Utkarsh Chauhan

2012-09-29

Chemistry Unit Test 1 Review

Analysis of the Periodic Table

For centuries scientists have been attempting to explain certain phenomena through the analysis of atoms and fragments of matter that may hold the answer to many of natures questions. Today, their conclusive work is organized in a chart of elements, pure substances listed for their similar attributes, subatomic particles, and weight. In a more specific perspective, the periodic table Is listed from start to finish by atomic number (number of protons) Is placed in columns (groups) to show similar characteristic in qualities Is placed in rows (periods) based on energy levels (electron orbits) Contains several metals, some gases, and a few liquids at SATP (also known as room temperature) Has certain trends that hold answers to certain occurrences and similarities between elements For this course, the significant elements are numbers 1-38, 47-48, 50-51, 53-56, 74, 78-80, 83, 86, 88, and 92. It is imperative that these are memorized by name and symbol to understand the basics of the test. There are 18 groups (columns) that contain elements of specific nature. Group #
1

Name/Ch arge
Alkali Metals +1 Charge

Reactivity
High, Increases Downwards

Atomic Radius
High

Notes
Hydrogen is unique, usually a gas. Francium is radioactive, elements are soft and not dense Shiny, silvery white. Radioactive, not very dense, react with halogens Hard, with high melting and boiling points

Usual state
Metal

Alkaline Earth Metal +2 Charge

Good, Increases Downwards

Good

Metal

3-12

Transition Metals (11 is coinage) Varying Charge Boron Family Varying Charge Carbon Family

Low

Medium

Metal (Mercury is a liquid)

13

Low (aluminum exception) Low

Low

14

Lower

Boron is the only non-metal, found in ores but not alone Most found in earths crust, increase in density and conductivity downwards

Metalloids

Metalloids

15

Nitrogen Family -3 Charge

Medium, Increases Upwards

Even Lower

16

Oxygen Family -2 Charge Halogens -1 Charge

Good, Increases Upwards High, Increases Upwards

Still Lower

17

Still Getting Lower

18

Noble (Inert) Gases No Charge

None

Lowest

Nitrogen is unique and common in our world, rest are solid metals Oxygen only gas and is highly electronegative along with sulfur Fluorine is the most electronegative, all diatomic, high electron affinity Unreactive because of full valance, brightly coloured

Metalloids

Metalloids

Non-Metal (Bromine Liquid) Non-Metal

The periods (rows) are equivalent to the number or electron orbits/shells on an element. History of the Atom It definitely took a while to develop the ideas present in modern chemistry Year 500 BCE 1809 1886 1897 1898 1910 1913 1932 Scientist Demokritus Dalton Goldstein Thomson Marie and Pierre Curie Rutherford Bohr Chadwick Country Greece England Germany England France England Denmark England Contribution First to suggest that matter consisted of atoms Suggested modern atomic theory Discovered Protons Discovered Electrons Discovered Radioactivity Discovered the Nucleus Suggested electrons exist at various energy levels Discovered neutrons

But how did they figure this stuff out? Scientist Demokritus Thought matter was made up of electrons Thomson Discovered electrons Rutherford Discovered nucleus Bohr Energy levels Method of Experimentation Philosophy/Thought/Theory

Cathode Ray Tube, discovered charges Gold Foil experiment, found dense center of atom Light Spectrum Experiment

I doubt this is on the test, but the models of the atom are (try to picture them) Dalton Billiard Ball (Empty Atom) Thomson Raisin bun (Big plus sign in middle, negative charges surround it) Rutherford Positive charge in concentrated space (circle around nucleus) Bohr Model Solar System Model (Orbits around +ve nucleus) *Unofficial: Chadwick Model # Protons and # Neutrons in nucleus, with orbits

Energy Levels of Electrons Electrons arrange themselves in orbits around the nucleus First energy level holds two Second energy level holds eight Third and so on may hold up to 8, 16, 32 The electrons on the outermost energy level are called valance electrons and they determine the elements ability to chemically react

