First Exam Coverage

ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 1 of 12
MATRICES

Definition

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or functions
arranged in rows and columns usually designated by a
capital letter and enclosed by brackets, parentheses or
double bars. A matrix may be denoted by:

(
(
(
(

=
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
...
: : :
...
...
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11


Unless stated, we assume that all our matrices are
composed of real numbers.

The horizontal groups of elements are called the rows of the
matrix. The ith row of A is

| | ( ) m i a a a
in i i
s s 1 ...
2 1


The vertical groups of elements are called the columns of
the matrix. The jth column of A is

( ) n j
a
a
a
j
j
j
s s
(
(
(
(
(

1
:
3
2
1


The size of a matrix is denoted by m x n (m by n) where m
is the number of rows and n is the number of columns.

We refer to a
ij
as the entry or the element in the ith row and
jth column of the matrix.

We may often write a given matrix as

A = [a
ij
].

SOME SPECIAL TYPES OF MATRICES

A. Row Matrix or Row Vector is a matrix consists
of only one row.

Example: B = [b
1
b
2
. . . b
j
. . . b
n
]

B. Column Matrix or Column Vector is a matrix
consists of only one column.

Example:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
m
i
c
c
c
c
C
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1


C. Square Matrix is a matrix in which the no. of
rows equals the no. of columns.

Order of a Square Matrix is the number of rows
or columns of the matrix. Thus, we can just refer
to a 3x3 matrix as a square matrix of order 3.

Principal Diagonal or Main Diagonal of a Square
Matrix consists of the elements a
11
, a
22
, a
33
,
a
nn.


The Trace of a Square Matrix is the sum of the
elements on the main diagonal of the matrix.

D. Upper Triangular Matrix a square matrix all
elements of which below the principal diagonal
are zero (a
ij
= 0 for i>j).

Example:
(
(
(

=
33
23 22
13 12 11
0 0
0
u
u u
u u u
U


E. Lower Triangular Matrix a square matrix all
elements of which above the principal diagonal
are zero (a
ij
= 0 for i<j).

Example:
(
(
(

=
33 32 31
22 21
11
0
0 0
l l l
l l
l
L



F. Diagonal Matrix is a square matrix that is an
upper triangular and lower triangular at the same
time. The only non-zero elements are the
elements on the principal diagonal. (a
ij
= 0 for i =
j)

Example:
(
(
(

=
33
22
11
0 0
0 0
0 0
d
d
d
D


G. Scalar Matrix is a diagonal matrix whose
diagonal elements are equal.

Example:
(
(
(

=
s
s
s
S
0 0
0 0
0 0


H. Identity Matrix represented by I
n
, a diagonal
matrix where all the elements along the main
diagonal are equal to 1 or unity.

Example:
(
(
(

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
3
I


I. Null Matrix represented by O is a matrix in
which all the elements are zero.

(
(
(
(

=
0 ... 0 0
: : :
0 ... 0 0
0 ... 0 0
O


J. Symmetric Matrix a square matrix whose
element a
ij
= a
ji
.

Example:
(
(
(

=
3 5 4
5 2 2
4 2 1
S


K. Skew Symmetric Matrix a square matrix whose
element a
ij
= -a
ji
.

Example:
(
(
(

=
0 5 4
5 0 2
4 2 0
T

First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 2 of 12

EQUALITY OF MATRICES

Two matrices A = (a
ij
) and B = (b
ij
) are equal if and only if
the following conditions are satisfied:

a) They have equal number of rows.
b) They have equal number of columns.
c) All elements in A agree with the elements in
B. (a
ij
=b
ij
, for all i and j.)

Example: The matrices

(
(
(

+
+

=
(
(
(

+

=
1 4 3
2 2 1
1 1 2
3
2 1
2 1
c
b x B and
z b
y a
c x
A


are equal if and only if x = 2, y = 1, z = 2, a = 3,
b = 4 and c = 1.


ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

A. MATRIX ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

If A = (a
ij
) and B = (b
ij
) are matrices of the same size m x n,
then the sum A + B is another m x n matrix C = [c
ij
] where
c
ij
= a
ij
+ b
ij
for i = 1 to m and j = 1 to n. Matrix addition is
accomplished by adding algebraically corresponding
elements in A and B.

Example:
(

=
(

=
1 1 4
2 2 3
1 2 3
4 2 1
B A


(

=
(

+ + +
+ + +
=
(

+
(

= +
2 1 1
2 0 4
1 1 ) 1 ( 2 4 3
) 2 ( 4 2 2 3 1
1 1 4
2 2 3
1 2 3
4 2 1
B A


B. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

If A = (a
ij
) is an m x n matrix and k is a real number (or a
scalar), then the scalar multiple of A by k is the m x n matrix
C = [c
ij
] where c
ij
= ka
ij
for all i and j. In other words, the
matrix C is obtained by multiplying each element of the
matrix by the scalar k.
Examples: We obtain

(

=
(

15 6 9 12
9 3 0 6
5 2 3 4
3 1 0 2
3


(
(
(

=
(
(
(

28 16 8
4 8 20
12 4 8
7 4 2
1 2 5
3 1 2
4


C. MATRIX SUBTRACTION

If A and B are m x n matrices, the difference between A and
B denoted as A B is obtained from the addition of A and (-
1)B.

A B = A + (-1)B
Matrix subtraction is accomplished by subtracting from the
elements of the first matrix the elements of the second
matrix correspondingly.

Example:
(

=
(

=
3 8 3
4 1 2
4 7 5
2 4 3
B A


(

=
(

=
(

+
(

=
7 1 8
6 5 1
3 4 8 7 ) 3 ( 5
4 2 ) 1 ( 4 2 3
3 8 3
4 1 2
4 7 5
2 4 3
B A


Note: We can only add or subtract matrices with the same
number of rows and columns.

D. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

If A = (a
ij
) is an m x n matrix and B = (b
ij
) is an n x
p matrix, then the product of A and B, AB = C =
[c
ij
] is an m x p matrix where

=
=
n
k
kj ik ij
b a c
1


for i = 1 to m and j = 1 to p

The formula tells us that in order to get the
element c
ij
of the matrix C, get the elements of the
ith row of A (the pre-multiplier) and the elements
on the jth column of B (the post multiplier).
Afterwards, obtain the sum of the products of
corresponding elements on the two vectors.

Note: The product is defined only if the
number of columns of the first factor
A (pre-multiplier) is equal to the
number of rows of the second factor
B (post-multiplier). If this is
satisfied, we say that the matrices
are comformable in the order AB.

MATRIX EXPONENTIATION

The formula A
n
will be defined as A- A- A- A

Example:
(

=
(

=
1 3
4 2
4 3
2 1
B A


(

=
(

+ +
+ +
=
(

=
(

+ +
+ +
=
2 0
12 10
) 4 )( 1 ( ) 2 ( 3 ) 3 )( 1 ( ) 1 ( 3
) 4 )( 4 ( ) 2 ( 2 ) 3 )( 4 ( ) 1 ( 2
16 18
6 8
) 1 ( 4 ) 4 ( 3 ) 3 ( 4 ) 2 ( 3
) 1 ( 2 ) 4 ( 1 ) 3 ( 2 ) 2 ( 1
BA
BA
AB
AB


Note: Although AB and BA are defined it is not necessary
that AB = BA.

Example:
(

=
(

=
(
(
(

=
1 2
3 1
5 4 1
3 2 6
6 4
3 5
1 2
C B A


1. A x B is a 3 x 3 matrix while B x A is
a 2 x 2 matrix.
2. A x C is a 3 x 2 matrix but C x A is not
defined.
3. B x C is not defined but C x B is
defined (2 x 3).

E. MATRIX TRANSPOSITION

If A = [a
ij
] is an m x n matrix, then the transpose of A,
denoted by A
T
=[a
ij
] is an n x m matrix defined by a
ij
=a
ji
.
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 3 of 12

The transpose of A is obtained by interchanging the rows
and the columns of A.

Example:

(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
2 3 4 2
3 1 3 2
5 2 1 1
2 3 5
3 1 2
4 3 1
2 2 1
T
A then A If


Note: The transpose of a symmetric matrix is equal to itself.
PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS ON MATRIX
OPERATIONS:

MATRIX ADDITION

A + O = A Existence of Additive Identity
A + (-A) = O Existence of Additive Inverse
A + B = B + A Commutative Property
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) Associative Property

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

0 x A = O
1 x A = A
k l (A) = k (l A) = l (k A)
(k + l) A = k A + l A
k(A + B) = k A + k B

MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

A(BC) = (AB)C Associative Property
A(B + C) = AB + AC Left Distributive Property
(A + B)C = AC + BC Right Distributive Property
AI = IA = A Existence of Multiplicative
Identity
kl (AB) = (k A)(l B) = (l A)(k B)

Note: In general, Matrix Multiplication is not
commutative. That is, AB = BA.

MATRIX TRANSPOSITION
(A
T
)
T
= A
(A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T

(k A)
T
= k A
T

(AB)
T
= B
T
A
T


In general (A
1
A
2
A
3
A
n-1
A
n
)
T
= A
n
T
A
n-1
T
A
3
T
A
2
T
A
1
T


DETERMINANTS

Another very important number associated with a square
matrix A is the determinant of A which we will now define.
This unique number associated to a matrix A is useful in the
solutions of linear equation.

Permutation:

Let S={1, 2, 3, , n} be the set of integers from 1 to n,
arranged in increasing order. A rearrangement a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n
of
the elements in S is called a permutation of S.

By the Fundamental Principle of Counting we can put any
one of the n elements of S in the first position, any one of
the remaining (n-1) elements in the second position, any
one of the remaining (n-2) elements in the third position,
and so on until the nth position. Thus there are n(n-1)(n-
2)3*2*1 = n! permutations of S. We refer to the set of all
permutations of S by S
n
.

Examples:

If S = {1, 2, 3} then S
3
= {123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321}

If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} then there are 4! = 24 elements of S
4
.

Odd and Even Permutations

A permutation a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n
is said to have an inversion if a
larger number precedes a smaller one. If the total number of
inversion in the permutation is even, then we say that the
permutation is even, otherwise it is odd.
Examples: ODD and EVEN Permutation

S
1
has only one permutation; that is 1, which is even since
there are no inversions.

In the permutation 35241, 3 precedes 2 and 1, 5 precedes
2, 4 and 1, 2 precedes 1 and 4 precedes 1. There is a total
of 7 inversions, thus the permutation is odd.

S
3
has 3! = 6 permutations: 123, 231and 312 are even while
132, 213, and 321 are odd.

S
4
has 4! = 24 permutations: 1234, 1243, 1324, 1342, 1423,
1432, 2134, 2143, 2314, 2341, 2413, 2431, 3124, 3142,
3214, 3241, 3412, 3421, 4123, 4132, 4213, 4231, 4312,
4321.

For any S
n
, where n>1 it contains n!/2 even permutations
and n!/2 odd permutations.


DEFINITION: DETERMINANT

Let A = [a
ij
] be a square matrix of order n. The determinant
of A denoted by det(A) or |A| is defined by

( ) ( )
n
nj j j
a a a A A ... det
2 1
2 1
= =


where the summation is over all permutations j
1
j
2
j
n
of the
set S = {1,2,,n}. The sign is taken as (+) if the permutation
is even and () if the permutation is odd.

Examples:

If A = [a
11
] is a 1 x 1 matrix then det(A) or |A|= a
11
.

If A =
(

22 21
12 11
a a
a a , then to get |A|we write down the terms a
1-
a
2-
b and replace the dashes with the all-possible
permutations of S = {1, 2}, namely 12 (even) and 21 (odd).
Thus |A|= a
11
a
22
- a
12
a
21.

