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GandhiMarg,Volume30Number4, JanuarytoMarch2009

GandhiandtheVirtueof Forgiveness
AlanHunter AndrewRigby
ABSTRACT
SatyagrahaandahimsaarewidelyacknowledgedascentraltoGandhislife work.Ourargumentinthispaperisthatforgiveness(ksamainSanskrit)was anotherofGandhiscorevalues.Thefirstsectionofthepaperintroducesways in which forgiveness has been understood as a concept and practice within Westerntraditions.Wedemonstratethatforgivenessliesclosetotheheartof Christianity, and show that it is also an issue relevant to contemporary concerns: since the 1990s, forgiveness has featured in numerous secular studies,exhibitions,websites,andothermedia.Thesecondsectionidentifies how the key precepts that informed Gandhis vision of the transformatory significanceofforgivenesswerederivedfromandgroundedinthespiritualand philosophicaltraditionsofSouthAsia,HinduismandespeciallyJainism.Our final section more specifically explores the implications of forgiveness in Gandhis thought and practice. Forgiveness is an important component of Gandhis dual concerns: the spiritualisation of politics, and also the politicisationofspirituality.

Introduction

Satyagraha and ahimsa are widely acknowledged as central to

Gandhislifework. Ourargumentinthispaperisthatforgiveness (ksamainSanskrit)wasalsooneofGandhiscorevalues,andonethat hasbeenoverlookedinmostscholarship.Inthispaperweexplore thesignificanceascribedtoforgivenessinSouthAsianreligions,and identify the manner in which South Asian perspectives on forgivenessshedlightonGandhisconceptualizationofpersonaland political transformation. However, although Gandhi considered himselfaHindu,hewascertainlyrichlyeclecticinthesourcesofhis religious and philosophical convictions. Theosophy, Tolstoy and Ruskin, esoteric Christianity, and Indian nationalism were all important formative influences. We therefore contextualise our discussion of forgiveness within Western as well as South Asian traditionsofthoughtandpractice. ForgivenessliesclosetotheheartofChristianity:theinjunction toforgiveothers,andthepromiseofreceivingforgivenessfromGod for ones own sins, are central tenets for most Christians. Indeed, priortothelate1980s,discussionofforgivenessintheWestwasfor the most part confined to Christian communities, seldom reaching mainstreampublicationsinotherareas. However,sincethe1990s, scholarsfromdifferentdisciplineshavewrittendozensofbooksand journal articles on forgiveness, a topic which has also featured in numerous popular essays, exhibitions, websites, and other media. Thefirstsectionofourpaperintroduceswaysinwhichforgiveness has been understood as a concept and practice within Western traditions. We aim to show how forgiveness has emerged from Christian traditions in the West to become an important topic in psychology,philosophy,andevenpolitics.Despitethisnewinterest intheWest,relativelylittleanalysisofforgivenessinotherfaithshas appeared.Thesecondsectionofthispaperidentifiesthemannerin which the key precepts that informed Gandhis vision of the transformatory significance of forgiveness were derived from and groundedinthespiritualandphilosophicaltraditionsofSouthAsia, HinduismandespeciallyJainism.Ourfinalsectionmorespecifically

explores the implications of forgiveness in Gandhis thought and practice. To anticipate some of our later observations, we follow most scholarsinagreeingthatGandhiwasprofoundlyinfluencedbyboth JainandHindudoctrines.Itisstrikingthattheconceptofforgiveness isanintrinsicaspectofahimsa(nonviolence)andsatya(truthfulness) inbothreligioustraditions.InJainism,liberationisattainedthrough thethreejewelsofrightfaith,rightknowledge,andrightconduct. The latter is taught and practised through the medium of ten cardinalvirtues,ofwhichthemostprominentisforgiveness.1 We alsoshowthatthetermforgivenessappearsinanimportantposition in Gandhis beloved Bhagavad Gita (16.3). This is an important reference, because it is cited together with other divine qualities (daivim sampadam) for example charity, nonviolence and compassiontowhichaspirituallymindedpersonshouldaspire. Our study of Gandhis statements on forgiveness has not revealedanyparticularevolutionovertheperiodofhislife,although werecognizethatinotherrespectshesometimesmodifiedhisviews inresponsetochangingevents.Neitherdowemaphisstatements againstparticularincidentswhichheexperienced;weratherproduce a synthesis of his views, illuminating their philosophical and religiousroots.Wehopethepaperproposesanewdimensioninthe study of Gandhis work: namely that forgiveness is an inalienable component of his way of life that also embraced ahimsa and satyagraha, practices that cannot be understood without an appreciationofksama. Thenextstepinanevaluationoftheimportanceofforgivenessto GandhiandindeedtheimportantcontributionmadebyGandhito ourunderstandingofforgivenesswouldcertainlybeananalysisof incidentsinhispersonalbiographyorinnationaleventsinwhichhe participated.Unfortunatelysuchanundertakingisbeyondthescope of this paper; but interested readers may consult the standard biographicalsourcestoinvestigatefurther.2 TransformativeForgiveness:TheWesternTradition

Forgiveness is a noun, which takes its meaning from the verb to forgive.Therearearangeofdefinitionsofforgiveness,butatthecore of most of them there is recognition that it involves the relinquishment by someone of feelings of hatred and the corresponding urge for revenge against those who are believed to havecausedsufferingofsomekind.Assuch,forgivenesscanhavea transformativeimpactonrelationships. Indeed,asHannahArendt arguedin TheHumanCondition, withoutforgivenesstherecouldbe no newbeginnings in human relationships wewouldallremain trappedbythepainsinflictedandsufferedinthecourseofoursocial lives.Inherwords,forgivingservestoundothedeedsofthepast, whose `sins hang like Damocles sword over every new generation.3 As such, forgiveness can be viewed as a creative processthatcanleavepeopleinapositiontomoveforwardintothe future together, and consequently it is one of the most powerful sources of nonviolent change. As Beverley Flanigen has observed, Forgivenessistheultimateliberator.4. In the West, forgiveness is often associated with the phrase forgiveandforget.5However,whilstforgivenesscertainlyinvolves what we might call memory work, it does not necessarily entail forgetting, neither does it involve excusing evil. According to Desmond Tutu, Forgiveness does not mean condoning what has been done. It means taking what has happened seriously and not minimising it; drawing the sting in the memory that threatens to poison our entire existence.6 In similar vein Michael Lapsley has depictedthechallengeaddressedbydifferent formsofforgiveness work:Howtotakethepoisonoutofthepast,howtodetoxifythe past.7Onewayinwhichthiscanbeachievedisthroughthecapacity todistinguishbetweentheevilactsandthosepeopleresponsiblefor them.Totheextentthatpeoplecanmakesuchadistinction,thenthe possibilityoflettinggoofthehatredoftheotherandthedesirefor revengethatisattheheartofinterpersonalforgivenessisheightened. AsGovierhasobserved,Toforgiveapersonoragroupmeansto overcome the bitterness, resentment and hatred we feel, due to wrongs committed, and to move towards a more accepting

construction,distinguishingactsfromagents,andleadingeventually toreconciliation.8 From this perspective forgiveness involves what wemightcall the reframing of the past. The victim is liberated from the over determining negative influences of the past by a preparedness to distinguish between the wrong committed and the person responsibleforthatwrong.9 Thisprocessisfacilitatedtotheextent thattheperpetratorattemptstodistancehimorherselffromtheold selfthatwasresponsibleforthepainandsuffering. There appears to be a number of ways by means of which a perpetratorcandistinguishhisorher currentselffromtheact(and theactor/person)thatcausedtheoriginalsuffering. 1.Apology,confessionandrequestforforgiveness. Therequestforforgivenessfromawrongdoerandanapologyfor thewrongcommittedeasesthepathtowardsforgivenessinsofarasit indicatesthattheperpetratorisawareoftheoffencecausedandis expressing a desire to reach towards a new relationship with the victim.Totheextentthatperpetratorsarepreparedtoacknowledge theirguilt,thentheyareclearlyestablishingadistancebetweentheir presentselfandthehistoricalselfthatcommittedthewrong. 2.Expressionsofrepentanceandthepromisenottorepeatthewrong. The acknowledgement of shame regarding the wrongs committed andthepromisethattheywillnotberepeatedrepresentonemore layerintheaffirmationoftheperpetratorscommitmenttochange theirways,distancingthemselvesevenfurtherfromtheiroldselves andreassuringthevictimabouttheirfuturerelationships. 3.Offerstomakeamendsreparations The willingness of perpetrators to pay the price and face the consequencesofpastdeeds,eitherbypreparednesstosufferand/or willingnesstomakereparations,cansymboliseinaveryclearand unambiguousfashiontheirdistancefromtheoldselfthatcommitted the original wrongs, and reassure the victim that they will not be

