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Chapter 2

SOME BASIC SEQUENCES


Copyright c 1996 by Ali H. Sayed. All rights reserved. These notes are distributed only to the
students attending the undergraduate DSP course EE113 in the Electrical Engineering Department
at UCLA. The notes cannot be reproduced without written consent from the instructor: Prof. A.
H. Sayed, Electrical Engineering Department, UCLA, CA 90095, sayed@ee.ucla.edu.
Complex numbers play a critical role in characterizing discrete-time signals and discrete-
time systems. For example, it will be seen in later chapters that complex numbers are
needed to describe the frequency content of a sequence and the frequency response of a
system. Complex numbers are also needed to describe some basic sequences even in the
time domain. For this reason, this chapter provides a brief review of complex numbers and
explains how they are useful in describing some important sequences.
Complex Numbers
Every complex number has the form z = a + jb, where a and b are real numbers and
j =

1. Every such number can be expressed in a so-called polar form, in terms of a
magnitude factor and a phase factor. Specically, z can be expressed as
a +jb = Ae
j
,
where the magnitude A is a positive real number that is computed as follows:
A =

a
2
+b
2
while the phase is measured in radians and it lies within the interval [, ]. The value
of can be determined from the scalars {a, b}, with care, as follows. First, we determine
the angle
_

2
,

2

whose arctan is given by


= arctan
_
b
a
_
.
Then we may need to modify by adding to it depending on which quadrant in the
complex plane the number z belongs to see Fig. 2.1. Specically, we obtain from as
5
6 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
follows:
=
_

_
if z belongs to quadrants I or IV
(i.e., if a > 0).
if z belongs to quadrant III
(i.e., if a < 0 and b < 0).
+ if z belongs to quadrant II
(i.e., if a < 0 and b > 0).
The correction to (i.e., the addition of ) is dened in such a way that the resulting
argument always lies within the interval [, ].
Figure 2.1. Division of the complex plane into four quadrants.
Consider the following example. Let
z
1
= 1 +j, z
2
= 1 j.
Both complex numbers have the same magnitude, A =

2, and lead to the same phase
angle,
= arctan(1) =

4
.
However, z
1
and z
2
are distinct numbers: one lies in quadrant I while the other lies in
quadrant III. The correct phase angle for z
2
is therefore

4
=
3
4
, so that we arrive at
z
1
=

2 e
j

4
, z
2
=

2 e
j
3
4
.
Basic Sequences
The following list of sequences comes up time and again in the study of discrete-time signals
and systems. The reader is well advised to become familiar with the list. Some of the
sequences are so common (like the unit-sample sequence and the unit-step sequences) that
they have their own standard notation.
1. The unit-sample sequence is denoted by (n) and is dened as
(n) =
_
1 n = 0
0 n = 0
7
In other words, the sequence is zero everywhere except at time n = 0 when it is equal
to unity. The unit-sample sequence is often referred to more simply as the impulse
sequence. [As can be seen from this denition, the impulse signal in discrete-time is
far simpler to dene than the impulse signal in continuous-time.]
2. The unit-step sequence is denoted by u(n) and is dened as
u(n) =
_
1 n 0
0 n < 0
In other words, the sequence is equal to unity for all nonnegative time instants. Fig. 2.2
plots the terms of the unit-sample and unit-step sequences over the interval 10
n 10.
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
n
Unitsample sequence
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
n
Unitstep sequence
Figure 2.2. The top plot shows the terms of the unit-sample sequence (n)
over the interval 10 n 10, while the bottom plot shows the terms of the
unit-step sequence u(n) over the same interval of time.
3. The real exponential sequence is dened by:
x(n) = A
n
with A and both real-valued. Fig. 2.3 plots the terms of two real exponential
sequences over the interval 10 n 10. In one case, is positive and equal to 0.8,
while in the other case is negative and equal to 0.8.
4. The sinusoidal sequences are dened by
x(n) = sin(
o
n +
o
), x(n) = cos(
o
n +
o
)
8 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
5 0 5 10
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
n
Real exponential sequence: 0.8
n
5 0 5 10
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
n
Real exponential sequence: (0.8)
n
Figure 2.3. The top plot shows the terms of the real exponential sequence
0.8
n
over the interval 10 n 10, while the bottom plot shows the terms
of the real exponential sequence (0.8)
n
over the same interval of time.
for some real-valued quantities {
o
,
o
}. Fig. 2.4 plots the terms of two sinusoidal
sequences over the interval 10 n 10. In one case,
o
= /5 and
o
= 0, while in
the other case
o
= /5 and
o
= /3.
5. The complex exponential sequence is dened by
x(n) = A
n
where now either A or is complex-valued. This sequence plays a fundamental role
in the study of discrete-time signals and systems. Usually, A will be a real positive
scalar and will be of the form = e
j
o
, for some
o
. In this case, the expression
for x(n) would reduce to
x(n) = Ae
j
o
n
More generally, if both A and happen to be complex-valued, say
A = |A|e
j
o
, = ||e
j
o
,
o
,
o
[, ]
then the expression for x(n) = A
n
can be re-expressed in the equivalent form
x(n) = |A| ||
n
e
j(
o
n+
o
)
An important special case is the sequence
x(n) = e
j
o
n
9
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
n
Sinusoidal sequence: sin(n/5)
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
n
Sinusoidal sequence: sin(n/5 + /3)
Figure 2.4. The top plot shows the terms of the sinusoidal sequence sin(n/5)
over the interval 10 n 10, while the bottom plot shows the terms of the
sinusoidal sequence sin(
n
5
+