If A =
(
(
(

33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
a a a
, then to compute the |A| we write
down the six terms a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
, a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
, a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
, a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
, a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
, a
1-
a
2-
a
3-
. Replace the dashes with all the elements of S
3
,
affix a (+) or (-) sign and get the sum of the six terms.

If A is a square matrix of order n, there will be n! terms in
the determinant of A with n!/2 positive terms and n!/2
negative terms.
9
6 2 0 0 9 8
) 2 )( 1 )( 3 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 2 ( ) 3 )( 2 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 )( 0 ( ) 3 )( 1 )( 3 ( ) 2 )( 2 )( 2 (
2 1 0
1 2 3
3 1 2
=
+ + =
+ + =






METHODS IN GETTING THE DETERMINANT

A. DIAGONAL METHOD

This method is applicable to matrices with size
less than or equal to 3.

1. 2 x 2 Matrices
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 4 of 12

12 21 22 11
22 21
12 11
a a a a
a a
a a
=
s

2. 3 x 3 Matrices



B. METHOD OF COFACTORS

Complementary Minor, det(Mij) or |Mij|
The complementary minor or simply minor of an element a
ij

of the matrix A is that determinant of the sub-matrix M
ij

obtained after eliminating the ith row and jth column of A.

Algebraic Complement or Cofactor, A
ij

The algebraic complement or cofactor of an element a
ij
of
the matrix A is that signed minor obtained from the formula
(-1)
i+j
|M
ij
|

DETERMINANT USING THE COFACTOR METHOD

The determinant of a square matrix maybe obtained using
expansion about a row or expansion about a column. The
following formulas maybe used in getting the determinant:

=
= + + + =
n
k
ik ik in in i i i i
A a A a A a A a A
1
2 2 1 1
... ) det(

(expansion about the ith row)

and

=
= + + + =
n
k
kj kj nj nj j j j j
A a A a A a A a A
1
2 2 1 1
... ) det(

(expansion about the jth column)

Note: We may choose any row or any column in getting the
determinant of a given matrix.

Example: To evaluate

0 1 3 0
0 4 2 3
1 4 1 2
0 3 0 1

It is best to expand about the fourth row because it has the
most numbers of zeros. The optimal course of action is to
expand about the row or column that has the largest
number of zeros, because in that case the cofactors A
ij
of
those a
ij
which are zero need not be evaluated since the
product of a
ij
A
ij
= (0)A
ij
= 0.

THEOREMS ON DETERMINANTS

1. If a square matrix A = [a
ij
] contains a row (or a column)
that has elements all equal to zero, then |A|= 0.

Example:
0
0 4 2
0 3 2
0 2 1
=

2. The determinant of a square matrix A = [a
ij
] is equal to
the determinant of its transpose A
T
= [a
ij
].
(i.e.|A|=|A
T
|)

Example:

2 3 3
4 2 2
1 4 1
2 4 1
3 2 4
3 2 1

3. If a row (or column) of a square matrix A = [aij] is
multiplied by a constant k, then the determinant of the
resulting matrix B = [bij] is equal to k times the
determinant of A (i.e. |B|= k|A|).

Example:
10 ) 5 ( 2
2 2 4
2 2 4
1
5
2 2 4
2
1
= = =
b a
y x
b a
then
b a
y x
b a
If


4. As a corollary to the third theorem, if A has a row (or
column) that has a common factor l, then this k may be
factored out of the determinant of A, where a simplified
matrix B is formed. (i.e. .|A|= k|B|.

Example:
xy
y y x
x x y
xy
xy
y y x
x x y
xy
xy xy
y y y x
x x xy
2 18 3
4 3
2 3
) 2 ( 2
2 18 3
8 6 2
2 3
2
2 18 6
8 6 4
2 3 2
2
2
= =


5. If two row (or columns) of a square matrix A = [a
ij
] were
interchanged to form a new matrix B = [b
ij
], then |B|=
-|A|.

Example:
1
0 2
0 0 2
1
0 0 2
0 2
y z y x
x xy
x
y z y x
x
x xy
+

+
=
+
+



6. If two rows (or columns) of a matrix A = [a
ij
] are
identical then |A|= 0.
Example:
0
xy z x y 3 z 4
xyz z 5 y x 3 x 2
x z 2 x 3 y x 2
xzy z 5 y x 3 x 2
x 3
xy z x y 3 z 4
yz x 3 xz 15 xy 3 x 9 x 6
x z 2 x 3 y x 2
xyz z 5 y x 3 x 2
2 2
2 2 2
=

7. As a corollary to the sixth theorem, if the elements in a
row (or column) of a square matrix A = [a
ij
] are
multiples of the corresponding elements of another row
or column of the matrix A, then |A|= 0.
Example:
0
2 1 6
4 6 4
2 3 2
=

xy y


8. If B = [b
ij
] is a square matrix of order n that is derived
from another square matrix A = [a
ij
] of order n, by
adding correspondingly the elements of a row (or
column) to a multiple of the elements of another row
(or column), then |B|=|A|.
Example:
33 32 31
23 22 21
33 13 32 12 31 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a a
a a a
ka a ka a ka a
a a a
a a a
a a a + + +
=


9. If the elements of one row (or column) of a square
matrix A = [a
ij
] of order n may be expressed as
binomials such that two square matrices B = [b
ij
] and C
= [c
ij
] both of order n, are formed after splitting the
binomial elements, then |A|=|B|+|C|.
Example:
32 31
22 21
12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a
a a
a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 5 of 12
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
33 32 31
23 23 22 22 21 21
13 12 11
a a a
c c c
a a a
a a a
b b b
a a a
a a a
c b c b c b
a a a
+ = + + +


10. The determinant of the product of two square matrices A
= [aij] and B = [bij] of the same order n is equal to the
product of the determinant of A and the determinant of B.
Example:
If
2
2 1 6
4 6 4
2 3 2
=

xy y
z
x
and
3
2 2
5 6
5 4 3
2
=
+

b b a a
b a
a

then
xy y
z
x
2 1 6
4 6 4
2 3 2


2
2 2
5 6
5 4 3
b b a a
b a
a
+

= 3 2 = 6 .