repeated.Furthermore,suchoffersanddistancingactivitiesonthe partoftheperpetratorprovideevidencethatperpetratorandvictim now share the same moral world, share the same normative standardsregardingproperbehaviour. Ofcoursesomepeoplecanbringthemselvestoforgivethosethey feelhavecausedthemunjustifiedharmwithoutanyactofrepentance orapologyfromtheperpetrator.Indeedforgiveness,asaninneract, canbedirectedtowardsthosewhoarenolongeralivemanypeople forvariousreasonscometoforgivethosefromtheirpastwhohave damagedtheminsomeway.10 To forgive or not to forgive is a matter of choice, and our discussionsofarhasfocusedonpeoplemakingsuchachoiceonthe basisoftheirowninterests(gettingthemonkeyofftheirbacksis onewayofdepictingthisprocess)ratherthanforanyconcernforthe wellbeingoftheother.Wehavealsoconcentratedonwhatwemight call the factors that facilitate conditional forgiveness. However, somepeoplearemorepredisposedtoforgiveforwhatwemightcall otherdirectedreasonsandarepreparedtopractisewhatwemight termunconditionalforgiveness. Thisisparticularlysoiftheyare adherentsofamoralcode,philosophyorfaithtraditionthatvalorises forgiveness such as Christianity. Indeed, for many people, forgivenessisassociatedwithChristianityChristiansaretheones whooughttoforgive.Oneillustrationthatcomestomindisthatofa SouthAfrican,DawieAckerman,whosewifehadbeenkilledinan attackonachurchinaCapeTownsuburbin1993.Whilstseeking amnesty under the terms of the South African truth and reconciliationprocess,oneoftheattackersapologisedforhisactions. DawieAckermanresponded,IwantyoutoknowthatIforgiveyou unconditionally.IdothatbecauseIamaChristian,andIcanforgive youforthehurtyouhavecausedme,butIcannotforgiveyouthesin thatyouhavedone.OnlyGodcanforgiveyouforthat.11 Christiansareenjoinedtolovetheirenemiesandforgivethose thatsinagainstthem;justasGodforgivessoshouldhumans.Within Judaism, however, forgiveness in the sense of releasing someone from indebtedness (mechila) is conditional upon a display of

repentance (teshuva), which must be sincere and accompanied by steps to correct the wrong done. From this perspective, to offer forgivenesswithoutsincererepentanceservestoperpetuatetheevil. Atthesametime,thereiswithinthistraditionthebeliefthatpeople hasarighttoforgivenessoncetheyhaverepentedauthentically.Itis as if forgiveness is offered as a sort of quid pro quo for the moral transformation of the perpetrator. This conditional approach to forgivenessisonenotconfinedtoJudaismtheChristiantheologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer dismissed the cheap grace entailed in the preachingofforgivenesswithoutrequiringrepentance.12 Oneofthemostinterestingdiscussionsofthemoralissuesraised byforgivenessinrelationtoeviliscontainedinSimonWeisenthals book, The Sunflower.13 In the first section of the book Weisenthal recounts his experience when, as a young Jew in a forced labour camp during the Second World War, he was summoned to the bedsideofaGermanSSofficerdyingfromwoundsreceivedinbattle. TheyoungNaziwantedaJewtohearhisconfessionandforgivehim fortheterriblecrimeshehadcommitted.Hehadparticipatedinthe slaughterofJews,includingthemurderofwomenandchildrenwho wereburnedtodeathastheytookshelter.Hiswasatorturedsoul. Heknewhehaddonewrongandheregretteditbitterly.Hesought forgiveness before he died, so that he could face death and God. Weisenthaltellshowhewalkedawayfromthedyingmansbedside without granting him the release that would have come from forgiveness.Hisreasonsfordoingsoweretwofold:
1. Onlythosewhohavebeenthevictimscanextendforgiveness.You cannotforgiveonbehalfofothers. 2. AstheSSofficerhadbeenresponsibleformurder,thevictimswere notaliveandwerethereforenotinapositiontoextendforgiveness. Therecanbenoforgivenessformurder.

Thesecondhalfofthebookconsistsofcommentariesbymoral philosophersandtheologiansfromdifferentfaithtraditions.Within the third main monotheistic tradition, Islam, God is both

compassionateandmercifultothosewhorepent.However,asinthe Jewish tradition, a deathbed repentance after a life of sin is consideredinauthenticandforgivenessisnotoffered.Withreference tohumans,itisconsideredmorallyacceptabletoinflictappropriate punishment on those who have caused harm. But those who can exercisecourageous willandforgiveoffenders areheldinspecial regard.ThuswecanreadinTheQuran(42:40):
Therecompenseforaninjuryisaninjuryequalthereto(indegree):butif a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah:forAllahlovethnotthosewhodowrong.14

Thepowerofforgivenesscanbethreefold:itcanliberatevictims fromtheirburdenofvictimhood,itcangrantsomerelieftothose perpetratorswhofeelguiltfortheiractions,15anditcantherebyhelp to heal broken relationships.16 This transformative power is manifested with most clarity at the interpersonal level. Analysts withintheWesternacademictraditionhavebeenlessclearaboutthe significanceofforgivenessinnurturingpositiverelationshipsatthe intercommunalandintersocietallevels. GroupForgiveness Individuals can forgive groups, corporate entities and institutions that have caused them injury. Moreover, in certain cultures the distinction between the individual and the wider collectivity of family,clanandtribeisblurred.Insuchsocietiesitisthegroupthat carriesresponsibilityfortheactionsofeachofitsmembers.Thisform ofcollectiveresponsibility(andidentity)isthebasisofthefeudasan institution. In such situations it is easy to see how interpersonal processes of forgiveness arrived at by due process and ritual, as embodiedintheArabcustomof sulha,canhaveaverydirectand significantimpactonintergrouprelations. Insocietieswherethereisagreateremphasisontheindividual, groupscanstillbethesubjectsandobjectsofforgiveness,according toGovier.SheclaimsthatGroupscanact.Groupscanbeharmed.

groupscanhavebeliefs,attitudesandfeelings.17Bethatasitmay,it isimportanttoemphasiseherethatthephenomenonofintergroup forgiveness cannot be separated from individual processes. Thus, when individual members can relinquish their own feelings of bitternesstowardsformerenemies,whentheyarecapableoffeeling remorse for their own past actions, and especially if these are embodiedingesturesandactions,thentheycanactasexemplarsto theircontemporaries,therebycontributingtowardsachangeininter communalandintersocietalrelations.Thisisparticularlysowhen suchindividualsoccupypublicpositionswhichenablethemtoclaim withsomelegitimacythattheyrepresentaparticularcommunityor broaderentity,thentheycanactassignificantagentsinpromoting reconciliation between such collectivities. As Michael Ignatieff has remarked, Leaders give their societies permission to say the unsayable, to think the unthinkable, to rise to gestures of reconciliation that people, individually, cannot imagine.18 Such propheticactsofwitness,whichcanalsoberepresentedinpublic memorials and other symbolic spaces, have the power to touch people in such a manner that they feel more willing to become reconciledtopastlossandanticipatesomeformofconstructiveco existencewithformerenemies. Gandhi, of course, did not recognise the concept of enemy. Indeed,theprimefocusofhisstruggleagainsttheBritishRajwasto liberatenotonlythecolonisedbutalsothecolonisersfromtheviolent andoppressivesituationwithinwhichtheywerecaught.However, before going on to examine some of Gandhis key assumptions as theyrelatetoforgiveness,itisimportanttoexaminetheSouthAsian religioustraditionsthatformedthecontextforthedevelopmentof someofGandhiscorearticlesoffaith. JainandHinduPerspectivesonForgiveness Specificallywithregardtoforgiveness,itseemstousthatGandhis viewscanbestbeexaminedinthelightofthetwomajorscriptural andspiritualtraditionsthatinformedhischildhoodandmuchofhis adultlife,namelyHinduismandJainism.Gandhiwasindisputably

