X-Ray and CT Imaging

XX- -ray and CT Imaging ray and CT Imaging
by
Dr. Sudipta Mukhopadhyay
Department of Electronics & Electrical
Communication Engineering Communication Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur 721306 Kharagpur 721306
Medical Imaging
The branch of imaging that deals
ith th di l li ti with the medical applications.
17 May 2011
Copyright 2007 by I I T Kharagpur
STC on VLSI -DSP Based Embedded Syst em for Biomedical Applicat ions
I ndian I nst it ut e of Technology Kharagpur
2
Modal it y : X-ray
Di agr am of a st andar d x-r ay t ube
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Modal it y : X-ray
X-ray invented by Rentgen in 1895
X-ray image is a 2D projection of a 3D body on X-ray image is a 2D projection of a 3D body on
film by irradiating the body with X-ray beam
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Modal it y : X-ray
Beers Law or Beer-Lambert Law:
N
i
: Number of x-ray photons incident upon the body N
i
: Number of x ray photons incident upon the body
N
o
: Number of x-ray photons exiting the body
( )
(
}
( )
( )
|
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(
=
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}
rayAB
i o
N
ds y x N N , exp
( )
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\
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=
}
o
i
rayAB
N
N
ds y x or ln , ,
(x,y): linear attenuation coefficient at (x,y) in PQRS
sectional plane
(x y): depends on object density and radiation frequency
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(x,y): depends on object density and radiation frequency
Modal it y : X-ray
Screen film detector:
X rays exiting from the body strike a fluorescent screen X rays exiting from the body strike a fluorescent screen
made of compounds of rare earth elements viz. lanthanum
oxybromide or gadolinium oxysulfide oxybromide or gadolinium oxysulfide
Xray photons are converted into visible light photons
Li ht iti fil i t t ith th d th Light sensitive film in contact with the screen records them
Film contains a layer of silver halide emulsion with a
thickness of about 10 m
Exposure or blackening of the film depends upon the
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number of light photons that reach the film
Modal it y : X-ray
Thick screen provides a high efficiency of conversion of X
rays to light, but causes loss of resolution due to blurring
Typical thickness range of the screen phosphor layer 40
100 m
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Modal it y : X-ray
Fluoroscopy system uses an image intensifier and a video
camera in place of the film p
Images are acquired at a rate of 2 8 frames/s with Xray
beam pulsed at 30 100 ms per frame
Captured the image displayed on a monitor as video
In computed radiography (CR), a photo stimulable
phosphor plate is used instead of film
The latent image is scanned using a laser and digitized to
get CR image get CR image
In digital radiography (DR), the film or the entire screen film
combination is replaced with solidstate electronic detectors
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combination is replaced with solidstate electronic detectors
Modal it y : X-ray
Chest X ray
PA L t l
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PA Lateral
Modal it y : X-ray
X-ray imaging is referred as projection or planar
imaging g g
X-ray energy measure : keV or kVp
kVp rating relates to highest possible X-ray photon p g g p y p
energy
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Modal it y : X-ray
An electron beam of 20-140keV is used for
diagnostic application diagnostic application
kVp depends on distance between x-ray source
and patient, thickness of the patient and other p , p
factors
High kVp means low differential attenuation and
poor tissue detail visibility or contrast
Energy levels : 25-32 kVp for soft tissues, 60-100
kVp for abdomen, 80-120 kVp for chest and 70-90
kVp for skull
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Modal it y : X-ray
Exposure : For a given tube voltage the number of
photons released at source is related to the photons released at source is related to the
product of tube current (mA) and exposure time
(s), together expressed as mAs ( ), g p
Low mAs results in under-exposed film (faint
image) and high mAs will result in over-exposed
film (dark image) and more patient dose
Typical exposure values : 2-120 mAs
Automatic exposure for a given mode, patient size
and kVp setting or estimation through small initial
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exposure (5 ms)
Modal it y : X-ray
Beam Hardening & Pre-hardening
Theoretical energy spectra for Theoretical energy spectra for
a 420-kV X-ray source with a
tungsten target. The upper
spectrum is modified only by spectrum is modified only by
inherent beam filtration by 3
mm of aluminum at the tube
exit port. The lower curve p
represents a spectrum that has
also passed through 5 cm of
quartz. The preferential
attenuation of low-energy X-
rays causes the average
energy to rise from 114 keV to
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178 keV.
Modal it y : X-ray
Scatter and use of grids
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Modal it y : X-ray
Scatter and use of grids
T i l id t i thi t i f l d l i ith Typical grid contains thin strips of lead or aluminum with a
strip density of 25 80 lines/cm and a grid height to strip
width ratio in the range of 5 : 1 to 12 : 1 width ratio in the range of 5 : 1 to 12 : 1
Stationary grid produces a line pattern that is
superimposed upon the image superimposed upon the image
Grid artifacts prevented in a reciprocating grid, where the
grid is moved about 20 grid spacings during exposure grid is moved about 20 grid spacings during exposure
Movement smears the grid shadow and renders it invisible
Di d d bl di i d d d
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Disadvantage: double radiation dose, reduced contrast
Modal it y : X-ray
Grid artifacts and normal x ray image
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Modal it y : X-ray
Mammography
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Modal it y : X-ray
Mammography Schematic
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Modal it y : X-ray
Mammography
First reported by Warren in 1930 First reported by Warren in 1930
First satisfactory (reproducible)
mammography reported by Egan in 1960 mammography reported by Egan in 1960
In mid-1960s the first X-ray machine
dedicated to mammography was built dedicated to mammography was built
Requires high quality (nearly monochrome)
x ray beam : molybdenum target x-ray beam : molybdenum target
Major characteristics is low contrast
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Modal it y : CT
An X-ray device capable of cross sectional imaging
Creates images of slice through the patient
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g g p
Modal it y : CT
Problem: Visualizing the details of the interior of the human
body or other objects y j
Laminagraphy/planigraphy/``classical tomography
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Modal it y : CT
Laminagraphy/planigraphy/``classical tomography
Coronal plane through chest:
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Modal it y : CT
Generations of Computer Tomography
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Modal it y : CT
Electron Beam Scanner
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Modal it y : CT
Advantages
Abilit t diff ti t l i t t Ability to differentiate overlying structures
Increased contrast
Overlying structures do not decrease contrast Overlying structures do not decrease contrast
Digital images, so variable window settings
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Modal it y : CT
Image Description
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Modal it y : CT
Image Creation
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Modal it y : CT
Image Reconstruction : Back Projection
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Modal it y : CT
Image Reconstruction : Filtered Back Projection
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Modal it y : CT
CT number scale
Grey levels on CT image represent attenuation in Grey levels on CT image represent attenuation in
each pixel
Grey levels expressed in Hounsfield units (HU) Grey levels expressed in Hounsfield units (HU)
Water is 0 HU
Air is -1000 HU Air is 1000 HU
Bone is 1000 - 3000 HU

