PSY 105 Week 7 part 1 Psychology From Science to Practice - Motivation and Emotion

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Introduction

Welcome to week seven, part one of Psychology From Science to Practice. This lesson will cover motivation and emotion. Next slide

Slide 2

Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to: Describe the four theories used to explain motivation; Discuss the process of regulating eating and why people have difficulty in weight regulation; Explain sexual motivation in terms of the brain, hormones, and orientation; Define intrinsic motivation; Describe the three theories used to explain emotions; State the emotional responses found on the hemispheres of the brain; Explain the four external expressions of emotion; Explain one way affect influences cognition; Explain three ways cognition influences affect; and Name three ways to have high levels of subjective well-being.

Slide 3

Overview

Next slide In this lesson we will describe what psychologists have learned about the subjects of motivation and emotions. We will begin with looking at the contrasting theories concerning the basic nature of motivation. We will look at hunger, sexual, and achievement motivation. We will also explore the concepts of intrinsic motivation, where motivation does not stem from external rewards. After this, we will begin with the theories explaining emotion. We will explore the biological basis of emotion followed by the expression and communication of emotion. Next slide

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Theories of Motivation

Psychologists describe motivation as the internal processes that cannot be directly observed but serve to activate, guide, and maintain behavior, often over long periods of time. The first theory of motivation we will discuss is the drive theory. According to drive theory, biological needs arising within our bodies create unpleasant states of arousal. These feelings we call hunger, thirst, fatigue, and so on. To eliminate such feelings and restore a balanced physiological state known as homeostasis, we engage in certain activities. Behaviors that help reduce the drive are strengthened and tend to be repeated. However, those that fail to produce any effects are weakened and not repeated when again the drive becomes present. This model was extended to other forms of behavior not so clearly linked to basic needs. These were drives for stimulation, status, achievement, power, and maintaining stable relationships. One drawback to this theory is that some people often engage in actions that increase rather than reduce various drives. Next slide

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Expectancy Theory

The second theory we will cover that endeavors to explain motivation is expectancy theory. This theory suggests that motivation is not primarily a matter of being pushed from within by various urges or drives; rather it is a result from being pulled from without by expectations of attaining desired outcomes. These outcomes are labeled expectations and can be almost anything we have learned to value. Some examples are money, status, and the approval of others. Even if people engage in painful or effortful behaviors, they do so because they believe those behaviors will yield the outcomes they wish to attain. Next slide

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Goal Setting

Another theory of motivation emphasizing the importance of cognitive factors is known as goal-setting. Goal setting theory suggests that motivation can be strongly influenced by goals. Research has shown goal setting is most effective in boosting performance when the goals set are highly specific, challenging, and attainable. Goal setting is also effective when people receive feedback on their progress toward meeting their goals and when they deeply commit to reaching them. If goals are set by someone else and people who are expected to meet these goals are not committed to doing so, then goal setting is ineffective and may reduce motivation.

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Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslows theory of motivation is based on an arrangement of needs from the most basic to those at the highest level. Maslow refers to physiological, safety, and social needs as deficiency needs. They are the basics and must be satisfied before higher levels of motivation, or growth needs, can emerge. Above the social needs are esteem needs, the need to develop self-respect, to gain the approval of others and to achieve success. Finally at the top are self-actualization needs. These involve the need for selffulfillment, the desire to become all that one is capable of being. However, research has yielded mixed results testing this theory. Next slide

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Hunger Motivation

Now we will turn to the motivation of hunger. The regulation of eating is a complex process. For most people a balance is struck between needs and caloric intake so that weight remains relatively stable. The part of the brain that plays a role both in eating and satiety is called the hypothalamus. The liver and other organs also play a role. These systems contain special detectors, cells that respond to variations in the concentration of several nutrients in the blood. Different detectors respond to the amount of glucose, or blood sugar; protein; and to lipids, or fats. In addition, eating and hunger are also affected by the smell and taste of food and by feedback produced through chewing and swallowing. Also, the sight of food may motivate us to eat as well as previous memories associated with certain foods. Unfortunately, there is a widening gap between peoples desired weight and their actual weight. The three factors that are responsible for the trend in weight gain are learning, as people associate the act of eating with many different contexts and situations; genetic factors; and environmental factors. An example of environmental factors is that in recent years the portion size of many foods has increased dramatically. A discouraging final factor is our own bodies reaction to weight gain. Evidence exists that once we gain a significant amount of weight, our sensitivity to a chemical

produced by our own bodies that reduces appetite and speeds metabolism actually decreases. Therefore, once we gain weight, it becomes harder and harder to stop. Next slide