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eclectic in the sources of his convictions. There is however much disagreementamongscholarsabouttheextenttowhichGandhiwas influenced by each. A recent study by Tidrick, for example, has argued that the Theosophical Society and associated New Age thinkingofthe1890splayedalargerrolethanhaspreviouslybeen recognised.19 Hay, on the other hand, has emphasised Gandhis adoptionofJainideasandpractices,20 whilstGierhasargued that Gandhi was closer to Buddhist thought than is usually acknowledged.21Theconsensusthoughisthat,whilerecognisingthe diversityofinfluences,Gandhiisbestunderstood,asheunderstood himself,asHindu:specificallyfromtheGujaratiPranamiVaishnav community which had longstanding, intimate bonds with Jain traditions.ThesebondswereespeciallycloseintownslikePorbandar andRajkotwhereGandhispentmuchtime.Gandhisearlyspiritual formation was thus rooted in the Hindu family, with strong Jain influences. He grew up ina Vaishnava family. As he writes in his autobiography:
The Gandhis were Vaishnavas. My parents wereparticularly staunch VaishnavasJainismwasstronginGujarat,anditsinfluencewasfelt everywhereandonalloccasionsThesewerethetraditionsinwhichI wasbornandbred.InRajkotIgotagroundingintolerationforall branchesofHinduismandsisterreligions..Jainmonkswouldalsopay frequent visits to my father, and would even go out of their way to acceptfoodfromusnonJains.22

AfterhisreturntoIndiain1914,helivedinanalmostentirely Hindu environment, notably in his ashrams in Sabarmati and Sevagram, as well as, of course, spells in British gaols with other, mostlyHindu,politicalprisoners.Hisownspirituallifewasinmany wayscongruentwiththatofHindupractitioners inotherashrams: meditation, prayer, fasting, celibacy, repetition of the Ram mantra, selflessworkandstudyofHinduscripture.Bythe1920s,themature Gandhi was fully at ease with his own identity as Hindu, albeit warmly acknowledging the truths of other worldviews. When he

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didwriteaboutspecificallyreligiousthemes,hiswordsareusually consistent with the neovedantic reformulation of Hinduism, althoughinvariablywithhisowncharacteristicstamp.Wellknown quotes from Gandhi himself express his allegiance, after years of widereadinginandaroundotherfaithtraditions,toHinduism;and in particular his firm belief in the Bhagavad Gita as not only a wonderfulscripture,butevenasMothertohimselfandalldevotees, TheGitaistheuniversalmother.Sheturnsawaynobody.Herdoor iswideopentoanyonewhoknocksTheGitaisnotonlymyBibleor myKoran;itismorethanthat,itismymother.23 ButGandhialsolikedtofrequentJainteachersandtemples,and in the 1890s he came to know one of the greatest Jain saints of modern India,SrimadRajchandra (alsoknown asRaichandcharya, 18671901).24 RajchandrasettledmanyofGandhisspiritualdoubts and was a significant personal inspiration for him: local people referred to Rajchandra as Gandhis Guru.25 This paper now proceeds to identify some key components in both traditions, and thenidentifieswaysinwhichGandhiinterpreted, interiorizedand practisedthem. Ofcourse,tospeakoftheHindutraditionisitselftendentious given the vast scope and variety of Hindu religious thought. This discussion is based on what is known as neoHinduism or neo Vedanta, a reasonably homogeneous discourse within modern liberal, rationalist Hinduism.26 Although forgiveness, (ksama in Sanskrit)wasnotamajortopicintheclassicaltextsofHinduism,a numberofrelatedconceptsarediscussedinseveralkeyworksand are prominent in Hindu discourse, forming a cluster of meanings whichprovideasubstantialoverallconceptualizationofforgiveness intheHindutradition.27 Twoepics,the Mahabharata,ofwhichthe Bhagavad Gita is a small section, and the Ramayana have a quasi scripturalstatus:incidents andpersonalities fromthem are widely citedasauthoritativeexemplarsofcorrectbehavior. Inboth,there areextendeddiscussionsofforgivenessandrevenge,qualitieswhich areplayedoutinmanyofthesubplots.Thediscussionsarequite

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sophisticated and varied: for example, some speakers imply that forgivenessistobeadoptedinallcircumstances,whileothersargue thatitalsohasdrawbacks.TheMahabharataevenhasafamoushymn toforgivenesswhichopensasfollows:
Forgivenessisvirtue;forgivenessissacrifice,forgivenessistheVedas, forgivenessis the Shruti [revealed scripture].Hethatknoweththis is capableofforgivingeverything. Forgivenessis Brahma [God];forgivenessistruth;forgivenessisstored ascetic merit; forgiveness protecteth the ascetic merit of the future; forgivenessisasceticism;forgivenessisholiness;andbyforgivenessisit thattheuniverseisheldtogether.28

Wecanthusseethatksamawasvaluedfromearlytimes.Titiksha meanstoleranceorforbearance,andisanotherqualitypraisedinthe Gita (2.14), along with similar virtues like akrodah (freedom from anger,16.2)andksantih(tolerance,13.8).Thethemeisthatwhatever occurs,oneshouldnotfeelanger,resentment,ormentaldisturbance. Evenifsomeoneattacksorinsultsuswithoutcause,thereisnoneed tofeelenmity.Howdowecometothisstate?Oneapproachisadeep acceptanceofthelawofreturningkarma:anenemyisinfactonly the instrument of a process which we ourselves initiated, and for whichweareresponsible.IfIhadnotcreatedaproblemformyself because of some past action, I would not now be experiencing a difficulty.Toadevoutbelieverinthistheory,takingrevengeonan enemy means to shoot the messenger and ignore the message. Moreover,thosewhoacceptthelawofkarmaandreincarnationmay berelativelywillingtoletgooflongingforretribution:theyfeelthat theperpetratorwillinevitablyreceiveacomebackfortheirdeeds,so itisalmostirrelevanttogooutofoneswaytotrytoinflictsomekind ofpunishmentorrevenge. Moregenerally,toleranceofdiscomfortcanbeinterpretedasan importantelementofspiritualdiscipline,notnecessarilytakentothe pointofextremeausterity,butatleastwillingnesstosufferhardship, as exemplified by Gandhi in British prisons. A more profound interpretation within nondualistic schools of Hindu philosophy is

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therealizationthattheSelfofallhumanbeingsindeedallliving beingsisessentiallyoneandthesame,andonewithGodalso.So thereisnoOtheragainstwhomonemightfeelanger. South Asian historiography distinguishes two major early streams of religious thought: orthodox Vedic ritualism, and alternative,ascetic(sramana)traditions,Jainismbeinganexampleof the latter. Jains themselves regard Mahavir, the founder of their religion,asthemostrecentinalonglineofenlightenedsageswho lived in earlier times, sages known as tirthankaras or jinas.29 Tirthankara translates as fordmaker, one who helps the ordinary believercrossthetorrentsoflifetoimmortality;jinameansspiritual victor,andthewordJain(withtheadjectivalformJaina)meansone whofollowsajina.AswithBuddhaandGuruNanakafterhim,the teaching initiated by Mahavir became so influential that it is considered a separate religion rather than merely an offshoot of Hinduism, although, as with Buddhism and Sikhism, many fundamentalideasaresimilartoorcompatiblewithHinduism.Jains, especiallyinGujarat,havebyandlargeremainedongoodtermswith Hindus:forexample,theyoftenintermarryandparticipateinHindu religiousfestivalsandotherobservances,withoutfeelingthattheir ownfaithiscompromised.Thereisconsiderableoverlap,friendship, and communication between the faiths notwithstanding some importantdoctrinaldifferences. Whilst the doctrine of ahimsa, nonviolence, is an important concepttoHindusandBuddhists,toJainsitisarguablythecentralor core teaching.30 As Zydenbos has observed, Ahimsa is an ethical conceptwhichdeterminesthecharacterofnearlyallJainareligious practicemorethananyother:itisconsideredcentraltothewholeof Jaina ethical thought.31 In its pure Jain form, ahimsa means completely abstaining from causing injury to others. Others here includesalllifeforms,birds,plants,andevenmicroorganisms.Ata deeperlevel,eventhewordothershouldnotbeused,sinceMahavir preachedcompleteidentitywiththebeingsaroundus:Youarethat which you intend to hit, injure, insult, torment, persecute, torture, enslave or kill. A famous Jain phrase puts it succinctly: Ahimsa