3
) over the same interval of time.
which corresponds to the choices A = 1 and = e
j
o
. Fig. 2.5 shows the magnitude
and phase plots of the complex exponential sequence that corresponds to the choices
A = e
j/2
and = 0.5e
j/3
, i.e., to the special case
x(n) = 0.5
n
e
j(
n
3
+

2
)
over the interval 5 n 5.
Figure 2.5. The top plot shows the amplitude and the phase components of
the terms of the exponential sequence 0.5
n
e
j(
n
3
+

2
)
over the interval 5
n 5. It is seen that the amplitude in this example decays exponentially fast.
10 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
One-Sided Sequences
Consider the sequence
x(n) =
_
1
2
_
n
This is a real exponential sequence that is dened for all values of n, < n < . On the
other hand, the sequence
x(n) =
_
1
2
_
n
u(n)
is again a real exponential sequence but one that has nonzero values only for n 0; it is
zero for n < 0. This example illustrates a useful property of the step sequence u(n) it
allows us to dene one-sided sequences.
Polar Plots
A convenient way to plot complex exponential sequences is by means of a polar plot. For
example, consider the sequence
x(n) = e
j

4
n
u(n)
The rst 8 terms of this sequence, corresponding to time instants n = 0, 1, . . . , 7, are given
by
_
1, e
j

4
, e
j

2
, e
j
3
4
, 1, e
j
5
4
, e
j
3
2
, e
j
7
4
_
All 8 terms are complex numbers with unit magnitude and, hence, they all lie on a circle
of unit radius. Moreover, these terms are

4
radians apart on the unit circle. The arrow in
Fig. 2.6 indicates that the above 8 terms cover the circle in a counter-clockwise direction.
Fig. 2.7 shows the rst four terms of the alternative sequence
x(n) =
_
1
2
_
n
e
j

4
n
u(n)
which are
_
1,
1
2
e
j

4
,
1
4
e
j

2
,
1
8
e
j
3
4
_
These values are again

4
radians apart but they now lie on co-centric circles of diminishing
radii. The outer circle has unit radius, the next one has radius equal to 1/2, the third one
has radius equal to 1/4, the fourth one has radius equal to 1/8, and so on.
Energy Sequences
The energy of a sequence x(n) is dened by
E
x

n=
|x(n)|
2
When E
x
< , we say that the sequence is an energy sequence. In other words, energy
sequences have nite energy. For example, the step sequence, x(n) = u(n), is not an energy
sequence since

n=
|u(n)|
2
=

n=0
1 .
11
9
one-sided sequences.
Polar Plots
A convenient way to plot complex exponential sequences is by means of a polar plot. For example,
consider the sequence
x(n) = e
j