Slide 9

Sexual Motivation

In this slide we will discuss sexual motivation. Recent research has shown that hormones exert subtle effects on our behavior. The link between sex hormones and sexual motivation appears to be far less clear cut for human beings than is true for many other species. Other chemical substances within the body, however, do play a role in sexual behavior. Research has shown that when human beings are sexually attracted to another person their brains produce increased amounts of several substances chemically related to amphetamines which are stimulants. This may help explain the feelings of sexual attraction. Sexual orientation, defined as an individuals preference for sexual relations with their own sex, the other sex, or both, is a complex area to which no one has a complete explanation. First, emphasis was placed on environmental factors, but research failed to support those theories. Looking at all the research evidence, it appears that sexual orientation is not simply a matter of preference or free will. The role of genetic and other biological factors that are not directly under an individuals control and that operate outside his or her conscious awareness may play an important part.

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Achievemen t Motivation

Next slide Continuing with our discussion on motivation is achievement motivation. Achievement motivation, sometimes called need for achievement, is the desire to accomplish difficult tasks and meet standards of excellence. Persons high in achievement motivation differ from persons low in this motivation. High achievers prefer tasks that are moderately difficult and challenging, but not impossible. They have a stronger-thanaverage desire for feedback on their performance. They want to know how well they are doing so they can adjust their goals to make them challenging but not impossible to reach. In terms of employment, high achievers prefer jobs in which rewards are closely related to individual performance as in merit-based pay systems.

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Slide 11

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is defined as motivation to perform activities because they are rewarding in and of themselves. We perform them because of the pleasure they yield, not because they lead to external rewards. However, research into intrinsic motivation has come across an interesting finding. When individuals received external rewards for performing activities they enjoy, they concluded that they performed them at least in part to gain the external rewards and not simply because they enjoyed the activities. As a result, their intrinsic motivation to perform these activities was reduced. This conclusion has important implications to those who seek to motivate others by using rewards. If the target person already enjoys various activities, then offering him or her rewards for performing these activities may lower their intrinsic motivation and thus reduce rather than enhance his or her performance. Fortunately, additional evidence suggests that other factors can effect intrinsic motivation. If rewards are viewed as signs of recognition rather than as bribes and if rewards provided are large and satisfying, intrinsic motivation may be enhanced rather than reduced. Next slide

Slide 12

Emotions

Now we will turn to a discussion on emotions. We will first look at the theories of emotions, then the biological basis of emotions and lastly how emotions are expressed. Scientist who study emotions agree that they involve three major components: Physiological changes within our bodies such as shifts in heart rate, Subjective cognitive states such as the personal experiences we label as emotions, and Expressive behaviors such as the outward signs of these internal reactions. Next slide We will begin with the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. This theory suggests that various emotion-provoking events induce simultaneously the subjective experiences we label as emotions and the physiological reactions that accompany them. An emotional situation stimulates various portions of the nervous system so that both arousal, mediated by the autonomic nervous system, and subjective feelings, mediated by the cerebral cortex and other portions of the brain, are produced. In contrast to this theory, evidence now points to the JamesLange theory which suggests that the subjective emotional experiences are actually the result of physiological changes within our bodies. We experience emotions because of our awareness of physiological reactions to various stimuli or situations. Further evidence is provided by research on the facial feedback hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that changes in our facial expressions sometimes produce shifts in our emotional experiences rather than merely reflecting them. Other research suggests that changes in our body posture and even our tone of voice may influence emotional experiences. Next slide

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Theories of Emotion

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Theories of Emotion

Schachter and Singers Two-Factor theory suggests that our subjective emotional states are determined, at least in part, by the cognitive labels we attach to feelings of arousal. In other words, we perceive ourselves to be experiencing the emotion that external cues tell us we should be feeling. The Schachter-Singer theory is a two-factor view because it considers both arousal and the cognitive appraisal we perform in our efforts to identify the causes of such arousal. Next slide