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paramo dharmah (nonviolence is the supreme religion).32 Violence, disconnectedness, disrupts our spiritual as well as our physical cosmos. Modern Jain writers, incidentally, also discuss the importanceofnonviolenteconomics,developingideasputforward byGandhiandJ.C.Kumarappa,laterdevelopedbySchumacherand others.33 If Jain teachings on nonviolence are widely appreciated, it is perhapsnotsowellknownthatforgivenessisalsoacorecomponent of the religion. Jainism is perhaps unique among world faiths in havingafestival,theParyushana,inwhichforgivenessisthecentral component.Thefestivalitselflastsforaweekortendaysandisthe mostimportanteventintheJaincalendar.Jainfamiliesvisittemples tolistentodiscoursesandreadings;andtheyengageinfastingand penance.Theeveningisoftendevotedtomeditation,specificallythe practice of pratikraman, a reflection on their spiritual life which includes introspection, prayers, detachment from the body, and resolutionsforthecomingyear.Thespecificityof Paryushana isthe central role of forgiveness. There is a unique procedure, in which every Jain asks forgiveness from all individuals and from the community,foranyoffencetheymayhavecommitted. Alldissent anddisagreement is supposed to be setaside, and individualand socialrelationshipshealed.Theyaskforgivenessbyapproachingthe other person, joining hands and asking for Micchamidukadam or forgiveness. Literally, dukadam means bad deeds; and micchami means fruitless. The sense is,May anypast problems between us ceasehereandnow,withnorepercussions. Apart from the forgiveness festivaland other specific calendar events,Jainsarelikelytopractiseforgivenessasanintegralpartof theirreligiouslife.So,justasthecommunityhasdevelopedaunique festival,ithasdevelopedanumberofmantrasspecificallytodeepen thepowerofforgiveness.Twoexamplesaregivenhere:
UniversalForgivenessPrayer KhamemiSavveJiva,SavveJivaKhamantuMe, MettiMeSavveBhuyesu,VeramMajhamNaKenai.

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Igrantforgivenesstoalllivingbeings.Mayalllivingbeingsgrantme forgiveness.Myfriendshipiswithalllivingbeings.Myenmityistotally nonexistent. UniversalPeaceandFriendshipPrayer ShivmastuSarvaJagatah,Parhitniratabhavantubhutaganah, DoshahPrayantuNasham,SarvatraSukhibhavantulokah. May the whole Cosmos be blessed. May all beings engage in each otherswellbeing.Mayallweakness,sicknessandfaultsdiminishand vanish.Mayeveryoneandeverywherebehealthy,prosper,blissful,and peaceful.34

How do Jain teachings compare with Western concepts of peacefulnessandinparticularforgiveness?Severalpointsstandout. First, there is farless emphasis on vicarious atonement, or the forgivingpowerofadeityorsaviour,thaninChristianity.According to Jain philosophy, there is little benefit to be had in imploring a merciful Father orsomeother suchfigure to remove our sins and helpustosalvation.Rather,salvationisfairlyandsquarelywithin ourowncompetence.Ifwehavecommittedsins,weareboundto suffertheconsequences.Byspiritualpractice,particularlyausterities andagenerouslifestyle,wecangraduallyovercometheeffectsof ourpreviousbadkarma,andalsoavoidgeneratingnewbadkarmas forthefuture.Weatoneforoursinsbyourconduct. Second, the injunction to forgive those who have committed offences against us sounds rather similar to that in Christian traditions.Jainsareenjoinedtoforgive,deeplyandunconditionally, bothasanongoingdailypractice,andspecifically,inacommunity, in the Paryushana festival. Compared with Christianity, however, thereislittlesenseoftheverticalrelationshipbetweenhumansand God that exists in the monotheistic religious traditions. The comparisonwithpsychotherapyseemsmoreappropriate:ifIforgive the others, my own mind and emotions will feel a great sense of relief,itmaysetanewdirectioninmylife,helpingmetomoveaway frompastgrievancesandresentments.Thecontexthereispossibly alsoclosertothecultivationofvirtueswhich,Giershows,hasbeen

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amajorpreoccupationwithseveralcurrentsofphilosophyincluding classicalGreekandChinese.35 Third, and here a contrast with both Christian and post ChristianWesternthinking,theconceptofforgivenessinJainismis deeply rooted in a universalising philosophy of nonviolence, extending to intellectual nonviolence (refusal to assert superiority overotherworldviews)andnonviolencetowardseverythingfrom moleculestomountains. Ononelevel,weshouldforgiveanybody for anything, because we should feel universal friendship and connectedness.IfIthinkanyonehascommittedanoffence,orhurt meinsomeway,Iamsufferingfromadelusion.Thatpersonhas merelybeenaninstrumentforsomeofmyreturningkarma,andI shouldbegratefultohimorher. Andonthemostprofoundlevel, thelevelofthesageMahavir,aJainmightevendiscoverthatthereis no other person who he or she might forgive no matter what offencesareseenbyotherpeople:thesenseofoneness,extendedSelf, atmahasbeenmanifested. Gandhisworldviewwasalsoinformedbytheconvictionthatat somesubstratumofexistenceallisone.Itwaspartofhisgeniusthat hewasabletotakesuchtraditionalreligious concepts andvalues, and give them a new social and political significance, which also imbued his struggle for liberation with a significant spiritual dimension.Thisisparticularlysowithregardtohisexpositionofthe significanceofforgivenesswithinhisoverallemancipatoryproject. GandhiandForgiveness Gandhi,oneofthemostpropheticfiguresofthetwentiethcentury, was assassinated because of his commitment to reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims within the subcontinent. However, his influence continues toinformand resonatethrough nonviolent movements for socioeconomic change and political liberation, particularlythroughthewritingsofGeneSharp.36Sharpandothers haveconcentratedondrawingoutthecontemporaryimplicationsof Gandhisrecognitionthatanyregimedependsinthefinalanalysis upon the cooperation and consent (forced or otherwise) of its

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subjects, and therefore any regime can be challenged and underminedthroughtheerosionofthepillarsofsupportuponwhich itdepends.However,fewofthecontemporarygenerationofactivist scholars who have drawn inspiration from Gandhis work have acknowledgedthecentralityofforgivenesswithinhisworldview. Inthissectionofthepaperwelocatetheconcept(andpractice)of forgiveness within Gandhis worldview. Our argument is that forgiveness was central to Gandhis vision of the Indian freedom struggle.Forhimtrue swaraj orselfrulecouldonlybeachievedby meansofsatyagraha;centraltohisvisionofsatyagrahawas ahimsa (positive nonviolence); and at the core of this orientation to the worldwasthevalueandthepracticeofforgiveness,ashewrotein 1925,Nonviolenceimplieslove,compassion,forgiveness.37 Gandhiconcluded Hind Swaraj withtheobservationthatReal homeruleisselfruleorselfcontrol.38 Hewasconvincedthatfor India to be truly free (rather than English rule without the Englishman39) the collective project had to be based on transformationattheindividuallevel.
If we become free, India is free. And in this thought you have a definitionofSwaraj.ItisSwarajwhenwelearntoruleourselves.Itis therefore in the palm of our hands but such Swaraj has to be experienced,byeachoneforhimself.40

Asheobservedin1939,Swarajofapeoplemeansthesumtotal oftheSwaraj(selfrule)ofindividuals.41Hedevelopedthisanalysis afewyearslater,incorporatingathreadthatranthroughouthislife andwork,thatanychangebasedoncompulsion,cowardiceorblind obediencetopowerholderswasinauthenticandwouldprovetobe withoutsubstance.Hewrote:

