The use of lattice girders in the construction of tunnels

Komselis C. Bekaert OneSteel Fibres Australasia (Brisbane Australia) Blayney N. ROMTECH Ltd (Witham UK) Hindle D. London Mining and Mineral Consultants Ltd (London UK)
ABSTRACT: In recent years considerable advances have been made worldwide in the design and construction of sprayed concrete tunnel linings. Included in these advances has been the move away from traditional support using heavy rolled steel arches in linings, to lighter, more manageable lattice girders, steel mesh and/or steel fibres providing a continuous support. The development of lattice girders has provided engineers and contractors with greater options in design, increased flexibility and a more cost effective method of construction. This paper outlines the development of lattice girders within the tunnelling industry, advantages of the product, other applications and specific project details from the United Kingdom and Australia.

1. HISTORY OF STEEL SUPPORT IN TUNNELS At the turn of the 20th century steel supports were being used sporadically in tunnelling, usually patterned after the timber sets that were in widespread use at the time. In the late 1920's and early 1930's, steel began to be adopted more widely as its superiority was gradually recognised. By this time metallic linings such as cast iron were in virtually universal usage in soft ground tunnelling. With this major advance in lining an expansion of deep urban metro tunnels had been seen, particularly in London, which contributed generally to the increased use of steel. The most common form of steel support used was rolled steel "I" or "H" section beams bent, welded and bolted to form an arch to fit the particular tunnel profile and secured in place by wood packing and wedges that span the remaining gap formed by over break. Horizontal tie bars connect adjacent arches and wood or steel sheeting supports the exposed face behind. The completed arrangement is often referred to as "ribs and lagging" and is still in use today, particularly in the mining industry. In terms of construction the main disadvantage of this support method is the unwieldy nature of the heavy arch sections that often have to be manhandled in place. From a design point of view the support system is

essentially passive; i.e. ground movement must take place following installation for any load transfer to occur. If the arches are not correctly set or the blocking and lagging becomes loose or is insufficient, failure of the ground can occur lo cally placing severe loadings on individual supports that then deflect. Increasing emphasis on key elements of tunnel support such as: safety, speed, economy, performance and surface settlement led to major innovations during the late 1960's and 1970's with the development of tunnel boring machines with bolted, gasketted and fully grouted steel reinforced precast concrete segments and the rapid spread of steel reinforced sprayed concrete or "shotcrete". These methods offered systems that are quickly installed in full contact with the ground and are, therefore, able to provide early support that can restrict ground movement by structurally interacting with the surrounding ground to provide an active support system. The first recorded application of shotcrete in tunnelling was in the USA during the early 1920s but it was not until the mid to late 1960s that it gained significant recognition following the development of new and innovative forms of tunnelling for the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric power scheme in Australia and the New Austrian

Tunnelling Method in Europe. This followed pioneering work carried out in 1954 by a little known Austrian mining engineer, Anton Brunner, who patented a support system using the method. 2. DEVELOPMENT OF SHOTCRETE AND LATTICE GIRDERS Initially, shotcrete was applied either unreinforced, often in conjunction with rock bolting, or with more conventional steel arches embedded in a shotcrete lining. However, as the method was developed further, the main support was no longer provided by the steel arch sets but by the shotcrete shell in connection with the ground, which as a consequence required a thinner overall structural section than was possible with discrete arches. The steel arch became increasingly used only as a temporary supporting element to protect the face workers from unstable ground until the shotcrete was fully set. More suitable "V" section rolled steel arches became more popular for the thinner shotcrete lining and are still in sporadic use today, however, as is the case with conventional steel sections they are difficult to fully embed in the shotcrete shell without shadowing. The problem of providing a steel arch that has both a low profile section and offers a minimal barrier to the placement of the shotcrete shell led to the development in the late 1970s of the lattice girder. Their ease of manufacture, transport, storage and handling underground ensured their rapid gain in popularity with tunnelling engineers and crews with additional benefits accruing to the design of the shotcrete lining itself. In tunnelling, the lattice girders retain many of the basic functions of conventional steel arch ribs requiring a degree of strength and rigidity that is efficiently provided by the 3-dimensional steel lattice configuration. Two basic types of lattice girder have been developed and relate to the number of main support members present. The most commonly manufactured three-chord lattice has an isosceles triangular section with a larger bar diameter (25 40mm) at the apex and two smaller diameter bars (20 - 32mm) at the base corners. The apex bar is separated from the side-bars by small diameter (10 12mm) sinusoidally bent bars that are welded at each node to the main bars. The entire fabrication is radiused about the apex of the triangle with the apex being located either on the inside or outside of the curve. The basal bars are separated and braced by straight 16mm diameter cross -bars welded at the node locations of the "sinusoidals". The much less