Line Spectrum When you pass light through a gaseous element, a uniquely coloured light is produced because of excited electrons In a spectroscope, a series of coloured lines appear, a different variation (ALWAYS IN THE ORDER OF A RAINBOW) shows for each element The excited electrons jump to higher energy levels or orbits, and as they release this gained energy, they release light, a band of colour Each line represents a specific amount of energy released, and the line spectrum is the unique I.D. for each element Isotopes Isotopes have the same atomic number (Z), but different atom mass (A) This is because of more or less neutrons (C-14 is an isotope of carbon, where instead of 12 neutrons it has 14) The nuclear symbol (above) is a lazy way to show the atomic number and mass of an element. An isotope, on the other hand, is lazier. An isotope is written with the symbol and mass only (C-14 or O-9 and so on) Isotopes tend to be very unstable (break down easily) Unstable isotopes decay and emit radiation, and it can be harmless or dangerous The decay of the parent nucleus results in a more stable daughter nucleus These isotopes that decay, and emit radiation, are known as radioisotopes NOTE: All elements have isotopes some take years to decay, some take seconds

There are three types of radiation, from weak to violent Types of Radiation Alpha Beta Gamma Symbol Approx. Speed Slow Fast Very Fast Speed of Light Barrier for Protection Sheet of Paper/Skin 1-2mm Metal 1m Lead or Concrete

Alpha Particle Composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, equivalent to the He-4 nucleus. Alpha particles carry a charge of 2+, and a stream of alpha particles is called an alpha ray. Example

Beta Particle A high energy electron, carrying a charge of -1, a stream is called a beta ray.

Gamma Rays In both alpha and beta decay, high energy radiation is given off by gamma rays; they are, oddly enough, 0 mass and 0 charge. Nuclear Equations (TEST) When one element decays to form another, the change is called transmutation. Remember, the sum of the atomic numbers on both sides must be EQUAL! Half Life The time taken for of the original number of atoms to decay. A half-life varies A LOT for different radioisotopes. For example, the half-life of cesium-137 is 30 years. The half-life of polonium-216 on the other hand, is 0.26 seconds.

Trends in the Periodic Table There are 6 properties of elements that make patterns in the period table that we need to know. These trends are based on theories if the atomic structure, and are mostly a good way to identify similarities despite a few exceptions. Reactivity Alkali Metals - Reactivity increase down a group. Non-Metals Reactivity decreases down a group. Atomic Radius General Rule: - Decreases from left to right, increases top to bottom More protons going left to right, the more electrons are tightly pulled to the center, the smaller the atomic radius is. In other words, oxygen has a higher radius than fluorine. However, the more energy levels present the larger the atomic radius! (Xe > K) Ionic Radius General Rule: For positive ions (cations) like Na+ and Mg 2+, it decreases from left to right (losing electrons) For negative ions (anions) like N 3- and O 2-, when an atom gains electrons, the atomic radius increases. Ionization Energy The amount of energy required to remove and electron from an atom. 1st Ionization energy Most weakly help electron in valence shell 2nd Ionization energy Removal of a second electron from a cation (MUCH HARDER) General Rule: Decrease down a group, increase left to right

NOTE: Elements on the left side (cations) are likely to lose electrons whereas the right side (anions) want to gain electrons. Electron Affinity How much energy an atom is willing to lose to gain an electron. Add an electron = energy release. When trying to add more than one electron, the forces are strong negative, and the electrons are repulsed. Energy is used to form ions.