Individualfreedomalonecanmakeamanvoluntarilysurrenderhimself completely to the service of society. If it is wrested from him, he becomesanautomatonandsocietyisruined.Nosocietycanpossiblybe builtonadenialofindividualfreedom.42

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Gandhi acknowledged that selfrule, at the individual and collectivelevel,requiredthebasichumanrightsoffreedomofspeech andassociation,italsorequiredthefulfilmentofbasichumanneeds thatcouldonlybeachievedthrough political,socialandeconomic independence. In a speech in 1917 he reviewed the evils that characterisedsomuchofIndianlifeanddemanded,Ifwecannot remedy these evils, how can we attain swaraj? Swaraj means managing our own affairs.43 However, such institutional changes could only be fulfilled if they were accompanied by an equally profoundtransformationattheleveloftheindividual.Wecannot achievethispoliticalandeconomicfreedomwithoutTruthandnon violenceinconcreteterms,withoutalivingfaithinGod,andhence moral and social elevation.44 In other words, swaraj as outer freedom would be nothing but an empty shell without inner freedom.
Theoutwardfreedomthereforethatweshallattainwillonlybeinexact proportiontotheinwardfreedomtowhichwemayhavegrown.And if this is the correct view of freedom, our chief energy must be concentrateduponachievingreformfromwithinWhenthisreform takesplaceonanationalscalenooutsidepowercanstopouronward march.45

Howwasthisinnerchange,thisselfrule(swaraj)tobeachieved? ForGandhi,ofcourse,theprimemeansofchangewassatyagraha.In hisspeechattheGujaratiPoliticalConferenceinNovember1917he articulatedthelinkage.Thesatyagrahiisonewhoisunflinchingin adherencetotruth,whateverthehardships:

Withtruthforsword,heneedsneitherasteelswordnorgunpowder. Evenaninveterateenemyheconquersbytheforceofthesoul,whichis love. Love can fight; often, it is obliged to. In the intoxication of power,manfailstoseehiserror.Whenthathappensasatyagrahidoes notsitstill.Hesuffers.Hedisobeystherulersordersandhislawsina civil manner, and willingly submits to the penalties of such disobedience,forinstance,imprisonmentandgallows.Thusishissoul

19

disciplined. In the event, no bitterness develops between the satyagraha and those in power, the latter, on the contrary, willingly yieldtohim.Theydiscoverthattheycannotcommandthesatyagrahis obedience.Theycannotmakehimdoanythingagainsthiswill.Andthis is the consummation of swaraj, because it means complete independence.ThissatyagrahaisIndiasdistinctiveweapon.46

ItwasobservedabovethatGandhisworldviewwasinformed bythebeliefthatbeneaththelevelofappearances,allisone.This groundofallbeing,thisultimatereality,theessencethatpermeates inandthroughoutall,andwhichformanyisGodortheDivine,was termedTruthorsatyabyGandhi. OnereasonfortheadoptionofthetermTruthinsteadofGod,a changewhichtookplaceintheearly1930s,wastoavoidanydivision withtheatheistswithinthefreedommovement.However,Gandhiis here also simply restating a formulation given in the Upanishads and later Vedantic philosophy, for example that of Shankara and Vivekananda, with which Gandhi was thoroughly engaged. According to the earliest Upanishad, for example, Gods secret name is The Truth of truth (satyasa satyam).47 Another early celebrated aphorism using the same term is in the Taittiriya Upanishad (2.1): satyam jnanam anantam Brahman [God is Truth, Intelligence,Infinity].48 Firmly embedded within this tradition, Gandhi declared that nothingexistsinrealityexceptTruth,everythingelseisillusion.49 ThisistheTruthorRealitywithacapitalT(orR),andforGandhithe aimshouldbetorealisethis(Absolute)Truth,tobecomeonewithit, to achieve swaraj or selfrealisation. The significance of this commitmenttotherealisationoftruthinrelationtoGandhisoverall projecthasbeenexpressedveryclearlybyRaghavanIyer:
To believe in Absolute Truth, which is God, implies that every man embodiesaportionofthattruth,i.e.,isasoulpossessingsoulforce. Astruthisthesubstanceofmorality,manisamoralagentonlytothe extentthatheembodiesandseekstruth....Abstracttruthhasnovalue

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unlessincarnatedinhumanbeingswhorepresentitbyprovingtheir readinesstodieforit.50

Intheseekingoftruth,however,weneedtobearinmindthatas meremortalswehaveaccessonlytoourownrelativetruth,andour truthislikelytobedifferentfromthetruthofothers.Thereforewe mustapproachTruth(withacapitalT)bythetestingofourrelative truths,andthiscanonlybedonebystrictadherencetoahimsa,as any violence of thought, word or deed, would be contrary to the onenessofallthatisthebedrockofalllife. Therefore, when we come across violence and injustice, oppressionandexploitation,conditionsthatarecontrarytoTruth,we mustseektoconvertandchangethoseresponsible,wemustseekto liberatethemfromtheevilsituationandthedamagetheyaredoing to others and to themselves. We must do this not by inflicting suffering and violence on them but by being prepared to suffer ourselves,inthespiritofahimsa. Thecommitmenttoahimsa,thedeterminationtodonoharmbut tomaintainapositiveattitudeofgoodwill,eventowardstheevil doer, is incompatible with the pursuit of revenge against those responsibleforevil.AndforGandhiforgivenesswasthevoluntary restraint of the urge for vengeance. Hence, forgiveness was at the veryheartoftheGandhianmethodandphilosophyofsatyagraha. Indeed,forhimahimsawastheextremelimitofforgiveness.51(v.36, 429) Bytheirrefusaltoinflictviolenceonthosewhosebehaviourthey wereseekingtochange,satyagrahiswerealigningthemselveswith that power or essence at the heart of reality. As he affirmed in November 1921, Noncooperation springs from love, not hatred. Soulforceisloveforceandtheworldisruledbythisforce.Ifyou wanttofreeIndiathroughyourstrength,showerloveonothers.52 Thepowerofthissoulforce,ofnonviolence,wasallthegreater whenthevictimsofinjusticeandoppressionrefusedtoresorttothe coercive and violent resources available to them, but remain committed to ahimsa. This was the nonviolence of the brave, the

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nonviolenceofthosewiththecouragetowithstandsufferingwithout inflicting harm on others. Gandhi contrasted this with the nonviolenceoftheweak,thenonviolencepractisedbythoselacking the courageor thecommitment toresist byviolentmeans.Hence, whilst he equated ahimsa with forgiveness, he was insistent that forgivenessisthequalityofthebrave.Ahimsaisimpossiblewithout fearlessness.53 Nonviolence is not a cover for cowardice, but it is the supremevirtueofthebrave.Exerciseofnonviolencerequires fargreaterbraverythanthatofswordsmanship.Cowardiceis wholly inconsistent with nonviolence. Translation from swordsmanshiptononviolenceispossibleandattimeseven aneasystage.Nonviolence,therefore,presupposesabilityto strike. It is a conscious deliberate restraint put upon ones desireforvengeance.Butvengeanceisanydaysuperiorto passive, effeminate andhelpless submission. Forgiveness is higher still. Vengeance too is weakness. The desire for vengeancecomesoutoffearofharm,imaginaryorreal.A dogbarksandbiteswhenhefears.Amanwhofearsnoone onearthwouldconsiderittootroublesomeeventosummon upangeragainstonewhoisvainlytryingtoinjurehim.The sun does not wreak vengeance upon little children who throwdustathim.Theyonlyharmthemselvesintheact.54 By extension, therefore, true forgiveness for Gandhi was the voluntaryrestraintofvengeanceandtheofferingofcompassionby those in possession of the courage and the capacity to avenge the wrongs they have suffered. Just as the person with no appetite affirmsnothingbyfasting,themouselackingthecapacitytoseek vengeanceisnotinapositiontoforgivethecat.Gandhiaffirmed again and again that forgiveness, an integral part of ahimsa/nonviolence,isanornamentofthebrave.Nonviolenceisa weaponofthestrongandisrespectedonlywhenemployedbythem. Nonviolencemeansforgivenessandthisisthegloryofthebrave.55 Forgiveness is the virtue of the brave. He alone who is strong enoughtoavengeawrongknowshowtolove(andforgive).56