frequently used four-chord lattice has four equally sized bars (20 - 40mm diameter) located at the corners of a square or rectangular section. Pairs of bars on each side of the rectangle separated and braced by sinusoidal bars and the two pairs are cross-braced by 16mm diameter cross-bars in a similar manner to the 3-chord lattice. The sinusoidally braced sides are normally radiused or form the upright member in a straight lattice girder. In both forms of lattice girder the ends are secured by steel plates either butt welded to the main bar ends or fillet welded to form base plates or connections. 3. FUNCTION AND DESIGN OF LATTICE GIRDERS Lattice girders provide the following important functions in the tunnelling process: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Emergency temporary support/restraint for unstable ground. Accurate template guide for profiling the tunnel excavation. Rigid fixing and support for steel fabric reinforcement to the intrados and extrados of the shotcrete lining shell. Cantilever fixing for spiling ahead of the advancing tunnel face. Temporary support to the shotcrete as it is being applied and until it gains sufficient strength to support itself. Accurate guide to the thickness of the shotcrete application. Contribution to the overall structural steel reinforcement in the completed lining shell. In structures such as ring-beams the lattice girder may provide the primary steel reinforcement member. Accurate fixings for tunnel convergence monitoring stations.

viii.

In determining the relational dimensions of the various bars that make up the lattice the following aspects of lattice design must be considered: i. ii. iii. iv. Required rigidity, capacity and moment characteristics. Avoidance of shotcrete voids (shadowing) for complete encapsulation. Required shotcrete lining thickness and cover to steel. Minimum required arch radius.

The optimisation of the lattice design is in part calculated but is largely based on experience. Consequently, manufacturers usually offer a comprehensive range of lattice configurations that have known structural properties from which the tunnel designer can select the girder size that best suits the tunnel diameter and lining thickness. The separation distance between girders is usually equal to the advance length of each tunnel round and the girder may extend around the crown arch of the tunnel only or continue below the springing line to the tunnel invert. Where full invert closure is critical to the tunnel construction the lattice girder may be completed across the tunnel invert. In larger tunnels a sequential excavation sequence is used with the full tunnel profile being excavated in stages to form a top heading, bench and invert, sometimes involving single or multiple side drift excavations that are staggered longitudinally by several metres. The versatility of the lattice girder provides a particularly useful means of setting out and temporarily supporting complex excavation sequences. For this the complete lattice girder arch is fabricated in manageable sections that can be bolted or pinned together at the end plates to form full moment connections when fully encapsulated in shotcrete. There is some debate as to whether to orientate the apex of a three-chord lattice girder towards the intrados or extrados of the lining. Structurally there is little difference between the two options and there is some argument against intrados orientation as the single bar may induce a crack to form in the unrestrained, exposed lining surface. On the other hand this orientation provides distinct advantages in terms of providing a more efficient load transfer between the formation and the girder. In addition, by placing the girder apex towards the intrados the insertion of a spile through the lattice located at the advancing tunnel face and cantilevering it against the preceding girder's thickest bar is certainly simpler and more efficient. 4. MANUFACTURE OF LATTICE GIRDERS To ensure that the lattice girders fulfil their design criteria to function in a safe and predictable manner, as a temporary support and profile former, it is vital that the product is manufactured in a quality controlled factory environment.