General Rule: Increase from left to right

Why? Smaller radius = greater attractive force between nucleus are new electron Electronegativity Ability to attract electrons. General Rule: Increase left to right, decrease down a group

NOTE: Obviously, Fluorine is the most electronegative element (4 rating) Some Tips for Success Try to understand what each trend is about. The increasing and decreasing left to right and down a group is something your brain can figure out, if you understand positive and negative ions and radius rules. Atomic radius and reactivity are the most significant those and electronegativity are mostly likely to appear on a test. Atomic radius is used to explain everything relate to this often in test answers For a good answer, use more than one trend (one main and one for backup)

Lewis Diagrams *Atoms Nucleus and Inner electrons are replaced with the element symbol *Valence electrons are represented by dots Example: Bohr Diagram for Chlorine Lewis Diagram for Chlorine

NOTE: Put elements in pairs, and hit compass points Exception: Only applies to group 14 HIT ALL 4 COMPASS POINTS/NO PAIRS Eg. Lewis Diagram for carbon

Forming Compounds IONIC Example: Sodium and Chlorine a) Na(1 valence) ----show dot transfer with arrow--- Cl (7 valence) b) [Na]+ and [Cl]- (show 8 valence on chlorine) c) NaCl MOLECULAR Example: Chlorine and Chlorine a) Cl and Cl (show the 7th valance shared by circling them) b) Cl --- Cl (single bond) c) Cl2 Example: Phosphorus and Iodine (tricky, IKR) a) 4 elements in a square, phosphorus top left, with 3 Iodine. Each Iodine shares one of its valence with one phosphorus valence using circles to show which. b) P on top left, line extends to I on right, I on bottom right, and I bellow with straight lines showing single bonds c) PI3 Intermolecular Forces Van der Waals forces: Weak intermolecular attractions, including London Dispersion and Dipole-Dipole forces Dipole-Dipole force: An attractive forces between polar molecules London Dispersion force: An attractive acting between all molecules, including non-polar molecules Hydrogen Bond: A relatively strong Dipole-Dipole force between a positive hydrogen atom of one molecule and a highly electronegative atom (eg. F, O, N) in another molecule (eg. Oxygen in water attracted to Hydrogen in other molcules) Properties of Ionic and Covalent (Molecular) Substances Properties of Ionic substances High melting and boiling points All solids at room temperature Have regular crystalline structure (solids) Conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water Usually very soluble in water (eg. NaCl, which is salt)

Properties of Covalent/Molecular Substances Low Melting and Boiling Points Can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature Are unable to conduct electricity as liquids Not very soluble (eg, gasoline) Contain inter- and intra- molecular forces

*Intramolecular forces exist within a molecule, and are VERY STRONG *Intermolecular forces exist between molecules, and are WEAK For this reason, it is easier to separate a molecule (physical) than it is to break up a molecule (chemical) because intermolecular forces are much WEAKER than intra (within) molecular forces. Nomenclature IONIC COMPOUNDS Binary metal goes first, non-metal second, and change ending to ide MgO = Magnesium Oxide Stock System some metals are multivalent (Fe 2+ or Fe 3+). Roman numerals indicate the valency, and the ending is changed to ide. FeO = Iron (II) Oxide Polyatomic Compounds metal goes first, name of the polyatomic ion goes next KNO = Potassium Nitrate Name Nitrate Hydroxide Bicarbonate (hydrogen carbonate) Chlorate Carbonate Sulfate Phosphate MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS Generally Composed of 2 non-metals sharing electrons. Use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms in the compounds, unless the first element has a prefix of 1 (CO = Carbon Monoxide) (Water = Dihydrogen Monoxide) Symbol and Charge NO3 OH HCO3 ClO3 2CO3 2SO4 2PO4 3-

One type of molecular compounds is known as diatomic because it contains 2 of the same atom. For example, chlorine will NEVER be found alone, so it is always Cl2. Other common diatomic molecules are HOFBrINCl or HOBrFINCl (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Bromine, Iodine, Nitrogen, Chlorine) Common Names for certain Molecular Compounds H2O = Water NH3 = Ammonia NH4 = Ammonium H2O2 = Hydrogen Peroxide CH4 = Methane O3 = Ozone Prefix List Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Prefix Mono Di Tri Tetra Pent(a) Hex(a) Hept(a) Oct(a) Non(a) Dec(a)

Organic Chemistry Hydrocarbons The study of molecular compounds or carbon (except CO or CO2) which include both natural and synthetic (manmade) compounds. ONE TYPE of this is known as hydrocarbons, dealing with bonds of ONLY hydrogen and carbon atoms. Classification of Hydrocarbons Alphatic Compounds Organic Compounds with molecular structures that are straight, branched, or in chains or rings of carbon to carbon bonds.