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Moreover, this soulforce of which forgiveness is an integral dimension,hasthecapacitytoredeemthewrongdoer.AsGandhi affirmedinYoungIndiain1921:

... the refusal to speak, to participate in the evil, to assist ones own degradation, to cooperate with the wrongdoer, gives strength to oneself,andawakensandpurifiesthewrongdoer....Noncooperation .healswithoutkilling.57

Forgiveness,thevoluntaryrestraintfrompursuitofvengeance,is thus integral to the whole Gandhianproject of swaraj or selfrule. Indeed, satyagaha can be viewed as forgiveness in action, active forgiveness.Henceweread,Nonviolenceimplieslove,compassion, forgiveness.58 Writing about his experiences with satyagraha in SouthAfrica,heobservedthat
Nomatterhowoftenasatyagrahiisbetrayed,hewillcontinuetorepose histrustintheadversarysolongastherearenotcogentgroundsfor distrust. Pain to a satyagrahi is the same as pleasure. He will not therefore be misled by the mere fear of suffering into groundless distrust.Ontheotherhand,relyingashedoesuponhisownstrength, hewillnotmindbeingbetrayedbytheadversary,willcontinuetotrust in spite of frequent betrayals, and will believe that he thereby strengthenstheforcesoftruthandbringsvictorynearer.Distrustisa signofweaknessandsatyagrahaimpliesthebanishmentofallweakness and therefore of distrust, which is clearly out of place when the adversaryisnottobedestroyedbuttobewonover.59

Gandhisprojectwastoachievefreedomnotthroughinflicting injury on the oppressors but by converting them through self sufferingandselfpurification.Hencethedynamicinsatyagrahawas nottheimpositionofsufferingonothersbuttapas,thepreparedness ofthesatyagrahistosufferintheircommitmenttotheirversionofthe truth. As preparation for such selfsuffering Gandhi advocated a period of selfcleansing, of which forgiveness was a constituent element.Thushewrote:

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Firstly,wemustacquiregreatermasteryoverourselvesandsecurean atmosphere of perfect calm, peace and goodwill. We must ask forgiveness for every unkind word thoughtlessly uttered or unkind worddonetoanyone.60

Toseekforgivenessincreasesourhumility:
Toaskforforgivenessandtoreceiveforgivenessarebeautifulideas.I actonboththeprinciples.ButIhavealwaysbelievedthatforgivenessin thissensedoesnotmeanwhatiscommonlyunderstoodbyit.Asincere desire to be forgiven increases our humility; we are able to see our weakness,andthisknowledgegivesusthestrengthtobegood.61

With regard to the practice of nonviolence, and hence of forgiveness,Gandhiprofessedthebeliefthatwomenwereespecially suited,observingtoaWesternvisitor:

women can play a very important role in establishing peace becausewomenbynatureareendowedwiththequalityofforgiveness. Womenwillneversucceedinapingmenineverything,norcanthey developthegiftnaturehasbestowedonthembydoingso.Theyshould neitherallowtheirfamilymemberstohave,norshouldtheythemselves haveanyconnectionwithanythingrelatingtowar.Godhasendowed womenwithheartsoverflowingwithlove.Theyshouldutilizethisgift properly.Thatpowerisallthemoreeffectivebecauseitismute.Ihold thatGodhassentwomenasmessengersofthegospelofnonviolence.62

Inexpressingwhattomanyofuswouldseemtobeasomewhat heretical view of gender differences, Gandhi was revealing once againthemannerinwhichsomanyofhisbeliefsweregroundedin traditionalIndiaworldviewsandphilosophies. ConcludingObservations As was argued in the second section of this paper, Gandhis interpretation and practice of forgiveness is completely congruent

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withHinduandJaintradition.Indeed,hisspiritualperspectivescan bewellunderstoodthroughthreeprisms:
1. 2. 3. Forgivenessasavirtue,alongsideotherssuchascharity Forgivenessasacomponentofspiritualpower Forgivenessasameanstoregeneratesociety.

Gandhisworkisaprimarycasestudyofvirtuouspolitics:that goodendsmustalwaysbematchedwithgoodmeans63,aposition thatwaschallengedandsometimesmockedbymanyotherIndian nationalists.GandhibrokewiththepremodernIndianconceptofthe saintasanisolatedyogi,butneitherdidheeveracceptutilitarianism or pragmatism. The list of divine qualities cited earlier from the BhagavadGita(16.3)servesasagoodreminderofvirtuestowhicha spiritual person should aspire, and several of Gandhis statements aboutforgivenessquotetheGitaandtheMahabharata. Inaletterwrittenin1935,Gandhialsodiscussesaspiritual dimensiontoforgivenessthatseemsveryclosetoJainideas: Basicallytheeffectofsinneedsmustbeendured.Onewhoendures itintelligentlydoesnotsinagainandbecomespure.Thisisthe meaningofbeingabsolved.Absolutioncannevermeanthatman maycontinuetosinandseekforgivenessoverandoveragain.One whohasbeenforgivendoesnotsinagain(Letterto ChiBrijkrishna,18September1935). AmorecontroversialclaimmadebysomeIndianmysticsisthat spiritualpractices,forexamplecelibacy,giverisetospecialpowers. Such claims have been held up to criticism and occasionally ridicule.64 Ontheotherhand,theyhavealong,respectedtradition within Indian culture. In fact it is barely possible to understand Gandhis career, his understanding of his own role, and the admiration he attracted, without consideration of this factor. In particular, many Indian mystics believe that by the concentrated practice of ahimsa, celibacy, fasting and associated virtues and practices, a spiritual figure may acquire such power that his will

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becomes virtually unstoppable. Gandhi himself, and many of his followers,appeartohaveheldtothebeliefthatonemightbecomea livingchannelofcosmicpower.AsIyerhasobserved:Theconcept ofsacchakriyathemakingandactoftruthendowstheGandhian notion of truth witha magicalquality and supernatural force that seemutterlystrangetothemodernman.65 Forgivenessisanintegralcomponentofsuchspiritualpractice.A successfulyogimayappearasamildandpowerlessperson,butin fact he is an embodiment of an extraordinary energy which will eventuallyovercomeallobstacles.Asiswellknown,Gandhididnot argueforpassiveformsofnonresistance;onthecontraryhebelieved that ahimsa and satyagraha wouldbethemosteffectivechannelsof powertoovercomeBritishrule,untouchability,andotherobstacles to Indias true freedom. Here, in this righteous war, truth, non violenceandforgivenessaretheweapons.Theconsequenceofusing suchweaponscanonlybebeneficial(speechatBorshad,18March 1930).Whenyouarereadytofightfortheright,Gandhijiarmsyou withtheallconqueringandneverfailingweapon,namelysuffering cumforgiveness(YoungIndia,22January1925). GandhiwasaparticularadmirerofVivekananda,whomadeone of the earliest, and most successful, attempts to reinterpret traditionalHindudoctrinesforIndiansocietyasitemerged atthe endofthenineteenthcentury.Vivekanandaagenerationearlierhad made the point that there are two kinds of nonresistance which mightappearsimilar,butwhichareinrealitypolaropposites.There is the nonresistance of a weak person, who will not stand up to injusticebecauseheorsheispowerless,frightenedorindifferent;on theotherhand,thereistheactiveresistanceofthepowerful,saintly person, who confronts unjust authority, but who refuses to do so witheitherphysicalorevenverbalviolence.InhisworkKarmaYoga Vivekanandawrote:
Onemandoesnotresistbecauseheisweakandlazy,andhewillnot because he cannot. The other man knows that he can strike and irresistibleblowifhelikes;yethenotonlydoesnotstrike,butblesses

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hisenemies.Wemustfirstcaretounderstandwhetherwehavethe powerofresistanceornot.Thenhavingthepower,ifwerenounceitand donotresist,wearedoingagrandactoflove;butifwecannotresist andyetatthesametimemakeitappearandourselvesbelievethatwe are actuated by motives of highest love, we shall be doing the exact oppositeofwhatismorallygood....Beforereachingthehighestideal, mansdutyistoresistevil.66

