may never tell them, I often feel envious of those around me who own newer or better products 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

SELF ESTEEM TEST TAKEN FROM ROSENBURG SELF ESTEEM MODEL 19) On the whole I am satisfied with myself 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree 20) I feel that I have a number of good qualities 1 2 3 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

Strongly Agree

21) I am able to do things as well as most other people 1 2 3 4 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

TEST HOFSTEDES DIMENSIONS TAKEN FROM MOOIJ & HOFSTEDES STUDY THE HOFSTEDE MODEL: APPLICATIONS TO GLOBAL BRANDING & ADVERTISING STRATEGY & RESEARCH THE STUDY APPLIED HOFSTEDES MODEL IN A WAY THAT COULD MEASURE CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS HAVE BEEN SET BASED ON THEIR RESULTS 22) I feel that luxury brands are a way of expressing status COMMON IN HIGH POWER DISTANCE CULTURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

23) I often purchase unknown brands COMMON IN INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 98 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

24) I feel that high status brands are a way of demonstrating success COMMON IN MASCULINE CULTURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

25) I express a high degree of innovation and desire to change products COMMON IN HIGH UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE CULTURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

26) I consider myself to be a well-informed consumer COMMON IN ALL: LOW POWER DISTANCE CULTURES, LOW UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE CULTURES & INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree 27) What is your age? ALLOWS FOR DATA COMPARISONS TO BE MADE 12 14 15 17 18 20 21 23 24 26 27+

Strongly Agree

28) What is your sex? ALLOWS FOR DATA COMPARISONS TO BE MADE Male Female

29) What is your country of origin? ALLOWS FOR DATA COMPARISONS TO BE MADE __________________

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 99

10.8 Bzz Agent

BzzAgent is an ever-growing social marketing leader that currently had a wide-ranging network of agents. This appendix has been included to uncover further information regarding BzzAgent as well as some of the key business objectives. All information has been taken from the company website at: http://www.bzzagent.com/

About BzzAgent187
BzzAgent, a dunnhumby company, is a social marketing leader that accelerates word of mouth to drive sales. Powered by a network of over 800,000 people, BzzAgent creates measurable business results for marketers through an influential advocate network, a powerful engagement platform, and a proven analytics approach. BzzAgent has been at the vanguard of word of mouth marketing since 2001, running more than 1,500 programs for global companies including Unilever, Wrigley, LOreal, and Michelin. BzzAgent Believes In:

Being radically focused on voice of the consumer We know that social dialog is permanently changing the marketing landscape, and we are passionate about understanding how it works.

Making marketing a better place for marketers and consumers We believe that marketers can join the discussion in respectful ways, delivering customers more relevance and value.

Transparency from all stakeholders at all times For our clients, we insist on delivering ethical social marketing solutions. For our staff, this means we share information generously.

Embracing individuality Our business is powered by people our staff and our Agents. Its success is predicated on respecting and making the most of their contributions.

Responsiveness that blows minds We want people to be wowed by our availability and the speed with which we deliver.

Continuous innovation

187 Bzz Agent, 2011, Website

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 100 The only constant in our industry is change. If we dont continually evolve every day we will be left behind.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 101

10.9 Mob Mentality

After the widespread rioting that spread throughout the United Kingdom in the summer of 2011, numerous psychologists began to explain the behaviour of the mob mentality. The behaviour of the looters has been largely explained by political, economic and social motivations, yet many have also highlighted the important role conformity had in sparking such chaos:

Looting and mob violence are the actions of young people who have no stake in conformity.188 - Text taken from: http://mraybould.wordpress.com/2011/08/09/uk-riots-looters-have-no-stake-in-conformity/

Young people may have watched these dreadful acts of violence and come to the conclusion that the majority of their peers are doing the same and not being held to account for their actions. They would have therefore decided that there was no harm in doing the same.189 - Text taken from: http://www.iars.org.uk/content/london-riots-perspective-young-londoners-1

You cannot riot on your own. A one-man riot is a tantrum. Psychologists argue that a person loses their moral identity in a large group, and empathy and guilt - the qualities that stop us behaving like criminals are corroded ... Humans are the best on the planet at imitating. And we tend to imitate what is successful. If you see that people are walking out of a shop with a widescreen TV and trainers, a certain kind of person thinks why shouldn't I do that? But some people approach this situation not necessarily with bad

188 Boldray, 2011, Online 189 Begum, 2011, Online

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 102 intentions. They are swept away by the crowd, for a variety of reasons highlighted by social psychologists.190 - Text taken from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14463452

190 Castella & McClathley, 2011, Online

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 103

10.10 SPSS Data Mean Scores

Descriptives
Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum 91 1 7 Mean 4.79 Std. Deviation 1.650

1) My final purchase was significantly influenced because I was not shopping alone 2) My final purchase was made in an attempt to receive reward (eg: compliment) or avoid punishment (... 3) With respect to this purchase, I would very much like to do what my mother / father thinks I shou... 4) Regarding this purchase I want to do what my mother / father thinks I should do 5) I feel that I am very likely to purchase the outfit 6) Although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to be accepted by... 7) Although I would never tell him / her, my final purchase was made in an attempt to be compete wi... 8) I would be happy that my mother / father found an outfit before me 9) I would prefer to have found an outfit before my mother / father