11. The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the
product of the elements in its principal diagonal.

Example:
4
1
0 2
0 0 2
2
=
+

+
x
y z y x
x xy
x


12. The determinant of an Identity Matrix is equal to 1.


ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

The Adjoint of a square matrix A=[a
ij
] of order n is that
square matrix with the same order n denoted by adj(A)=[A
ji
]
where A
ij
is the cofactor of the element a
ij
of matrix A. The
adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors
of the elements of A.

Input: Square Matrix
Output: Square Matrix (with the same size as the original
matrix)

Notation: adj A, adj B

Step 1: Get the cofactors of all the elements in the
original matrix.

Recall: the cofactor of an element a
ij
can be denoted as A
ij

and is defined by:

ij
j i
ij
M A
+
= ) 1 (

Step 2: Set up the adjoint matrix by taking the transpose
of the matrix of cofactors.

| |
T
ij
A A adj =

Example:
If A =
(

d c
b a
then adj(A) =
(

a c
b d
.

Inverse of a Matrix

The inverse of a square matrix A = [a
ij
] of order n is that
matrix B = [b
ij
] of the same order n such that AB = BA = I
n.
We denote the inverse matrix of A by A
-1
. Thus, we define
the inverse of A as that matrix A
-1
such that

A(A
-1
) = (A
-1
)A = I
n
.

Not all matrices has its inverse. However, if the inverse of a
matrix exists, it is unique.

If the inverse of a matrix exists, we say that the matrix is
invertible or non-singular. Otherwise, we say that the matrix
is non-invertible or singular.

Matrix Inversion Using the Adjoint
and the Inverse

Matrix Inversion applies only to square matrices and can be
produced using the adjoint matrix and the
determinant.





Notation: A
-1
, B
-1


The proof of this needs the knowledge of the following
theorem:

The sum of the products of the elements in one row (or
column) and the cofactors of the elements of another row
(or column) of a given square matrix is zero.

From the above formula for inverse, it is highly suggested
that the determinant be computed first. If it so
happened that the matrix is singular (i.e., the
determinant is zero), then the inverse of the
matrix is said to be non-existent.

Note that it is a waste of effort to still produce the adjoint if
the matrix is singular. Therefore, it is advised
that you first check for singularity.
Example: Set up the Inverse of the given matrix.

Using the diagonal method to compute for the determinant
of the given matrix:


Since matrix A is singular, as evidenced by its zero
determinant, it can thus be concluded that the
Inverse of A (or A-1) does not exist.

Example 2: Set up the Inverse of the given matrix

(
(
(

=
3 2 4
3 2 1
1 1 1
A

7 3 6 8 2 12 6 = + + = A


Since the determinant is not zero, then matrix A is said to be non-
singular. In this case, the inverse exists and there is a need to set up
the adjoint.

Getting the cofactors of all the elements in the original matrix.

ij
j i
ij
M A
+
= ) 1 (

12
3 2
3 2
) 1 (
2
11
=

= A

9
3 4
3 1
) 1 (
3
12
= = A

10
2 4
2 1
) 1 (
4
13
=

= A

1
3 2
1 1
) 1 (
3
21
=

= A

1
3 4
1 1
) 1 (
4
22
= = A

2
2 4
1 1
) 1 (
5
23
=

= A

(
(
(

=
7 7 1
2 5 2
1 1 1
A
A
adjA
A =
1
0 14 14 5 14 2 35 = + + + = A
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 6 of 12
5
3 2
1 1
) 1 (
4
31
=

= A

2
3 1
1 1
) 1 (
5
32
= = A

3
2 1
1 1
) 1 (
6
33
=

= A


| |
(
(
(

=
3 2 5
2 1 1
10 9 12
ij
A
,thus
Consequently,
A
A adj
A =
1

(
(
(

3 2 10
2 1 9
5 1 12
7
1
1
A




SOLUTION TO SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

In general, we can think of a system of linear
equations as a set of m equations that contains n
unknowns. There are several forms by which a system of
equations can be written.

We can have the equation form:

m n mn m m m
n n
n n
n n
b x a x a x a x a

b x a x a x a x a
b x a x a x a x a
b x a x a x a x a
= + + + +
= + + + +
= + + + +
= + + + +

3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 3 33 2 32 1 31
2 2 3 23 2 22 1 21
1 1 3 13 2 12 1 11


Or we can transform that to the matrix form:
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

m n mn m m m
n
n
n
b
b
b
b
x
x
x
x
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a

3
2
1
3
2
1
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11


Referring to the matrix form, we can actually rewrite the
system of equations as a compact matrix operation:

AX = B.

Where:

A Coefficient Matrix
X Column Matrix of Unknowns/Variables
B Column Matrix of Constants


SOLUTION TO SYSTEM OF n-LINEAR EQUATIONS
WITH n UNKNOWNS

A. USING THE INVERSE METHOD

The Inverse Method maybe applied only to a
system of linear equations in which the number of
independent equations is equal to the number of unknowns.
If the number of equations is equal to the number of
unknowns, the equation AX = B will have a matrix of
coefficients that is square.

If the matrix of coefficients A is non-singular, the
solution to the system is unique. On the other hand, if A is
singular, either the system has a unique solution or no
solution at all.

Derivation of the Solution for x
i
s :

B A X
B A X I
B A X A A
B A AX A
B AX
1
1
1 1
1 1
*
* * ) (
*

=
=
=
= -
=

Example: Determine the values of x
1
, x
2
and x
3
in the
following system of equations.