In asimilar tone, Vivekananda argued thata beggar, aperson incapableofearningaliving,isnotanexampleofdetachmentfrom wealth.Buddhagaveuphisthroneandrenouncedhisposition:that was true renunciation. But there cannot be any question of renunciationinthecaseofabeggarwhohasnothingtorenounce SeveralofGandhisremarksonforgivenessarefullyintunewiththis lineofthought:Forgiveness,wehavebeentold,istheornamentof thebrave,butwhatisthatforgiveness?Passivity?Takingtheblow lying down? Is thatthe meaning of not resisting evil? (Speech at Sabarmati,12January1928).Anonviolentpersonisnotafraidofa tyrant butis kindto him.The lawof compassion tells us that we cannotbekindtothoseofwhomweareafraid.Forgivenessisthe virtueofthebrave.(LettertoPrithviSingh,23May1941). Finally,Gandhibelievedthatprayerandspiritualpracticewere essentialnotonlyforthestruggleagainsttheBritishEmpire,butalso fortheoverallrenewalofIndiansociety.Onemethodwhichmight achievethisgoalwasprayer:notonlyindividualbutalsocommunal prayers which Gandhi used to lead not only in his ashrams but wheneverhewentaboutIndia.Hisprayersseemtonaturallyreflect hisVaishnavatheisticheritage,andalsoreverenceforanonpersonal divinityTruth,Law,orRealitywhichperhapsalsoderivefromhis JainbackgroundaswellasfromVedanticphilosophy.
Prayerhasbeenthesavingofmylife.WithoutitIshouldhavebeena lunatic long ago.My religion teaches me that whenever there is distresswhichonecannotresolve,onemustfastandpray.Heartfelt prayerisundoubtedlythemostpotentinstrumentthatmanpossesses forovercomingcowardiceandallotheroldhabits.67

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In a long speech about prayer and its importance for the community, Gandhi stressed that prayer is the very soul and essenceofreligionandthatthepetitionshouldbeforthecleansing andpurificationofthesoul:
ThisGodwhomweseektorealizeisTruth.TopropitiatethisTruthis prarthana [Gujarati termfor prayer]which ineffect means anearnest desiretobefilledwiththespiritofTruthIhopethatatimewillcome whenallourconductwillbeonecontinuouslysustainedprayer.Suchis theidealprayerfortheAshram.68

Many scholars have designated the main achievements Indian civilizationasbeingintherealmsofreligiousmetaphysics,artand music, grammar and pure mathematics, i.e. in introspective, non empirical disciplines.69 Admittedly this view has recently been subjected to substantive criticism with respect to technological discoveries70,butnotwithrespecttomodernpoliticaltheory,which remainedlargelyundevelopedinSouthAsiauntilthemiddleofthe nineteenth century. Apart from the strong hold of religion and idealist philosophy, it should be remembered that Hindus were excluded from a normalnationalpolitical lifefor manycenturies aftertheMuslimandBritishinvasions:politicaldebateonlybecame tolerated, and then under severe restrictions, after the 1870s. Nonetheless, India did witness efforts to combine its heritage of spirituality with social and political concerns: most effectively perhapsintheworkoftheBrahmoSamaj,mainlybasedinBengal, whichfromthemidnineteenthcenturyhadamongotherobjectives theabolitionofthecastesystem,theemancipationofwomen,and democratizationofeducation. However,althoughHinduswerelateinevolvingpoliticaltheory as understood in the West, they did develop a long tradition of thoughtaboutkingshipandrule,topicsconceptualisedaroundthe classical Sanskrit concept of artha. Moreover, Persian traditions of politicalthoughtwerefurtherdevelopedunderMughalimperialrule

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for example by the outstanding scholar Abul Fazl.71 Some indigenous,oratleastnonEuropeanelementsofspiritualkingship theorythusalsounderliethealmostmysticalapproachtopolitical power. Gandhis genius was to take such initiatives and aspirations beyond elite discussions, and into a national mass movement, directlytouchingthelivesofmillionsofindividualsinawaythat earlierIndianthinkershadnotachieved.Aswehaveseen,hedidnot compromise the fundamentals of spirituality in doing so; on the contrary, he showed that spirituality could and should inform politicsonthesubcontinent.WehaveshownthatGandhisspiritual eclecticismisalsoapparentinhisapproachtoforgiveness,whichdid notstrayfarfromhisnativeHinduismbutwascertainlyenrichedby his experiences of Christianity, Jainism, and other traditions. One aspectofhisworkwasthespiritualisationofpolitics,forexample theadoptionofahimsaandsatyagrahaaspoliticaltools.Another, hugelyimportantandinnovativedimensionwasthepoliticisationof spirituality: removing Indias traditional religious disciplines from theconfinesoftheashramormountainretreat, andlocatingthem within the turmoil of modern politics. Both these dimensions demanded a central role for forgiveness alongside virtues such as toleranceandpatienceinthecreationofGandhisuniqueweapon, spiritualpowerforsocialtransformation.

NotesandReferences
1. Theyare1.forgiveness(ksama),2.humility(mardava),3.straight forwardness(arjava),4.contentment(sauch),5.truthfulness(satya), 6.selfcontrol(sayama),7.austerity(tappa),8.renunciation(tyaga), 9.detachment(aparigraha),10.celibacy(brahmacharya). 2. For example,MahadevDesai, DaytoDaywithGandhi:Secretarys Diary,9vols.(Varanasi:SarvaSevaSangh,196874);LouisFischer, TheLifeofMahatmaGandhi(NewYork:Collier,1962). 3. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (New York: Doubleday Anchor,1959),p.213.

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4. BeverlyFlanigan, ForgivingTheUnforgivable:OvercomingtheBitter LegacyofIntimateWounds(Newyork:MacMillan,1992),p.71.She continues with the caution that It is not, however, easily accomplished. 5. ThereisaSomalisayingwhichadvisesustoforgiveourenemies, butremembertheirnames! 6. DesmondTutu,forewordtocatalogueforphotographicexhibition, TheFWord:Imagesofforgiveness (London:TheForgivenessProject, nd.). 7. MichaelLapsley,lectureatCoventryUniversity,20April2005. 8. TrudyGovier, ForgivenessandRevenge (London: Routledge, 2002), p.106. 9. In real life the binary division between victim and perpetrator, innocentandguilty,isneversostraightforward. 10. Onemightincludeselfforgivenessinthiscategory,inthesenseof us coming to terms with the old self that committed shameful wrongs. Govier (and others) have distinguished processes of forgivenessonthebasisofthetypesofrelationshipbetweenvictim and offender 1) Unilateral or onesided forgiveness, where the wrongdoerexpressesnoacknowledgementorremorse,2)Bilateral forgivenesswheretheoffenderprovidesthevictimwithreasonsfor forgiveness, and 3) Mutual forgiveness where there is acknowledgementofwrongdoingbybothparties.Govier,pp.489 &pp.624.Theauthorsareveryawarethatinsomeculturesitisnot customary to apologise in words and appropriate symbolic and material gestures of acknowledgment, repentance and reparation cantakedifferentforms., 11. QuotedinLynS.Graybill, TruthandReconciliationinSouthAfrica: MiracleorModel?(Boulder,CO.:LynneRienner,2002),p.43. 12. ThereisaJapanesesayingwhichexpressesthismoregraphically: Forgivingtheunrepentantislikedrawingpicturesinwater. 13. S.Weisenthal,TheSunflower(NewYork:SchokenBooks,1997). 14. TheHolyQuran,translation andcommentary byAbdullahYusuf Ali,Brentwood,Md.:Amana,1989,pp.125758.SeealsoM.Gopin, Forgiveness as an element of conflict resolution in religious cultures,inM.AbuNimer,ed.,Reconciliation,JusticeandCoexistence (Lanham,Md.:LexingtonBooks,2001),pp.8799. 15. Thisincludesthereliefthatcancomethroughselfforgiveness,the capacitytoforgiveoneselfforpastwrongs.

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16. Forgivenessdoesnotalwaysleadtoarestorationofarelationship it is quite possible for someone to relinquish their feelings of bitternesstowardsanotherandyethavenodesiretoengageinany furtherinteraction.Therestorationofrelationships,whichisatthe coreofwhatmanyunderstandbythetermreconciliation,requires at least two willing parties, and forgiveness can be a unilateral initiativewecanforgivethosewhohavenoideathattheyhave causedussuchoffenceandarousedsuchbitternessastoneedtobe forgiven! 17. Govier,p.91 18. Ignatieff,M.,TheWarriorsHonor(London:Chatto&Windus,1998), p.188. 19. KatherynTidrick,Gandhi:APoliticalandSpiritualLife(NewYork:IB Tauris,2007).
20.