4. 1 Materials Materials used in the manufacture process must comply with the relevant Engineers specification and the national standards of that country providing full traceability back to a reputable source. The material strength will determine the load carrying capacity of the section and the chemistry the ability to bend the section to the desired dimensions and its ability to be welded. 4.2 Manufacture Personnel involved in the manufacturing process will have had to undertake an induction p eriod on the construction of lattice girders. A suitably recognised welding qualification with proven competence in welding are also required. The welding of the sections determine the performance and the tolerance of the sections. Purpose built jigs should be used for repetitive construction which will improve tolerances and manufacture speed. Individually made girders will require additional measurement checks for tolerance control. 4. 3 Quality Control Stringent documented procedures are enforced to ensure that each component is completed to specification. The documents cover issues of: i. traceability for each uniquely numbered girder from material source through to all stages of manufacture ii. weld quality and strength through non destructive testing iii. tolerance and dimensional check requirements depending on the complexity and number of sections.

Photo 1. Typical Lattice Girder Sections

5. INSTALLATION OF LATTICE GIRDERS The lattice girder is usually the first structural member to be installed in the tunnel excavation either as soon as the excavation round is completed or a "flash'" layer of shotcrete is applied to protect a potentially unstable profile. The girder is usually installed, often using a laser setting out guide, as close to the tunnel face as is practicable without interfering with the excavation of the next tunnel round. This is to enable the following shotcrete lining to be completed as far forward as possible to minimise the length of unsupported ground and to provide a profiling guide for the next excavation advance. The girder is usually offered up in place manually, sometimes from mobile cradles, or it can be elevated and manoeuvred into place using special attachments fixed to the excavator. The girder can be temporarily held in place by propping or pinning it to the formation. Alternatively, it can be bolted to a girder that has been already secured. Traditionally welded wire fabric (WWF) is placed behind the girder and tied in place lapping to the WWF from the previous round. An initial layer of shotcrete is then applied to cover the WWF half encapsulating the lattice girder. The second, inner layer of WWF can then be fixed in place and the shotcrete layer completed to the required thickness. This staged installation improves the penetration of the shotcrete though and around the steel without overloading the girder with shotcrete that has not reached sufficient strength to begin to support itself. Also the initial shotcrete layer should not have cured sufficiently to prevent the second layer from bonding to it. In addition, the application of the second shotcrete layer normally falls short of the newly installed girder in order to stagger the construction joint between rounds and reduce water penetration. The process also provides a safe working environment minimising the exposure of unsupported ground. With the development of Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete (FRS) the need for two passes of plain shotcrete to fully encapsulate the lattice girder and mesh has been eliminated. Full thickness single pass FRS can achieve full encapsulation and increase the speed of tunnel advance. The FRS is tapered towards the end of advance to offer protection and create a lapping section for the next section of spray. The use of single pass layers is discussed further in section 9.

Where the tunnel heading is constructed in side drifts a temporary lattice girder supports the section of the main arch in the crown and is removed as the second side drift is excavated. An easily dismantled pinning arrangement is normally incorporated in the design of this temporary connection whilst the permanent bolted connection with the adjacent girder in the crown arch must be protected from becoming encapsulated by shotcrete until the arch is completed. Where the lattice girder is extended down the sidewall of a bench, the design must incorporate some form of temporary longitudinal support to the base of the crown arch that is undermined by the bench excavation. Alternatively a horizontal lattice girder is placed below the crown arch girder that bridges the gap between the bench and the last installed sidewall girder. This configuration is termed a "wall plate" from the similar arrangement in traditional "ribs and lagging" support and is a particularly appropriate use of a 4chord lattice girder. The base of the lattice girder arch is formed simply from a butt-welded steel plate that can be packed underneath to temporarily support the structure until it is encapsulated in shotcrete. The key to efficient construction of the lattice girder arch is the close consideration needed for the lattice girder geometry and connection detail in relation to the tunnel geometry and excavation sequence. Safety and handling considerations are also important, as it is often the ease of setting out and erecting the girder in a confined space and in a limited time period that dictates the accuracy and functionality of the completed lining. 6. SPECIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS In addition to simple tunnelling applications, the versatility of the lattice girder/shotcrete lining system allows complex underground openings to be created even in soft ground. Multiple junctions into shafts, tunnels and caverns are possible using specially fabricated lattice girders that form the opening "eye" or ring beam support. In addition, the "eye" beam can be further supported by the insertion of rock bolts and spiles through the lattice which when encapsulated in shotcrete forms a structural connection and intimate bond with the ground. In addition to bored tunnel construction a lattice girder and reinforced shotcrete shell can be used in cut and cover tunnel construction. Here the lattice