5 3 2 4
6 3 2
1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
= +
= + +
= +
x x x
x x x
x x x

Solution:

The above system of equations can be written in matrix
form:
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

5
6
1
3 2 4
3 2 1
1 1 1
3
2
1
x
x
x

We can write this in matrix form AX = B and let X = A
-1
B,
where:
(
(
(

=
3 2 4
3 2 1
1 1 1
A

Getting A
-1

(
(
(

3 2 10
2 1 9
5 1 12
7
1
1
A


To get x
1
, x
2
and x
3
, multiply A
-1
to B:

(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
5
6
1
*
3 2 10
2 1 9
5 1 12
7
1
3
2
1
x
x
x
X


Performing the operation A
-1
B will yield the solution

matrix:
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
1
1
1
3
2
1
x
x
x
X


Make it a habit to check if all the computed values of the
unknowns satisfy all the given equations. Checking is done
by substituting the values x
1
= 1, x
2
= 1 and x
3
= 1 to the
original equations.

Equation1 1(1) 1(1) + 1(1) =? 1Satisfied

Equation 21(1) + 2(1) + 3(1) =? 6Satisfied

Equation 34(1) 2(1) + 3(1)=? 5Satisfied

Since all the equations were satisfied, then (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1,
1, 1) is indeed the solution to the system.


SOLUTION TO SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS USING
CRAMER'S RULE

Recall that A system of equation n equations in n
unknowns can be modeled as a matrix operation AX = B.

(
(
(

=
3 2 10
2 1 9
5 1 12
A adj
where a
ij
are
constant
coefficients of the
unknowns x
j
and b
I
are constants

Take note that the
derivation assumes
that A
-1
exists. If A
-1

does not exist, we
can not find the
solution to the
system AX = B.
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 7 of 12
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

n n nn n n n
n
n
n
b
b
b
b
x
x
x
x
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a

3
2
1
3
2
1
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11


Let:
A coefficient matrix
x
i
i
th
variable
B right hand side constants
A
I
matrix resulting from replacing the
i
th
column of A by the column
vector of constants B

The solution of the system of equations can be determined
by using the formula:

A
A
x
i
i
=


Notice that regardless of the variable i that is computed, the
denominator of the above formula is fixed at |A|. Therefore,
it is suggested that the determinant of the coefficient matrix
be the first to be computed.


Example: Using Cramer's Rule, determine the values of x
1
,
x
2
and x
3
that simultaneously satisfy the following system of
equations.
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

3
2
1
1 2 1
1 3 3
1 2 1
3
2
1
x
x
x

Solution:
Compute for the determinant of A first:
6 6 2 3 6 2 3
1 2 1
1 3 3
1 2 1
= + + + =
(
(
(

=
A
A

Now, let us compute for the value of x
1
by using the formula
A
A
x
1
1
=

The right hand side matrix B is
(
(
(

3
2
1

To set up the matrix A
1
, all you just have to do is to replace
the first column of A by b. Doing what has just been
described will result in:
0 4 2 9 4 6 3
1 2 3
1 3 2
1 2 1
1
1
= + + + =
(
(
(

=
A
A
0
6
0
1
1
= = =
A
A
x


Applying the same process to solve x
2
and x
3
:
1
3 2 1
2 3 3
1 2 1
*
6
1
1
1 3 1
1 2 3
1 1 1
*
6
1
3
3
2
2
= = = =

= =
A
A
x
A
A
x


SOLUTION TO SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS USING
L-U FACTORIZATION

Direct L-U Factorization:

In theory any square matrix A may be factored into a
product of lower and upper triangular matrices.

Let us take the case of a 4
th
order matrix:

(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

1 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0
1
*
0
0 0
0 0 0
34
24 23
14 13 12
44 43 42 41
33 32 31
22 21
11
44 43 42 41
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
u
u u
u u u
l l l l
l l l
l l
l
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a


Notice that the diagonal elements of the upper triangular
matrix have been set to values of 1 for reason of simplicity.
(L-U Factorization is not unique.)

From matrix multiplication, we know that:

) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 1 (
11 11
+ + + = l a
or
11 11
a l =

) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( ) 1 (
22 21 21
+ + + = l l a
or
21 21
a l =

) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 (
33 32 31 31
+ + + = l l l a
or
31 31
a l =

) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 (
44 43 42 41 41
l l l l a + + + =
or
41 41
a l =

) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 1 ( 0 ) (
12 11 12
+ + + = u l a
or
11 12 12
/ l a u =

) 0 ( 0 ) 1 ( 0 ) ( 0 ) (
23 13 11 13
+ + + = u u l a
or
11 13 13
/ l a u =

) 1 ( 0 ) ( 0 ) ( 0 ) (
34 24 14 11 14
+ + + = u u u l a
or
11 14 14
/ l a u =


) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 1 ( ) (
22 12 21 22
+ + + = l u l a
or
) (
12 21 22 22
u l a l =

) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( ) 1 ( ) (
33 32 12 31 32
+ + + = l l u l a
or

) (
12 31 32 32
u l a l =


) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 ( ) (
44 43 42 12 41 42
l l l u l a + + + =
or

) (
12 41 42 42
u l a l =


) 0 ( 0 ) 1 ( 0 ) ( ) (
23 22 13 21 23
+ + + = u l u l a
or

22 13 21 23 23
/ )] ( [ l u l a u =


) 1 ( 0 ) ( 0 ) ( ) (
23 24 22 14 21 24
+ + + = u u l u l a
or

22 14 21 24 24
/ )] ( [ l u l a u =

) 0 ( 0 ) 1 ( ) ( ) (
33 23 32 13 31 33
+ + + = l u l u l a
or

) ( ) (
23 32 13 31 33 33
u l u l a l =


) 0 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) (
44 43 23 42 13 41 43
l l u l u l a + + + =
or

) ( ) (
23 42 13 41 43 43
u l u l a l =


) 1 ( 0 ) ( ) ( ) (
34 33 24 32 14 31 34
+ + + = u l u l u l a
or

33 24 32 14 31 34 34
/ )] ( ) ( [ l u l u l a u =


) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
44 34 43 24 42 14 41 44
l u l u l u l a + + + =
or
) ( ) ( ) (
34 43 24 42 14 41 44 44
u l u l u l a l =


How to get the solution to a system of equations using
L-U Decomposition Method?