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Biological Basis of Emotion

We will now turn to the biological basis of emotions. The following is a summary of the key findings of the neural basis of emotions. It appears that the right cerebral hemisphere plays an important role in identifying the expression of emotions. There is a difference between the left and right hemispheres of the brain with respect to valence, which is the extent to which an emotion is pleasant or unpleasant, and arousal, the intensity of the emotion. The left hemisphere is associated with positive emotions or feelings, and the right hemisphere is associated with withdrawal from adverse stimuli and negative emotions. Furthermore, the anterior, or frontal, regions of the hemispheres are associated primarily with the valence, pleasant-unpleasant dimension, while posterior regions are associated primarily with arousal or intensity. Studies have confirmed that people suffering from depression show a reduced activity in the right posterior region, while people suffering from anxiety show increased activity in both regions. Next slide

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External Expressions of Emotion

We recognize the emotions in others through nonverbal cues. Nonverbal cues are the outward signs of others emotional states shown in their facial expressions, body postures, and other behaviors. Studies have shown that while facial expressions may reveal much about others emotions, such judgments are also affected by the context in which such expressions occur and the available situational cues. Frequently, our current mood or emotion is reflected in the posture, position, and movement of our bodies. Feelings are also provided through gestures which are body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture. Next slide

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Affect Influences on Cognition

Research has verified an important finding on how affect influences cognition. By affect we are referring to relatively mild feelings and moods rather than intense emotions. Positive emotions or affective states can trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being and happiness. When individuals feel happy, they tend to adopt what is known as broad-minded coping. These are highly adaptive strategies for dealing with lifes problems. Such strategies include trying to think of different ways to deal with the problem, taking a step back from the situation to be more objective, and so on. In other words, experiencing positive emotions and feelings may help us deal with lifes troubles more effectively. Next slide We discussed one way affect influence cognition, but research has also shown that cognition influences affect. We already discussed the Schachter and Singer theory where we look outward at our own behavior or to the external world for clues about our feelings. A second way in which cognition can affect emotions is through the activation of schemas containing a strong affective component. Activation of strong racial, ethnic, or religious schemas or stereotypes may exert powerful effects upon our current feelings or moods. A third way in which cognition can affect emotions is by our thoughts influencing our reactions to emotion-provoking events. We use two different cognitive mechanisms to regulate our emotions: Reappraisal, which is a cognitive reevaluation of a potentially emotional situation in order to regulate its emotional impact, and Suppression, which is a form of response modulation

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Cognitive Influences on Affect

in which we actively inhibit ongoing, emotionexpressive behavior. Both regulate our emotions but reappraisal may be more effective in regulation of emotions. It decreases the emotional experience and reduces behavioral expressions of emotion and thus may also reduce the physiological reactions to the emotional event. Next slide Slide 19 Subjective Well-Being People who are happy report relatively high levels of subjective well-being. Subjective well-being is a persons global judgment of their own life satisfaction. The following are factors that contribute to high personal happiness: Good, close relationships with friends, family and significant others; High traits in extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability; and Low in signs of mental disturbance such as depression or family conflicts. Next slide

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Summary

Let us review some of the key concepts in this lesson. You learned that motivation is the activation and persistence of behavior. According to drive theory, motivation is a process in which various biological needs drive us to actions designed to satisfy them. On the other hand, expectancy theory suggests that people exert effort on tasks because they believe doing so will give the results they want. Goal setting increases motivation and performance when the goals are specific and challenging and an individual feels committed to them plus is given adequate feedback on their progress. Maslows needs theory suggests that needs exist in a hierarchy and once lower level needs are met then higher level needs can be activated. Continuing with motivation, you learned that eating is regulated by biochemical systems involving detector cells in the hypothalamus and elsewhere and is also affected by the sight of food, feedback from chewing and swallowing, as well as from memories. Research suggests that genetic and biological factors play a key role in determining sexual orientation. Achievement motivation is the desire to meet standards of excellence or outperform others. Next we covered the nature, expression

and impact of emotions. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that emotion provoking stimuli elicit physiological arousal and the subjective interpretation labeled emotions. The James-Lange theory suggested that emotion-provoking stimuli induce physiological reactions and these form the basis for our emotions. In contrast, the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion suggested that when we are aroused by emotion-provoking stimuli, we look to the environment for clues that will determine the emotions we express. Emotions are expressed externally through facial expressions and body language. Cognitive processes such as reappraisal and suppression allow us to regulate our emotional reactions. And lastly, we ended with the idea that most people are relatively high in personal happiness due to close relationships, positive personal traits such as agreeableness, and a lack of mental disturbances.