The Respiratory System A. Types of Respiration 1. External respiration- occurs in the lungs 2.

Internal respiration- occurs between blood/capillaries & the cells/tissues B. Functions of the Respiratory System 1. phonation (voice production)- occurs in the larynx (voice box) on the vocal folds, thorax, nose, mouth, pharynx, and sinuses contribute to resonance 2. Body temperature regulation 3. pH regulation 4. sense of smell 5. respiration C. Structure of the Respiratory System

Lining of nasal cavity

1. Upper Respiratory Tract a. nose (nares)- external opening into the nasal passages b. nasal passages -removes particulate matter (filters), humidifies, and warming the inhaled air - located between nares & pharynx -nasal septum- separates the nasal passages -turbinates (nasal conchae)- thin, scroll-like bones covered with nasal epithelium that increase the surface area of the nasal passageway, divide the nasal passageway into passageways (nasal meatus)

- nasal meatus: 1. ventral nasal meatus- located between the ventral turbinate & floor of the nasal passageway 2. middle nasal meatus- located between the two turbinates 3. dorsal nasal meatus- located between the dorsal turbinate & roof of the nasal passage 4. common nasal meatus- located on either side of the nasal septum c. paranasal sinuses- outpouchings of the nasal passages that are contained within spaces of certain skull bones, most animals have 2 frontal sinuses & 2 maxillary sinuses, a few have sphenoidal & ethmoidal sinuses, cilia sweep mucus produced in the sinuses down into the nasal passage d. Pharynx (throat) common passageway for both respiratory & digestive systems opens dorsally into the esophagus & ventrally into the larynx The respiratory passageway and digestive passageways switch places at the pharynx . The larynx and the pharynx work together to prevent swallowing from interfering with breathing and vice versa. The act of swallowing involves a complex series of actions that stop the process of breathing, cover the opening into the larynx, move the material to be swallowed to the rear of the pharynx, open the esophagus, and move the material into it. Once the swallowing is complete, the opening of the larynx is uncovered and breathing resumes.

e. Larynx (voice box) a short, irregular tube that connects the pharynx with the trachea, supported by the hyoid bone made up of segments of cartilage that are connected to each other & surrounding tissues by muscle made up of: o epiglottis: most rostral of the laryngeal cartilages, covers the larynx during swallowing, o arytenoids cartilage (2): vocal cords and muscle, forms the boundaries of the glottis (opening into the larynx) o thyroid cartilage (1) o cricoids cartilage (1) -vestibular folds (false vocal cords)- present in non-ruminant animals, not involved in voice production, -lateral ventricles- found in equines, project laterally into the space between vocal & vestibular folds, involved in the horse condition called roaring

f. Trachea (windpipe) -tube of fibrous connective tissue & smooth muscle held open by hyaline cartilage rings (dorsal side of cartilage ring has an open section filled with smooth muscle), lined by ciliated epithelium with a mucosal layer -extends from the larynx to the thorax where it divides into the 2 main bronchi, this division is called bifurcation of the trachea -c-shaped cartilage rings prevent the trachea from collapsing during inspiration 2. Lower Respiratory System a. Bronchial Tree and Its Parts o o o o o Lower Respiratory Tract starts with bronchi and ends with alveoli Passageways that lead from bronchi to alveoli is the bronchial tree Eventually each bronchus divides into bronchioles which become so small they form alveolar ducts The grouped together alveoli form alveolar sacs that look like a cluster of grapes The bronchial tree can also dilate (when the bodys active) and constrict (bronchioconstriction- when the bodys at rest)- this diameter change occurs by the smooth muscle in the wall of the bronchil tree- autonomic nervous system Asthma- disease causing the bronchial tree to become overly sensitive to irritants in inhaled air, leads to bronchioconstriction, ranges from mild to life-threatening, often occurs in cats during summertime

b. Alveoli

Structurally they are tiny, thin walled sacks where external respiration takes place. The sacks are lines with a thin layer of fluid called surfactant to keep the alveoli from collapsing during respiration. They are surrounded by capillary networks. Blood cells return carbon dioxide and receive oxygen here. Wall of each aloveoli is lined with simple squamous epithelium