Recall: A system of equations can be written as a compact
matrix operation AX = B

If we factor out the coefficient matrix A as L*U and
substitute to AX = B, we can generate the equation
L(UX)=B.

Momentarily define UX = Y which suggests LY = B. From
this transformation, we have actually decomposed AX = b to
two systems of equations.

Two-stage solution:

First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 8 of 12
I. Solve for Y in the equation LY = B using forward
substitution.
II. Solve for X in the equation UX = Y using back
substitution.

Example: Determine the values of x
i
's in :
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

8
4
3
1 2 1
1 5 3
1 2 4
3
2
1
x
x
x


Knowing that
(
(
(

=
1 2 1
1 5 3
1 2 4
A
, therefore
(
(
(
(

=
2
5
2
5
1
0
2
7
3
0 0 4
L

and
(
(
(
(

=
1 0 0
2
1
1 0
4
1
2
1
1
U


Stage 1: Forward substitution using LY = B

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

8
4
3
2
5
2
5
1
0
2
7
3
0 0 4
3
2
1
y
y
y


Note that the computed values of y
i
's here are not yet the
solution since the original system of equations is in terms of
x
i
's.

Stage 2: Back substitution using UX = Y

(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

3
2
1
4
3
1 0 0
2
1
1 0
4
1
2
1
1
3
2
1
x
x
x


This time (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (1, 2, 3) is the solution to the original
system of equations.

AUGMENTED MATRIX OF A AND B

If A is an m x n matrix and B is a p x n matrix, then the
augmented matrix of A and B denoted by [A : B] is the
matrix formed by the elements of A and B separated by
pipes.

Example:

If
(
(
(

=
8 3 3
6 1 7
5 2 1
A
and
(
(
(

=
4 7
2 0
1 2
B
then A : B is
(
(
(

4 7
2 0
1 2
|
|
|
8 3 3
6 1 7
5 2 1


The augmented matrix associated to a system of linear
equation AX=B is the matrix [A : B]. For example, we can
now rewrite the system of equation:

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

1
1
1
1 4 2
6 2 1
3 1 2
z
y
x
as simply
(
(
(

1
1
1
|
|
|
1 4 2
6 2 1
3 1 2
.


ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX

An m x n matrix A is said to be in row echelon form if it
satisfies the following properties:
1. All rows whose elements are all zeros, if
exist, are at the bottom of the matrix.
2. If at least one element on a row is not equal
to zero, the first non-zero element is 1, and
this is called the leading entry of the row.
3. If two successive rows of the matrix have
leading entries, the leading entry of the row
below the other row must appear to the
right of the leading entry of the other row.

An m x n matrix A is said to be in reduced row echelon form
if added to the first three properties it satisfies a fourth
property:

4. If a column contains a leading entry of
some row, then all the other entries must
be zero.

Example:

The following matrices are not in row echelon form. (Why
not?)
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 1 0
8 1 0 0
7 6 1 0
4 2 2 1
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 2 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
2 9 1 0 0 0
5 3 1 0 1 0
2 3 1 0 2 1
C B A


The following matrices are in row echelon form but not in
reduce row echelon form.
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 8 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
8 0 0 1 0
2 6 5 0 1
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 0
3 2 1 0
4 3 2 1
F E D

The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form.
(Hence, in row echelon form.)

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
3 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
J H G


ELEMENTARY ROW (COLUMN) OPERATIONS ON
MATRICES

An elementary row (column) operation on a matrix A is any
one of the following operations:

Type I. Interchange any two rows (columns).
Type II. Multiply a row (column) by a non-zero
constant k.
Type III. Add to elements of a row k times of the elements
of another row the correspondingly.

Example: Let

(
(
(

=
2 2 8 2
4 6 1 3
0 2 0 1
A


Interchanging rows 1 and 3 of A (R1R3) obtain

(
(
(

=
0 2 0 1
4 6 1 3
2 2 8 2
B


Multiplying row 3 by (R3 R3), we obtain

3 4
1
= y
4
3
1
= y
4
2
7
3
2 1
= + y y
2
1
2
= y
8
2
5
2
5
3 2 1
= + + y y y 3
3
= y
3
3
= x
2
1
2
1
3 2
= x x 2
2
= x
4
3
4
1
2
1
3 2 1
= x x x 1
1
= x
3
3
= x
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 9 of 12
(
(
(

=
1 1 4 1
4 6 1 3
0 2 0 1
C


Adding 3 times the elements in row 1 to the elements in row
2 (R2R2 + 3R1), we obtain

(
(
(

=
2 2 8 2
4 0 1 0
0 2 0 1
A



ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS AS APPLIED TO
THE A SYSTEM OF EQUATION A:B

As a applied to the augmented matrix [A : B] as a system of
equation, the three elementary row operation will
correspond to the following:

TYPE I rearranging the order of the equations
TYPE II multiplying both side of the equation by
a constant
TYPE III working with two equations

From this observation, we could see that as applied to a
operations does not alter the solution of the system.


ROW (COLUMN) EQUIVALENT MATRICES

An m x n matrix A is row (column) equivalent to an m x n
matrix B if B can be obtained from A by applying a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.


THEOREMS ON MATRIX EQUIVALENCE

1. Every nonzero m x n matrix A = [a
ij
] is row (column)
equivalent to a matrix in row (column) echelon form.

2. Every nonzero m x n matrix A = [a
ij
] is row (column)
equivalent to a matrix in reduced row (column) echelon
form.

3. Let AX = B and CX = D be two systems of m linear
equations in n unknowns. If the augmented matrices
[A : B] and [C : D] are row equivalent, then the linear
systems are equivalent (i.e. they have exactly the
same solutions).