91

3.58

1.856

91

3.56

1.586

91

3.52

1.478

91 91

2 1

7 7

5.00 3.59

1.358 1.700

91

2.79

1.710

91

3.80

1.586

91

4.36

1.742

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 104 10) I would be happy to have an outfit that looked as nice as my mothers / fathers 11) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked nicer than my mothers / fathers 12) I would be happy to have an outfit that had similarities to my mothers / fathers 13) I would prefer to have an outfit that looked different to my mothers / fathers 14) I am strongly influenced by my parents when buying products 15) I often buy what my parents buy 16) I am strongly influenced by my peers when buying products 17) I often buy what my peers buy 18) I am strongly influenced by those around me 19) I often change my behaviour and opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from those aro... 20) Although I may never tell them, I often feel envious of those around me who own newer or better... 21) On the whole I am satisfied with myself 22) I feel that I have a number of good qualities 23) I am able to do things as well as most other people 91 1 7 4.36 1.630

91

4.59

1.782

91

3.40

1.421

91

5.04

3.653

91

3.49

1.523

91 91

1 1

6 7

2.54 4.33

1.401 1.713

91 91

1 1

7 7

3.75 4.25

1.644 1.539

91

3.89

1.690

91

3.85

1.757

91 91 91

2 3 2

7 7 7

5.59 5.30 5.41

1.247 1.188 1.229

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 105 24) I feel that luxury brands are a way of expressing status 25) I often purchase unknown brands 26) I feel that high status brands are a way of demonstrating success 27) I express a high degree of innovation and desire to change products 28) I consider myself to be a well-informed consumer 29) What is you age? 30) What is your sex? Valid N (listwise) 91 1 7 4.58 1.726

91 91

1 1

7 7

3.93 4.47

1.800 1.656

91

4.27

1.550

91 91 91 90

1 1 1

7 6 2

4.86 2.64 1.43

1.234 1.602 .498

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 106

10.11 SPSS Parental Data

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 107

10.12 SPSS Peer Data

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 108

11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Aronson, E (1995) What Is Social Psychology? In: Aronson, E, The Social Animal. 7th ed. New York, W.H. Freeman & Company, pp.1-11.

Aronson, E (1995) Conformity. In: Aronson, E, The Social Animal. 7th ed. New York, W.H. Freeman & Company, pp.12-55.

Asch, S (1995) Opinions & Social Pressure. In: Aronson, E, Readings About The Social Animal. New York, W.H.Freeman

Belk, R; Ger, G & Askegaard, S (2000) The Missing Streetcar Named Desire. In: Ratneshwar, S; Mick D & Huffman, C, The Why Of Consumption: Contemporary Perspectives On Consumer Motives, Goals & Desires. London, Routlege, pp.98-119.

Brownstein, S; Sirs, A & Ward, C (2000) Lattice Analysis In The Study Of Motivation. In: Ratneshwar, S; Mick D & Huffman, C, The Why Of Consumption: Contemporary Perspectives On Consumer Motives, Goals & Desires. London, Routlege, pp.98-119.

Cialdini, R (2007) Social Proof. In: Cialdini, R, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. New York, Harper Collins, pp.114-166.

Clammer, J (1992) Aesthetics Of The Self: Shopping & Social Being In Contemporary Urban Japan In: Shields, R, Lifestyle Shopping: The Subject of Consumption. London, Routledge, pp.195-215.

Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 109 Faber, R (2000) The Urge to Buy: A Uses and Gratification Perspective on Compulsive Buying. In: Ratneshwar, S; Mick D & Huffman, C, The Why Of Consumption: Contemporary Perspectives On Consumer Motives, Goals & Desires. London, Routlege, pp.174-196.

Firat, F & Dholakia, N (1998) Consuming People: From Political Economy to Theaters of Consumption. London, Routledge.

Frank, T (1998) How Do We Break These Conformists of their Conformity? Creativity Conquers All. In: Frank, T, The Conquest Of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture & The Rise of Hip Consumerism. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

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Film
The Jonses (2009) Directed by Derrick Borte, USA, Echo Lake Productions.

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Candidate No: 70389 P a g e | 116 Unknown (2010) Money Only Makes You Happy If It Makes You Richer Than Your Neighbors. Science Daily, Mar.22, 2010. Available from: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100322092057.htm

Song
Going Through Hell (2011) Written by Skinner, M, UK.

Website
BzzAgent (2011) Founded by Dave Balter. Available from: http://www.bzzagent.co.uk/ Citron DS4 TV Spot - Say no to conformism (2011) Online video. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKf8ekfuZwk Dr Dre HP Envy Commercial (2011) Online video. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awIRXQth1r4 Envy by Gucci (2011) Online video. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR02fGojv44&feature=related Herbal Essences Body Envy Shampoo Ad (2007) Online video. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpSwjxASDBo Peugeot 207 Envy: TV Advert (2011) Online video. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1Xx0vf11so Twitter (2011). Founded by Jack Dorsey. Available from: www.twitter.com