Aromatic Compounds Organic compounds that contain a benzene-like structure. (C6H6) This unique ring has alternating single and double bonds between the carbons. Hierarchy of Hydrocarbons Organic compounds branch into Hydrocarbons, which branch into Alphatic and Aromatic compounds. The Alphatic Compounds split into either Acyclic or Cyclic Compounds. ALKANES C-C Single Bonds ACYCLIC ALKENES C=C Double Bonds ALKYNES C(3 lines)C Triple Bonds CYCLIC CYCLOALKANES CYCLOALKENES Ring of C-C Ring with one C=C All Single Bond Double Bond Somewhere

General Formulas Alkane: CnH2n+2 (CH4) Alkene: CnH2n Alkyne: CnH2n -2 (C6H10) Alkane Family IUPAC NAME MOLECULAR FORMULA Methane CH4 Ethane C 2 H6 Propane C 3 H8 Butane C4H10 Pentane C5H12 *Rest of the Prefixes are the same as basic compounds Pentane (C5H12) Unraveled: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 A Ball and Stick Model (3d) and Structural Diagrams (written Cs and Hs) are models that further explain the shape and configuration of the molecule. Building Molecular Models Cl Cl is Linear, Covalent Bond, and Non-Polar Molecule O = O is Linear, Covalent Bond, and Non-Polar Molecule H2O is Bent, Polar Bond, Polar Molecule (ADD DELTA SIGNS, + FOR O AND FOR H) CH4 is Tetrahedral, Polar Bond, yet Non-Polar Molecule (4 compass points covered = equal/symmetrical pull = no polarity in the molecule) AKA, Tetrahedral = Non-Polar.

NH3 and HCl are both Polar Bonds and Molecules (ADD DELTA SIGNS) CO2 and CCl4 are Polar Molecules, Non-Polar Bonds (Equal Pull = No Charges) Coordinate Covalent Bonds A coordinate covalent bond is when two atoms have a covalent bond where the two electrons that are shared by the atoms in the bond come from only one of the atoms. This bond does not have any different properties than a polar covalent bond it is just named differently to show that the electrons came from an atom with a lone pair. This occurs when a Lewis base donates electrons to a Lewis acid. Eg. When NH3 is formed, it has a Lone Pair of electrons on the Nitrogens Lewis diagram. This N has a great enough attractive force pull another hydrogen atom, and NH4 is therefore a coordinate covalent bond. So is H3O. Study this, its a hard concept.

CONTENT COMPLETE, WOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Application Question for Test Understand this concept well, chances are the topic is important and may be on the test. Fossil Evidence Isotopes to Track Sea Level All in all, people can use isotopes of oxygen to determine changes in sea level. By comparing O-16 and O-18, it is possible to find out information about changing temperature and sea level. The water that is trapped in snow and ice has a higher concentration of O-16, leaving a higher concentration of O-18 in the seawater. Therefore, if theres a higher O-18 concentration in the foram shells, it can be determined that there is a lot of ice (O-16) and the sea level is low! Or you can just read the sheet she gave us There may be another application question, but I cant find it. And I apologize for any misspelled words or grammatical errors in this document. Difficult Aspects of this Unit (in order) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Coordinate Covalent Bonds Drawing Structural Diagrams Isotope Decay and Half-Lives Differentiation between how to draw Ionic and Molecular compounds being formed Memorizing Polyatomic Ions

Thats my personal list. Good Luck on the Test!