4. As a corollary to the third theorem, if A and B are row
equivalent matrices, then the homogeneous systems
AX = 0 and BX = 0 are equivalent.



SOLUTIONS TO A SYSTEM OF m EQUATIONS in n
UNKNOWNS

In general a system of m equations in n unknowns may
be written in matrix form:

(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

m n mn m m m
n
n
n
b
b
b
b
x
x
x
x
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a

3
2
1
3
2
1
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
.

This system may now be represented by the augmented
notation:

(
(
(
(
(
(

m mn m m m
n
n
n
b
b
b
b
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a

3
2
1
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
|
|
|
|


Applying the theorems on equivalent matrices we now have
the following methods of solution:


GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD

The objective of the Gaussian Elimination Method is to
transform the augmented matrix [A : B] to the matrix [A* :
B*] in row echelon form by applying a series of elementary
row transformations. Getting the solution of the system [A* :
B*] using back substitution will also give the solution to the
original system [A : B].

To reduce any matrix to row echelon form, apply the
following steps:
1. Find the leftmost non-zero column.
2. If the 1
st
row has a zero in the column of step 1,
interchange it with one that has a non-zero entry in
the same column.
3. Obtain zeros below the leading entry by adding
suitable multiples of the top row and to the rows
below that.
4. Cover the top row and repeat the same process
starting with step 1 applied to the leftover submatrix.
Repeat this process with the rest of the rows.
5. For each row obtain leading entry 1 by dividing each
row by their corresponding leading entry.

Example: The linear system
3 3
8 2
9 3 2
=
= +
= + +
z x
z y x
z y x

has the augmented matrix associated to the system
| |
(
(
(

=
3 | 1 0 3
8 | 1 1 2
9 | 3 2 1
: B A

which can be transformed as a matrix in row echelon form
| |
(
(
(

=
3 | 1 0 0
2 | 1 1 0
9 | 3 2 1
:
* *
B A

using back substitution we have

2 ) 3 ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 9 9 3 2
1 3 2 2
3
= = = + +
= = = +
=
x z y x
y z y
z


thus we have the solution (x, y, z) = (2, -1, 3).


GAUSS-JORDAN REDUCTION METHOD

On the other hand a second method called the Gauss-
Jordan Reduction Method gets rid of the back substitution
phase. The objective of the Gauss-Jordan Reduction
Method is to transform the augmented matrix [A : B] to the
matrix [A* : B*] in reduced row echelon form by applying a
series of elementary row transformations. Doing this will
automatically give the solution of the system [A* : B*] which
also provides the solution to the original system [A : B].

To reduce any matrix to reduced row echelon form, apply
the following steps (SINE):

1. Search search the ith column of the augmented
matrix from the ith row to the nth row for the
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 10 of 12
maximum pivot, i.e. element with the largest absolute
value.
2. Interchange assuming the maximum pivot occurs
in the jth row, interchange the ith row and the jth row
so that the maximum pivot will now occur in the
diagonal position.
3. Normalize normalize the new ith row by dividing it
by the maximum pivot on the diagonal position.
4. Eliminate eliminate the ith column from the first up
to the nth equation, except in the ith equation itself
using the transformations.

Example: The linear system

3 3
8 2
9 3 2
=
= +
= + +
z x
z y x
z y x

has the augmented matrix associated to the system
| |
(
(
(

=
3 | 1 0 3
8 | 1 1 2
9 | 3 2 1
: B A

which can be transformed as a matrix in row echelon form
| |
(
(
(

=
3 | 1 0 0
1 | 0 1 0
2 | 0 0 1
:
* *
B A


thus we have the solution (x, y, z) = (2, -1, 3).



SUBMATRIX AND RANK

SUBMATRIX
A submatrix of A=[a
ij
] is any matrix obtained by eliminating
some rows and/or columns of the matrix A.

Example: Let
(
(
(
(

=
2 7 5 11 4
2 5 9 6 1
2 8 3 0 3
8 1 0 3 2
A


The following are some submatrices of A:
| |
) remaining
column ond (sec
2 8 3 0 3
) remaining
column fourth (
7
5
8
1
) column fifth and
third , first remove (
2 5 11
2 9 6
2 3 0
8 0 3
) column fifth and third
and row ond sec remove (
7 11 4
5 6 1
1 3 2
) row third remove (
2 7 5 11 4
2 8 3 0 3
8 1 0 3 2

(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

(
(
(

(
(
(

RANK OF A MATRIX

The rank of a matrix A = [a
ij
] is the order of the largest
square submatrix of A with a non-zero determinant. We
denote the rank of A by rank(A) or simply r(A).

Example: What is the rank of A?
(
(
(

=
10 5 0 3
3 4 1 2
4 3 2 1
A

Solution:

Checking out first the determinants of 3x3 submatrices:

0 60
10 5 0
3 4 1
4 3 2
0 14
10 5 3
3 4 2
4 3 1
0
10 0 3
3 1 2
4 2 1
0
5 0 3
4 1 2
3 2 1
= =

= =

=


Since at least one 3x3 submatrix of A has a non-zero
determinant, then r(A) = 3.

Example: What is the rank of B?

(
(
(
(

=
16 12 8 4
12 9 6 3
8 6 4 2
4 3 2 1
B

Solution:

The determinant of B is equal to zero (THEOREM:
Proportional rows). And it can also be shown that 3x3
submatrices of B will have determinants equal to zero.

0
16 8 4
12 6 3
8 4 2
. g . e =

(Rows are proportional)
But at least one 2x2 submatrix has non-zero determinant.

0 24
6 3
4 2
. g . e = =

Therefore r(B) = 2.


THEOREMS ON RANKS

1. The rank of a matrix is not altered by any
sequence of elementary row (column)
transformations.

2. Let A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] be two mxn matrices, if
rank(A) = rank(B) then A and B are equivalent.