girder arches are fully erected in an open cutting and braced by the fixing WWF to the intrados and extrados sides. Rough, temporary shuttering panels are then fixed to the extrados and the sprayed concrete is applied from inside the structure. Once the shotcrete has cured sufficiently to be selfsupporting, the shuttering is removed and further sprayed concrete is applied to the exterior face. The resultant reinforced concrete shell can then be loaded with backfill once it is fully cured. This technique has also been used to construct portal canopies and even surface structures and buildings, further demonstrating the versatility of the method in the forms and geometries of construction that are possible, which would require complex shuttering and casting using conventional construction techniques. Tunnel refurbishment is an increasing field of application for lattice girder and shotcrete support. For example brick or masonry lined tunnels can be strengthened by the incorporation of reinforced concrete arches formed by local removal of the existing lining to form a slot in which a lattice girder can be erected. Infilling with shotcrete provides a good structural bond with the adjacent lining improving its overall load carrying capacity through the formation of reinforced concrete arches. 7. PROJECTS IN THE UK 7.1 Channel Tunnel Rail Link, Contract 410, North Downs Tunnel The tunnel, constructed by a joint venture of Miller Civil Engineering, Beton-Und-Monierbau and Dumez GTM, is 3.2Km long with a tunnel face area of 165m2 is the largest tunnel ever constructed on the United Kingdom mainland. With cost and time major factors the JV decided to proceed with a sprayed concrete primary lining comprising of lattice girders, 2 layers of steel mesh, spiles and rock bolts. The advance rates varied between 1 metre and 2.2 metres providing a recorded daily advance of up to 14 metres. This allowed the cast concrete secondary lining to be started early, culminating in the concrete works being completed within budget and ahead of schedule. The lattice girders provided commencement profiles for the portals as indicted in Photo2. Photo 3 shows

the tunnel heading being advanced with support from lattice girders and shotcrete.

Photo 2. North Downs Tunnel London Portal

Photo 3. North Downs Tunnel Country portal 7.2 Greenway Pumping Station, Storm Water Surge Shaft Constructed during 1998 the 21 metre deep x 15 metre diameter surge shaft would traditionally have been constructed using a precast segment lining. An alternative solution was accepted by the client Thames Water, using a sprayed concrete lining, reinforced with lattice girders at 2 metre vertical centres and two layers of steel mesh. The support method selected proved to be successful with construction being significantly faster and cheaper than traditional precast methods. 7.3 Heathrow Express rail link from London to all four Heathrow Airport terminals With the main running tunnels constructed using a precast segmental lining, it was decided that the