1000 HU
=
water
water object

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water
Modal it y : CT
CT number window
CT images can be displayed with CT images can be displayed with
arbitrary brightness and contrast
Display is defined using window Display is defined using window
level (WL) and window width (WW)
WL is CT number of mid-grey WL is CT number of mid grey
WW is number of HU from black ->
white
Choice of WW and WL dictated by
clinical need
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Modal it y : CT
Acquisition Parameters
Tube potential (80 140 kV) Tube potential (80 - 140 kV)
Voltage between filament (cathode) and anode
Higher potential accelerates electrons more - giving Higher potential accelerates electrons more giving
them, and x-rays more energy
Tube current (20 - 500 mA) Tube current (20 500 mA)
current flowing through tube filament
larger current produces more electrons, and greater g p , g
x-ray beam intensity
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Modal it y : CT
Acquisition Parameters
Scan time (0.5 - 4 s) Scan time (0.5 4 s)
Time taken for tube and detectors to perform complete rotation
Longer scan time increases total x-ray count
C lli ti / li idth (0 1 10 ) Collimation / slice width (0.1 - 10 mm)
Width of CT slice along z-axis
Beam filtration Beam filtration
Usually different beam shaping filters, optimized for head and body
examinations
Helical pitch (0 5 2) Helical pitch (0.5 - 2)
width beam ray x
rotation per travel Table
Pitch
=
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Modal it y : CT
Factors affecting noise
Noise is a product of statistical fluctuations in Noise is a product of statistical fluctuations in
signal at detectors
Greater signals to detectors => lower noise g
Each detector trying to estimate attenuation
does this by counting x-rays. More x-rays give more y g y y g
accurate attenuation measurement
Convolution kernel / reconstruction filter
smooth kernel gives low noise, at expense of spatial
resolution
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Modal it y : CT
Factors affecting signal
kV: high kV x rays more penetrating kV: high kV x-rays more penetrating
mA: high tube current gives more intense x-
b ray beam
scan time: long scan time => more x-rays to
detectors
slice thickness: wide slice => more x-rays y
patient composition: small patients less
attenuating
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attenuating
Modal it y : CT
CT Scanning Applications
Very wide ranging - good for imaging soft tissue Very wide ranging good for imaging soft tissue
and bone
Diagnostic imaging g g g
Radiotherapy planning
3D Applications pp
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Ref erences
Biomedical Image Analysis by Rangaraj M.
Rangayyan, CRC Press, 2005 g yy
Virtual Imaging Laboratory
http://dukemil.egr.duke.edu/ http://dukemil.egr.duke.edu/
About High-resolution X-ray CT
http://www ctlab geo utexas edu/overview/in http://www.ctlab.geo.utexas.edu/overview/in
dex.php#anchor2-2
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X-Ray and CT Imaging

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