UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Instructional Technology and the Struggling Reader

A Literature Review
Emily Marshall 9/30/2012 Dr. Timothy Green

Abstract A review of reading tests given to K-12 students nationwide change be described as alarming and downright scary. For example, the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) showed that only 42% of the nations fourth graders scored at or above the proficient level. As more and more companies ship jobs overseas we find ourselves in a world were literacy is a basic prerequisite skill in most jobs. At the same time, we see students entering school who have spent their entire lives using computers, smart phones, social media and more. It is time to stop fighting the use of technology in schools and instead find ways to use it effectively to reach all students. We need to move past the computer games as a reward model of thinking and instead use technology as an integral part of our daily curriculum. This includes using it to reach our most vulnerable students. This is a review of research currently available which looks at how technology can be used in reading intervention.

Introduction There are many definitions of a struggling reader. One definition is a student who is experiencing significant difficulty learning to read (Ertem, 2010). Another refers to students who consistently fail to read at, or near, grade level (Cheung & Slavin, 2012). Regardless of your definition of a struggling reader the data overwhelmingly shows that literacy is an enormous problem in America and its not getting any better. Cheung and Slavins review of the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores show that only 42% of fourth graders scored at or above the proficient level (2012, p. 3). That statistics are even worse when looking at the percentage of minorities who passed. Some of these statistics include African Americans (19%), Hispanics (21%), or English language learners (3%) reading at or above the proficient level (Cheung & Slavin, 2012, p. 3). Considering the world today and the job market that will meet these students at the end of their educational career these statistics show that we are raising a generation of children that will face an uphill battle to self sustainment. Literacy is a basic requirement for most jobs in America today. It is imperative that this trend is stopped and reversed. Exacerbating the situation is the current educational environment of high stakes testing and extensive state standards. This culture is causing students who are struggling readers to fall further and further behind their peers because of the fact that they receive less reading intervention as they progress through the grades. Also, their inability to read at grade-level means they are unable to understand textbooks and other material used to present academic information in all subjects, not just reading and language arts (Welch, 2010; Rasinski, Samuels, Hiebert, Petscher, & Feller, 2011). Struggling readers rarely experience academic success and are often mislabeled and being unintelligent (Gunter & Kenny, 2008). This stigma leads to low self esteem, continued failures in the school environment, and often leads those students to drop

out of school (Ertem, 2010). So the question then becomes How do we fix it? While the number of theories, intervention programs, and experts with advice are plentiful, true success is still elusive in many schools. However, many research studies are finding successes that can be used and molded to fit each school and each situation. The overwhelming consensus is that reading intervention should focus on fluency, vocabulary acquisition, and comprehension (Gunter & Kenny, 2008; Welch, 2010; Ertem, 2010). Additionally, a growing body of research asserts that the use of educational technology can further enhance the effectiveness of these interventions (Ertem, 2010; Berkeley & Lindstrom, 2011; Anderson & Balajthy, 2009). Educational technology offers hope to teachers that are already faced with the daunting task of teaching 20 students at 20 different skill levels. Unlike many other types of teaching, educational technology can provide support to students with diverse needsand has the potential of scaffolding instruction in a rich variety of ways (Ertem, 2010, p. 142). Fluency Reading fluency has been defined as the ability to simultaneously process written texts accurately, automatically, with appropriate prosody and comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000; Rasinski et al., 2011). While fluency is widely regarded as a critical element of reading instruction it has also been found to be relatively neglected in reading instruction (Rasinski et al., 2011). Fluency practice traditionally focuses on guided repeated oral reading (Rasinski et al., 2011). However, studies have also demonstrated the benefit of computer-based silent reading fluency instruction (Rasinski et al., 2011, p. 75). Regardless of the exact form of fluency practice it has been shown to be an extremely effective strategy in assisting struggling readers. Additionally, McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy, and Tate found that using technology such as an

iPad to facilitate a students self-evaluation of their reading during fluency practice can help students to become more metacognitive about their reading (2012). Vocabulary Acquisition Vocabulary acquisition is widely considered to be one of the keys to reading fluency and comprehension. It is also known that, vocabulary knowledge is closely linked to the difficulties many students experience in handling the demands of content textbooks (Harmon, Hedrick, & Wood, 2005). While proficient readers tend to have an extensive vocabulary, students who lag behind their peers in reading achievement engage in less reading, know fewer words, and hence find it increasingly more difficult to handle all reading tasks, including content area (Harmon et al., 2005; Allington, 2001). Despite this fact, teachers often struggle to find effective ways to not only teach vocabulary, but to ensure students retain that information. This is another way in which technology can have an impact on struggling readers. Students have the option of using text-to-speech functions found on most computers, electronic dictionaries with audio pronunciations, flash cards, word lists, and much more. Due to the wide variety of options available teachers and students are able to tailor the intervention strategy for what works best for each individual student. Comprehension With the rapid pace at which technology is currently evolving it is essential for our students to be literate. Of course the most traditional definition of literacy is the foundation that everyone must build on, reading and writing. However, literacy today also includes digital and media literacy and more. With that fact in mind it makes sense that students today want technology to be an integral part of their learning. Gunter and Kelly reflect on this fact by stating, The realization that student cognitive processing skills and preferences may be