4
n
u(n)
The rst 8 terms of this sequence, corresponding to time instants n = 0, 1, . . . , 7, are given by

1, e
j

4
, e
j

2
, e
j
3
4
, 1, e
j
5
4
, e
j
3
2
, e
j
7
4

All 8 terms are complex numbers with unit magnitude and, hence, they all lie on a circle of unit
radius. Moreover, these terms are

4
radians apart on the unit circle. The arrow in Fig. 2.???
indicates that the above 8 terms cover the circle in a counter-clockwise direction.
n = 2
n = 1
n = 0
n = 3

4
n = 7
n = 6
n = 5
n = 4
Fig. 2.??????? shows the rst four terms of the alternative sequence
x(n) =

1
2

n
e
j

4
n
u(n)
which are

1,
1
2
e
j

4
,
1
4
e
j

2
,
1
8
e
j
3
4

These values are again



4
radians apart but they now lie on co-centric circles of diminishing radii.
The outer circle has unit radius, the next one has radius equal to 1/2, the third one has radius
equal to 1/4, the fourth one has radius equal to 1/8, and so on.
Energy Sequences
Figure 2.6. A polar plot of the rst 8 terms of the sequence x(n) = e
j

4
n
u(n).
On the other hand, the sequence
x(n) =
_
1
2
_
n
u(n)
is an energy sequence since

n=
|x(n)|
2
=

n=0
_
1
4
_
n
=
1
1
1
4
=
4
3
< .
In this second calculation, we used the fact that the values {
_
1
4
_
n
, n 0} are the terms of
a geometric series with ratio 1/4.
Power Sequences
The average power of a sequence x(n) is dened by
P
x

= lim
N
_
1
2N + 1
N

n=N
|x(n)|
2
_
That is, we compute the energy of the sequence x(n) over a symmetric interval N n N,
normalize the result by the number of terms in this interval, which is 2N + 1, and then
evaluate the limit as the size of the interval increases indenitely.
12 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
10 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
n = 2
n = 1
n = 3
n = 0
The energy of a sequence x(n) is dened by
Ex

n=
|x(n)|
2
When Ex < , we say that the sequence is an energy sequence. In other words, energy sequences
have nite energy. For example, the step sequence, x(n) = u(n), is not an energy sequence since

n=
|u(n)|
2
=

n=0
1 .
On the other hand, the sequence
x(n) =

1
2

n
u(n)
is an energy sequence since

n=
|x(n)|
2
=

n=0

1
4

n
=
1
1
1
4
=
4
3
< .
In this second calculation, we used the fact that the values {

1
4

n
, n 0} are the terms of a geo-
metric series with ratio 1/4.
Power Sequences
The average power of a sequence x(n) is dened by
Px

= lim
N

1
2N + 1
N

n=N
|x(n)|
2

Figure 2.7. A polar plot of the rst 8 terms of the sequence x(n) =

1
2

n
e
j

4
n
u(n).
When P
x
< , we say that the sequence is a power sequence. In other words, power
sequences have nite power. For example, although the step sequence, x(n) = u(n), is not
an energy sequence it is nevertheless a power sequence since, for any N,
1
2N + 1
N