Hay, StephenN.,Jain Influences onGandhis EarlyThought, in Gandhi, India and the World, ed. S. Ray (Bombay: Nachiketa

21. 22. 23. 24.

25.

Publishers,1970).&Hay,StephenN.,JainGoalsandDisciplinesin GandhispursuitofSwaraj,in Rule,ProtestandIdentity,ed.Peter RobbandDavidTaylor(London:CurzonPress,1978),pp.1232. NicholasF.Gier, TheVirtueofNonviolence:FromGautamatoGandhi (NewYork:SUNY,2004).\ Ibid.,p.1412 RameshBetai,GitaandGandhiji(Ahmedabad:GujaratVidyapith),p. 756. Rajchandras teachings are contained in his poems and letters, including anumber of wellknown letters to Gandhi. His most celebratedworkisprobablythespiritualinstructionknownas The SelfRealization[Atmasiddhi],translatedintoEnglishbyGovardhan Dassji,(Boria,Gujarat:SrimadRajachandraAshram,1985). See <www.shrimad.org> for further information. Alan Hunter is gratefultoMrKishorbhaiShahofRajkotforprovidingapersonal account of JainHindu interaction in Gujarat, and to Mr Vinod KapashinowofHarrow,UK,foralengthyinterview.Thetopicof JaininfluenceonGandhiisdiscussedatlengthinNicholasF.Gier, TheVirtueofNonviolence:FromGautamatoGandhi(NewYork:SUNY, 2004), especially Chapter Two: Nonviolence in Jainism and Hinduism. Gier summarizes some scholarly dispute about the precise influenceof Jainphilosophy in Gandhis eclectic personal

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26.

27.

28. 29.

30.

31.

32. 33. 34. 35.

36. SharpsrecentworkincludesWagingnonviolentstruggle:20thcentury practiceand21stcenturypotential(Boston:PorterSargent,2005) 37. CollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhi(CWMG),v.32,p.273.Accessible athttp://www.gandhiserve.org/ CWMG / 38. HindSwaraj,p.104

spirituality. U.K.Pungaliya, PhilosophyandSpirituality of Srimad Rajchandra(Jaipur:PrakritBharatiAcademy,1997)isarecentstudy ofRajchandraslifeandworks. FororalinterpretationwewouldparticularlyliketothankSwami Satyarupananda of the Vivekananda Ashram, Raipur; Sister AtmapranaoftheRamakrishnaSaradaMission,NewDelhi;Sister Satchitprana of Sarada Math, Kolkata. See also Alan Hunter, Forgiveness: Western and Hindu Perspectives, Journal of Hindu ChristianStudiesVol.20,2007,pp.2735. Ourdiscussionfocusesonthetermksamawhichisusedinclassical textsandcommentariesandinprayers,festivals,andmantras.In everydayspeech,asfarasweknowGandhiusedthewordmaafito meanapology,forgive,excuseme,sorry.MaafiisawordofArabic originthatenteredIndiathroughUrdu,andiswidelyusedinnorth Indianvernaculars. Mahabharata Book 3 (Vana Parva), Section 29, see <http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/m03/m03029.htm>. Conventionalscholarshipsuggestsbetween600and590BCEasthe birthdateofVardhamanMahavir,thefounderoftheJainreligion, whowasbornclosetothemoderncityofPatna,Bihar.Theoriginal scriptures of Jainism arecomposed in Ardhamagadhi, an ancient northIndianlanguagerelatedtoSanskrit. Unto Thtinen, Ahimsa: Nonviolence in Indian Tradition (London: Rider,1976),isperhapsthemostcomprehensivestudyinEnglishon ahimsainclassicalSouthAsiantraditions. Robert. J. Zydenbos, Jainism as the Religion of NonViolence in J.E.M Houben and K.R. Van Kooij (eds), Violence Denied (Leiden: Brill,1999),p.185. Ibid. SeeforexampleAcharyaMahaprajna, NewManNewWorld,(New Delhi:AdarshSahityaSangh,2001),p.200. Theseandotherprayerscanbefoundat<www.jaina.org> Gier,especiallyChapterNine.

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39. HS,p.30 40. HS,p.65

41. Harijan,25thMarch1939

42. Harijan,1stFebruary1942 43. SpeechatGujaratiConference,CWMG,v.16,pp.121. 44. Harijan,2ndJanuary1937 45. YoungIndia,1stNovember1928 46. SpeechatGujaratiConference,CWMG,v.16,pp.1268.Emphasis added. 47. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, 2.1.20, cited in Ranganathananda, The MessageoftheBrhadaranyakaUpanishad (Kolkata:AdvaitaAshrama, 2005),p.151. 48. See Swami Sarvananda, Taittiriyaopanisad, (Madras: Ramakrishna Math,n.d),pp9092. 49. QuotedinR.Iyer,ThemoralandpoliticalthoughtofMahatmaGandhi, (NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2000),p.150. 50. Iyer,p.157. 51. YoungIndia,4November1926 52. Navajivan,27November1921. 53. YoungIndia, 4November1926.Similarviewsexpressedearlierby Vivekanandaarediscussedlaterinthispaper. 54. YoungIndia,12August1926 55. CWMG,v.25,p.483 56. CWMG,v.21,p.159 57. YoungIndia,22June1921 58. CWMG,v.32,p.273. 59. CWMG,v.34,p.273. 60. YoungIndia,23March1921 61. CWMG,v.36,p.168 62. CWMG,v.94,p.263 63. Gier,VirtueofNonviolence,p.24. 64. SeeforexampleTidrick, GandhiandKarlH.Potter, Presuppositions ofIndiasPhilosophies(Westport:GreenwoodPress,1963). 65. Iyer,pp.1756. 66. Swami Vivekananda, Karma Yoga (New York: Ramakrishna VivekanandaCentre,1973),pp.1617. 67. Cited in Ravindra Varma, The Spiritual Perceptions of Mahatma Gandhi(NewDelhi:RupaandCo,2006),p.1489.

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68. Ibid.155. 69. See for example Hajime Nakamura, Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1964)especiallyPart One:India,Chapters11and12. 70. John M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004). 71. SeeSaiyidAtharAbbarRivzi,ReligiousandIntellectualHistoryofthe Muslims in Akbars Reign: With special referenceto Abul Fazl (New Delhi:MunshiramManoharlal,1975).

ALANHUNTERisProfessorofAsianStudiesatCoventryUniversity, whereheisDirectoroftheCentreforPeaceandReconciliationStudies. Duringthepasttwentyyearshismainresearchareashaveencompassed religionincontemporaryChina,modernChinesecultureandpolitics, IndianStudies,includingthereceptionofIndianthoughtinChina,and PeaceandHumanSecurityStudies.HisrecentpublicationsincludePeace StudiesintheChineseCentury,Ashgate,2006;LifeandworkofSwami Vivekananda[inChinese]Editedtextsand3originalchapters,translated intoChinesebyWangZhicheng,ZhejiangUniversityPress,2006;Alan Hunter,SwamiVivekanandainChina,VedantaKesari,October2007, 37883.Email:a.hunter@coventry.ac.uk

ANDREWRIGBY isProfessorofPeaceStudiesandthefounding director of the Centre for Peace & Reconciliation Studies at Coventry University. He has taught peace studies in various countries.Hehashadalifelonginterestinthetheoryandpractice of nonviolent social change. His most recent publications include a biography, Dmitrije Mitrinovic (Sessions, 2007) and Justice and reconciliation (Lynne Rienner, 2001) He has been associated with the pacifist publication Peace News for many years.Email:a.rigby@coventry.ac.uk

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Corrections: Pages4/5/6:syntaxeditswhereboldtype Page16:syntaxedit Page18:middleparagraphisacitation,nowindentedand boldremoved Page19:syntaxedits Page20,22:syntaxedits Page21:sourceprovidedaftercitationofletter Footnote71:changeto1975) AlanHunterbio:newpublicationplusemailaddressedits