more complex areas of the tunnelling works would be constructed using the NATM method of construction in London Clay. These areas included two Terminal 4 platforms, Terminal 4 crossover, Terminal 4 turnout, and a turnout for the future provision of a fifth terminal and various adits and escalator shafts. Lattice girders used in the turnouts and crossover were a complete ring at 1 metre centres with two layers of steel mesh. The method of construction used either a single side drift and enlargement or two side drifts and enlargement. The construction of the first turnout was complex requiring 75% of the lattice girder sections to having varying lengths and radii every metre. The lattice girder dimensions were rationalised on further elements to increase speed of installation. 8. RECENT PROJECTS IN AUSTRALIA 8.1 Buranda Tunnel The Buranda Tunnel forms part of the Water Street to OKeefe Street section of the South East Transit Busway. The driven tunnel was 190 metres in length being advanced in two stages, heading and bench, with a tunnel width varying between 19.2 metres and the southern portal and 12.6 metres an the northern portal. There were challenges in driving the tunnel from the southern portal due to the rail freight line situated approximately 2.5 metres above the tunnel crown and the large tunnel width at this point, shown in photo 4. With the low overburden, canopy tubes were installed for the first 30 metres of the tunnel as temporary support. Lattice girders and steel fibre reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) were then used as the primary support. The lattice girders were installed in 4 sections utilising bolted connections. Adjustable footing supports where used on the lattice to account for the varying profile of the excavation. Tie rods where used to transversely position the girders. The tunnel was advanced in 1metre intervals from the Southern Portal. Photo 4 Buranda Tunnel Southern Portal Modified lattice girders also proved to be useful as support to the water proofing membrane and to provide additional reinforcing for the final lining in the southern portal section, shown in figure 5.

Photo 5. Membrane Support Lattice Girders The northern portal lattice girders were installed at 1 metre intervals and increased to 1.5 metres as the ground conditions improved. The lattice girders were first installed and shotcreted in the top heading of the tunnel. Once the bench was excavated lattice girder legs were installed and shotcreted, extending the lattice girder to the invert level. Photo 6 indicates the connection point between heading and bench.

fibres in place of the WWF reinforcement particularly for crack control and fire protection purposes the need for lattice girders to provide profiling will still exist. New uses of the method are being developed for a wide range of civil engineering applications but it is perhaps the mining industry, where the method first began, that is likely to provide the main future growth. To date lattice girder and shotcrete support has had limited use in this industry with a tendency to use more traditional methods such as ribs and lagging, but the benefits of safety, economy and speed will, in the long run, prove attractive. 10. REFERENCES Baumann Th. & Betzle M. 1984. Investigation of the Performance of Lattice Girders in Tunnelling. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering 17, pp 67-81. Baumeister A.E. & Ertel J. 1985. Lattice Girder Construction and Dimensioning. Tunnel 2/85, May 1985. Betzle M. 1987. Lattice girders giving arches a dig in the ribs. Tunnels & Tunnelling, November 1987.

Photo x Northern Portal Buranda Tunnel 8.2 Vulture Street Tunnel The Vulture Street Tunnel forms part of the City to Woolloongabba section of the South East Transit Busway. The section comprises of a 410 metre driven tunnel with particular interest to the 34 metre length of Y junction located in the tunnel. The purpose of the Y junction was to allow for future transport and dual use provisions. The Y junction provided complexities in both design and construction due to the width of the section and low overburden to the main road above. The section was advanced in multiple stages, with a central pillar to be removed once the two tunnel sections were developed. The multiple advance, in 1 metre intervals, also allowed installation of rock bolts, cables, lattice girders and SFRS. The lattice girders were installed in 5 sections with the bolted and sliding joints used to accommodate excavation tolerances. The sliding joint was the central connecting point once the pillar was removed. The sliding connection was suggested by the consultant as a practical method of installing the lattice girders in difficult conditions within complex geometries. The lattice girder was modified further to allow the rock bolts to be installed through the top chord of the girder eliminating large cumbersome bolt plates. 9. FUTURE POTENTIAL OF LATTICE GIRDERS AND SHOTCRETE SUPPORT Significant moves towards single pass permanent shotcrete linings have been made in recent years following improvements in the wet-mix sprayed concreting process and shotcrete mix designs, where the placed concrete quality can equal or even exceed cast-in-situ reinforced concrete in terms of strength, compaction permeability and finish. Although there has been a parallel development of the use of steel