n=N
|u(n)|
2
=
1
2N + 1
N

n=0
1 =
N + 1
2N + 1
so that the limit as N is P
x
= 1/2.
Signal Transformations
Sequences will often appear in transformed versions and it is useful that the reader become
acquainted with the following common signal transformations. If x(n) is a given sequence,
then
1. x(n) corresponds to a sequence that is obtained from x(n) by reecting it about the
vertical axis.
2. x(n 1) corresponds to a sequence that is obtained from x(n) by shifting it by one
unit of time to the right.
3. x(n + 1) corresponds to a sequence that is obtained from x(n) by shifting it by one
unit of time to the left.
13
4. x(n+1) corresponds to a sequence that is obtained from x(n) by rst reecting x(n)
about the vertical axis and then shifting it to the right by one unit of time.
5. x(n 1) corresponds to a sequence that is obtained from x(n) by rst reecting it
about the vertical axis and then shifting it to the left by one unit of time.
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n1)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n+1)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n+1)
5 5
0.5
1
x(n)
6 4 2 2 4
0.5
1
x(n1)
Figure 2.8. Plots of various signal transformations of the sequence x(n) =
0.6
n
u(n). The plot for x(n) shows only the samples of x(n) over the interval
0 n 5.
Plotting Sequences
Consider a sequence x(n) and dene a new sequence y(n) that is obtained by modifying the
argument of x(n) as follows:
y(n) = x(an +b)
for some integer values of a and b. The signal transformations of the previous section
correspond to particular choices of a and b. More generally, for arbitrary integers a and b,
this is how we can obtain the plot of y(n) from the plot of x(n):
1. The value of y(n) at n = 0 is simply the value of x at time b, x(b). That is, we set
n = 0 in an +b and arrive at the argument b.
2. The value of y(n) at n = 1 is simply the value of x at time a + b, x(a + b). That is,
we set n = 1 in an +b and arrive at the argument a +b.
14 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
3. The value of y(n) at n = 11 is simply the value of x at time a+b, x(a+b). That
is, we set n 1 in an +b and arrive at the argument a +b.
4. And so forth.
In more formal terms, we can describe the procedure of generating the plot of y(n) from the
plot of x(n) as follows:
1. We draw the n axis.
2. We dene a new variable m = an+b and draw a new axis mapping the values of n to
values of m. We also determine the orientation of this m axis.
3. We plot x(m) versus m. This is the same plot as x(n) versus n except that it is done
on the m axis.
4. We nally replace the horizontal and vertical axes in the m domain by the horizontal
and vertical axes in the n axis. We only keep the samples that are dened for the n
time instants.
15
PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1: Plot the sequence x(n) = (n + 1) +
_
1
2
_
n
u(n 3).
Problem 2.2: Express the complex exponential sequence
x(n) = (1 j)
_
3
2
+ j
1
2
_
n
in polar form and plot its terms at the time instants n = 1, 0, 1.
Problem 2.3: The samples of a sequence x(n) are zero except at the time instants shown in
Fig. 2.9. The amplitudes of the non-zero samples are either 1, 2, or 3. Plot the sequence h(n) that
is dened by
h(n) =
1
2
x(n + 2)
3
2
(n) + u(n 3).
Plot also the sequences x(3n 2), x(2n + 3), and x(2n 1).
13
PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1: Plot the sequence x(n) = (n + 1) +

1
2

n
u(n 3).
Problem 2.2: Express the complex exponential sequence
x(n) = (1 j)

3
2
+ j
1
2

n
in polar form and plot its terms at the time instants n = 1, 0, 1.
Problem 2.3: The samples of a sequence x(n) are zero except at the time instants shown in
Fig. 2.xx???. The amplitudes of the non-zero samples are either 1, 2, or 3. Plot the sequence h(n)
that is dened by
h(n) =
1
2
x(n + 2)
3
2
(n) + u(n 3).
Plot also the sequences x(3n 2), x(2n + 3), and x(2n 1).
x(n)
n
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2
3
2
1
Problem 2.4: Plot in polar coordinates the terms of the sequence

2
4
j

2
4

n
u(n). What is
the energy and average power of this sequence?
Problem 2.5: Consider the sequence
x(n) =

1
3

n
u(n 1) +

1
2

n1
u(n 2)
(a) Find its energy.
(b) Let y(n) = x(2n 3). For what values of n is y(n) zero?
Problem 2.6: Consider the sequence
x(n) =