changing raises questions as to whether correct instructional strategies are being utilized to motivate digitally oriented students toward reading and writing (2008, p.86). Comprehension is one area of reading intervention that lends itself very well to various types of technology. Comprehension is the final building block of successful readers. While some students are extremely fluent readers they may still struggle with reading comprehension. Older struggling readers, defined as those between fourth and twelfth grade, often do not need assistance reading words (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004; Ertem, 2010). However, these groups of students frequently fail to understand what they are reading (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004; Ertem, 2010). This is where direct instruction in reading comprehension skills is needed. Several methods of comprehension instruction using technology have been tested and reviewed in current research. One promising example is the use and creation of book talks or book reviews. If students are properly matched with authors or genres they like and a forum is provided for them to share their experiences, even reluctant readers will likely complete the books they start and will read others from the same (or similar) author or genre (Gunter and Kenny, 2008). This is where book reviews come into playand more specifically, digital book reviews. The act of creating a book review meant to share perceptions and the overall theme of the book will encourage students to read for understanding and comprehension. It will also help them reflect on the book and force them to think about the story structure and organize their understanding of the storys details. There are several added benefits when allowing students to create book reviews using technology. Some of those benefits include the motivational factor of technology, providing students an authentic audience for their work, incorporating practice using multiple skill sets, and giving them another way to show what they know that can allow them to experience success in school. As we learned earlier, many struggling readers never experience success in school. Once they are able to

complete a task like this well it can motivate them to transfer that experience to other subject areas. Conclusion While wide-scale studies are not currently available to support any one specific intervention strategy using technology, there are many encouraging examples that show the promise this new strategy holds. Many people automatically think that reading intervention needs to be done using pencils, paper, and books and that technology should be reserved for other subjects. However, students today are digital natives and making learning relevant to them is one of the keys to helping them retain information and move forward. Struggling readers have already experienced a long line of failures due to their relationship with traditional print. Their inability to understand written text and obtain meaning from it has caused them trouble in school and led to many negative feelings. Technology may be the key to showing these students that they can learn, read, and experience success in school. This backdoor may be the key to turning these students around and putting them on a new path in life. However, while technology holds great promise, it is also important to understand the limitations. Simply providing struggling readers, or any student, access to technology will not fix any problems. Teachers must understand how to create student-centered activities that focus on the areas of growth that are needed. The combination of technology and a teacher willing and able to use it effectively may just be the key to reaching our most vulnerable students.

Resources Allington, R. L. (2001). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research based programs. New York: Longman. Anderson, R. & Balajthy, E. (2009). Stories About Struggling Readers and Technology. Reading Teacher, 26(5), 540-542. Berkeley, S. & Lindstrom, J. (2011). Technology for the Struggling Reader: Free and Easily Accessible Resources. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(4), 48-55. Biancarosa, G. & Snow, C.E. (2004). Reading next- A vision for action and research in middle and high school literact: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, D.C.: Alliance for Excellent Education. Ertem, I. (2010). The Effect of Electronic Storybooks on Struggling Fourth-Graders' Reading Comprehension. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(4), 140-155. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ908080 Gunter, G. & Kenny, R. (2008). Digital Booktalk: Digital Media for Reluctant Readers. Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 8(1), 84-99. Harmon, J., Hedrick, W., & Wood, K. (2005). Research on Vocabulary Instruction in the Content Areas: Implications for Struggling Readers. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 21, 261-280. Retrieved from http://www.wce.wwu.edu/Depts/SPED/Forms/Kens%20Readings/Vocabulary/Vocab%20Te aching%20vocab%20in%20content%20areas%20Harmon%202005.pdf McClanahan,B., Williams, K., Kennedy, E. & Tate, S. (2012). A Breakthrough for Josh: How Use of an iPad Facilitated Reading Improvement. TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 56(3), 20-28. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read. Washington, DC: United States Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. Rasinski, T., Samuels, S., Hiebert, E., Petscher, Y., & Feller, K. (2011). The Relationship between a Silent Reading Fluency Instructional Protocol on Students' Reading Comprehension and Achievement in an Urban School Setting. Reading Psychology, 32(1), 75-97. Smith, S. (2010). Introduction to the Special Issue on Technology Integration. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(4), 240-242.

Welch, M. (2010). Instructional Technological Factors that Impede and Impel Struggling Adolescent Students' Reading Comprehension. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge & Society, 6(4), 137-150.