3. If A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are mxn matrices, and
rank(A) = rank(B) = n, then rank(AB) = rank(BA) =
n.

Example: What is the rank of C?
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
9 8 7 6 5
8 7 6 5 4
7 6 5 4 3
6 5 4 3 2
5 4 3 2 1
C


Solution:
Operating on rows of matrix C, we obtain the equivalent
matrix C
4 5 5
3 4 4
2 3 3
1 2 2
R R ' R
R R ' R
R R ' R
R R ' R
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
5 4 3 2 1
' C
=
=
=
=
(
(
(
(
(
(

=


We could easily see that all 5x5, 4x4 and 3x3 submatrices
of C have determinants equal to zero (THEOREM: Identical
rows). But for at least one 2x2 submatrix of C has a non-
zero determinant.
(e.g.
0 1
1 1
2 1
= =
)
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 11 of 12
Consequently r(C) = 2. But C and C are equivalent
matrices and hence they have equal ranks. Therefore r(C) is
also equal to 2.

RANKS AND THE TYPES OF SOLUTION TO A SYSTEM
OF EQUATION

Recall that for the system of m linear equations in n
unknowns AX = B. We can associate the system of
equation to the augmented matrix of the system [A:B].

The type of solution may be classified as unique, non-
unique or inconsistent. Applying the concept of rank to the
augmented matrix [A:B], we have the following propositions:

1. If r(A) = r([A:B]) = n then the solution to the
system is unique.

Example:
(
(
(

(
(
(

3 : 1 0 0
1 : 0 1 0
3 : 0 0 1
1 : 1 1 1
27 : 1 3 9
1 : 1 1 1


2. If r(A) = r([A:B]) < n, then the solution to the
system is non-unique.

Example:
(
(
(

(
(
(

0 : 0 0 0
1 : 0 1 0
1 : 0 0 1
6 : 2 2 4
3 : 1 1 2
0 : 1 1 1



3. If r(A) < r([A:B]), then the system has no solution
or inconsistent.

Example:
(
(
(
(

(
(
(

3 : 0 0 0
2
3
: 0 1 0
4
5
: 0 0 1
6 : 1 1 6
2 : 2 2 4
3 : 1 1 2





Example 1: Rank and the Type of Solution to a System

For what values of k will the system of equations have
a) a unique solution
b) a non-unique solution
c) no solution

2
k 8 z 5 y
k 5 z 4 y 2 x
k 2 z 3 y 3 x 2
= +
= +
= +


Solution: In augmented matrix form, we have:

(
(
(

2
8 | 5 1 0
5 | 4 2 1
2 | 3 3 2
k
k
k


Performing Gaussian Elimination Method:

(
(
(

(
(
(

(
(
(

(
(
(

k k
k
k R R R
k
k
k R R R
k
k
k R R
k
k
k
8 8 | 0 0 0
8 | 5 1 0
5 | 4 2 1
8 | 5 1 0
8 | 5 1 0
5 | 4 2 1 2
8 | 5 1 0
2 | 3 3 2
5 | 4 2 1
8 | 5 1 0
5 | 4 2 1
2 | 3 3 2
2
2 3
'
3
2
1 2
'
2
2
2 1
2

Therefore we have the following conclusions:

a) For a unique solution, r(A) = r[A:B] = n

There will be no value of k that will satisfy this
since r(A) = 2 < n =3.

b) For non-unique solutions, r(A) = r[A:B] < n.

This will be satisfied if r[A:B] is also equal to 2.
This will happen when the last element in the third row of
the augmented matrix is also equal to zero.

8k
2
- 8k = 0 k = 0, 1.

c) For the system to be inconsistent, r(A) < r[A:B]. This will
be satisfied if r[A:B] = 3 > 2. This will happen when the last
element in the third row of the augmented matrix is not
equal to zero.

8k
2
- 8k = 0 k = 0, 1.

Example 2:

For what values of m will the system of equations have
d) a unique solution
e) a non-unique solution
f) no solution

4
0 ) 2 (
2
2
+ = + +
= + +
= + +
m c m b a
c a m
c b a

Solution: In augmented matrix form, we have:

(
(
(

+
+
4 | 1 1
0 | 1 0 2
2 | 1 1 1
2
m m
m






Performing Gaussian Elimination Method:

(
(
(

+
(
(
(

+
+
2 | 1 0 0
4 2 | 1 2 0
2 | 1 1 1 ) 2 (
4 | 1 1
0 | 1 0 2
2 | 1 1 1
2
1 3
'
3
1 2
'
2
2
m m
m m m
R R R
R m R R
m m
m

Therefore we have the following conclusions:

Therefore we have the following conclusions:

a) For a unique solution, r(A) = r[A:B] = n

This will be satisfied if m
2
-1=0 and m-2=0. Thus
we have a unique solution if m = 1,2.
First Exam Coverage
ES 21 Notes
ES 21 Notes
Page 12 of 12

b) For non-unique solutions, r(A) = r[A:B] < n.

This will happen when the last element in the third
row of matrix A and the augmented matrix are both equal to
zero.

m
2
- 1 = 0 and m+2 = 0.

There is no value of m that will satisfy both
equation.

The other value of m to be checked is when m = -2.
Substituting this to the system gives the system:

(
(
(

0 | 3 0 0
0 | 1 0 0
2 | 1 1 1


Clearly, we could see that the resulting system
gives a non-unique solution because, r(A) = r[A:B]=2 <3.


Thus, the system gives non-unique solutions when m = -2.

c) For the system to be inconsistent, r(A) < r[A:B].

This will be satisfied if r[A:B] = 3 > 2. This will
happen when the last element in the third row of the
augmented matrix is not equal to zero but the last element
of the third row of A is equal to zero.

m
2
1 = 0 and m+2 = 0.

Thus, the system is inconsistent when m = 1 .