1 +

1
2

n1

u(n 2)
(a) Find its power.
(b) Let y(n) = x(2n + 3). For what values of n is y(n) zero?
Problem 2.7: The samples of e
jn
x(1 n) are {1, 2, 1 , 0, 2, 3, 1}, where the box denotes the
origin of times (i.e., time n = 0). Samples to the right of the box occur at positive time instants
while samples to the left of the box occur at negative time instants. Samples outside the specied
interval are all zero. Which terms of x(n) can you determine from this information?
Figure 2.9. The sequence x(n) dened in Prob. 2.3.
Problem 2.4: Plot in polar coordinates the terms of the sequence
_

2
4
j

2
4
_
n
u(n). What is
the energy and average power of this sequence?
Problem 2.5: Consider the sequence
x(n) =
_
1
3
_
n
u(n 1) +
_
1
2
_
n1
u(n 2)
(a) Find its energy.
(b) Let y(n) = x(2n 3). For what values of n is y(n) zero?
Problem 2.6: Consider the sequence
x(n) =
_
1 +
_
1
2
_
n1
_
u(n 2)
16 Some Basic Sequences Chapter 2
(a) Find its power.
(b) Let y(n) = x(2n + 3). For what values of n is y(n) zero?
Problem 2.7: The samples of e
jn
x(1 n) are {1, 2, 1 , 0, 2, 3, 1}, where the box denotes the
origin of times (i.e., time n = 0). Samples to the right of the box occur at positive time instants
while samples to the left of the box occur at negative time instants. Samples outside the specied
interval are all zero. Which terms of x(n) can you determine from this information?
Problem 2.8: Given a sequence x(n), we perform the following three operations:
(a) We plot the sequence y(n) = x(n 1) and then scale the time axis and plot y(2n).
(b) We plot the sequence z(n) = x(n 2) and then scale the time axis and plot z(2n).
(c) We plot the sequence w(n) = x(2n) and then shift it and plot w(n 2).
Which procedure results in the right plot for x(2n 2)? How would you modify the wrong proce-
dure(s)?
Problem 2.9: Consider the sequence
x(n) =
_
5
2
,
1
4
,
7
8
,
15
16
,
31
32
,
63
64
,
127
128
, . . .
_
where the box denotes the origin of times (i.e., time n = 0). Express x(n) in terms of the sequences
(n), u(n), and
_
1
2
_
n
.
Problem 2.10: Answer True or False. In each case, either prove your answer or give a counter-
example.
(a) A power sequence is necessarily an energy sequence.
(b) Every energy sequence has zero average power.
(c) The sequence x(n) = 1/(n + 1), n 0, is an energy sequence.
(d) If x(n) is an energy sequence then x(n) 0 as n .
(e) There does not exist a sequence with innite average power.
(f) The sum of two energy sequences, {x(n) = x
1
(n) + x
2
(n)}, is an energy sequence.
Problem 2.11: Give examples of nonzero sequences x(n) such that
(a) x(n) and x(n 2) are identical.
(b) x(n)x(n + 1) = 0 for n = 0, 1, 2.
(c) x(n) + x

(n) = cos
_

3
(n 1)

. Here the symbol denotes complex conjugation.


Problem 2.12: Which of the following statements is False?
(a) All energy signals are power signals.
(b) Some energy signals are power signals.
(c) All power signals are energy signals.
(d) Some power signals are energy signals.
Problem 2.13: How can you construct x(n + 3) from x(n)?
(a) First reect x(n) about the vertical axis and then shift it three units of time to the left.
(b) First shift x(n) three units of time to the left and then reect the resulting signal about the
vertical axis.
(c) First shift x(n) three units of time to the right and then reect the resulting signal about the
vertical axis.
17
(d) Both parts (a) and (b) are correct.
Problem 2.14: In order to reconstruct x(n), it is enough to know which of the following signals?
(a) x(2n) and x(n
2
).
(b) x(2n + 3) and x(2n + 4).
(c) x(2n + 3) and x(2n 1).
(d) Both parts (a) and (b) are correct.
Problem 2.15: Which of the following identities is incorrect?
(a) (3n 6) = (3n + 6).
(b) (n) = (5n).
(c) (5n 1) = (4n + 3).
(d) (5n 1) = (5(n 1)).

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