D. Lungs

-cone-shaped with a base (cranial), body, and apex (caudal) -diaphram- thin muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity, in contact with the apex of the lung -mediastinum- area between the lungs that contains the heart, large blood vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus, lymphatic vessels, & lymph nodes -lobes- well-defined regions of the lungs, most species have 2 left lobes (cranial & caudal) & 4 right lobes (cranial, middle, caudal, accessory), HORSES DONT HAVE LOBES EXCEPT FOR A ACCESSORY LOBE ON R. LUNG -hilus- where blood, lymph, & nerves enter/leave the lungs, only area of the lung fastened in place Pulmonary Circulation Blood enters the lungs through pulmonary artery Blood loses CO2 and gains O2 in the capillaries around the alveoli Returns to the heart via pulmonary vein

Alveoli of the lungs to not expand in a fetus until it is born Lungs of an unborn fetus will not float in water (non-functional, solid consistency) Lungs of a newborn will float in water (surfactant keeps inflated, spongy consistency)

D. Thorax (chest cavity) bordered by vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and diaphragm houses heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus pleura has 2 layers: visceral (lines organs) & parietal (lines cavity) between pleural layers is fluid-filled space to lubricate surfaces of organs mediastinum area between the lungs, contains heart, trachea, and esophagus diaphragm muscle that forms the base of thoracic cavity; instrumental in breathing o when relaxed, diaphragm is dome-shaped

when contracted, diaphragm flattens, allowing thorax to expand for increased air volume

- Inspiratory muscles- diaphragm & external intercostals (rotates ribs outward & upward) muscle -Expiratory muscles- internal intercoastal muscles (rotates ribs inward & downward) & abdominal muscles E. Respiration 1. Negative Intratoracic Pressure- pressure in the thorax is negative with respect to atmospheric pressure (partial vacuum within thorax), helps return blood to the heart by pulling blood into the large veins in the mediastinum, 2. Inspiration (inhalation)process of drawing air into the lungs, enlargement of the volume of the thoracic cavity by the inspiratory muscles pulls air into the lungs 3. Expiration (exhalation)- process of pushing air out of the lungs, caused by decreasing the size of the thoracic cavity- occurs by contraction of expiratory muscles F. Respiratory Volumes 1. Tidal Volume- volume of air inspired & expired during one breath, varies accordingly with the animals needs (rest vs. activity) 2. Minute Volume- volume of air inspired & expired during 1 minute Tidal volume X # breaths/min. = minute volume 3. Residual Volume- volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration (lungs cannot be completely emptied of air)

G. Gas Exchange in Alveoli

Atmospheric air contains 21 % oxygen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide Capillary blood contains very little oxygen but high level of carbon dioxide Oxygen diffuses from alveoli which is high concentration into the blood of alveolar capillary which is low concentration

H. Partial Pressure of Gases Daltons Law: the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures of each individual gas. Holds true for gases dissolved in liquids (i.e. blood). PTotal =PGas1 + PGas2 + PGas3 1. Partial Pressure (P)- pressure of each individual gas The concept of Partial Pressures then leads us back to diffusion. The Partial Pressure of Oxygen (PO2) is higher in the air of the alveoli in the lungs and lower in the alveolar blood and the PCO 2 is lower in the alveolar air and higher in the alveolar blood causing each to diffuse into the area of lower concentration. I. Control of Breathing The respiratory center in the medulla oblongata of the brain stem houses the two main systems of breath control. 1. mechanical system sets routine inspiration and expiration limits, operates through stretch receptors in the lungs that set limits on routine resting inspiration/expiration 2. chemical system chemical receptors in the blood vessels (located in carotid arteries & aorta) & brain stem monitor characteristics of the blood ( CO2 content, pH, O2 content of arterial blood), if anything goes outside preset limits the chemical system will signal the respiratory system in order to regain appropriate levels This center controls breathing on a subconscious level but can be overridden for a time on a voluntary basis.