Social Group

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Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

*Sonny Jose, Lekshmi Nair
Introduction
Each day, we interact with groups, in one form or in another - we are born into and dwell in a group (family), we learn in groups (classrooms), we work in group (office, project teams), we interact with friends, and we also spend much in leisure groups. We learn, work, and play in groups. For that matter an individuals personal identity is moulded in the way in which we are perceived and treated by members of our groups. As humans we are by nature inherently social and gregarious. Our life is filled with groups from the moment we are born until the moment of our death. Businesses, the Government, and the military are all interested in enhancing the productivity of groups. Educators too strive to understand how the classroom functions as a group. Drug abuse, delinquency, crime and mental illness are all being treated through therapeutic groups, and there is continued concern with making those procedures more effective. To understand the breadth of group work practice, it is important to be familiar with the variety of groups in practice settings. Given the variety of groups, it is important to distinguish between them.
*Dr. Sonny Jose, Dr. Lekshmi Nair, Loyola College, Trivandrum
Social Group Work: Working with Groups
Definition and Characteristics of Groups

Contrary to the conventional understanding, not every collection of people can be regarded a group. The Oxford English Dictionary defines group as a number of persons or things regarded as forming a unit, on account of any kind of mutual or common relation, or classified together on account of a common degree of similarity. From the sociological perspective, a group can be defined as two or more humans that interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, as well as share a common identity. Going by this definition, society can be perceived at the macro level as a large group, while a social group (e.g. family, club, and team) which is considerably small may be viewed as small at the micro-level. According to Paul Hare, the defining characteristic of a group is social interaction. A true group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. An aggregate is a collection of individuals who are present at the same time and place, but does not necessarily form a unit or have any common degree of similarity. Individuals standing at a street corner or the members of an audience at a music programme constitute aggregates, not groups. Muzafer Sherif (1916-1982) formulated a more technical definition. According to Sherif a group has to be social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other based on certain elements: 1) common motives and goals;
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an accepted division of labour, i.e. roles, established status (social rank, dominance) relationships; accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group; development of accepted sanctions (praise and punishment) if and when norms were respected or violated.
Based on the above definitions one may consider a few criteria to call a group a group: number of persons more than one interdependence acceptance of roles and status similarity of goals, motives shared norms and values Characteristics Various other definitions given by different social scientists have emphasised on the various aspects of a group in various definitions. Based on these one may arrive at the quintessential characteristics of groups: Interpersonal Interaction - A group is defined as a collection of individuals interacting with each other; individuals are not a group unless they are interacting with one another (Bonner, Stogdill, and Homans) Perceptions of Membership - A group may be defined as a social unit consisting of two or more persons, who perceive themselves as belonging to a group. Its members define themselves and are defined by others as belonging to the group. Accordingly, the persons are not a group unless they perceive themselves to be part of a group (Bales and Smith)
Interdependency - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are interdependent. Usually, individuals are not a group unless an event that affects one of them affects them all. It is questionable that a group could exist without its members being interdependent. (Cartright and Zander, Fiedler, and Lewin. Goals - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who join together to achieve a goal. According to this definition, the individuals are not a group unless they are trying to achieve a mutual goal. The primary defining characteristic of a group is the craving of its members to achieve a mutual goal (Deutsch and Freeman). Motivation - Group may be defined as a collection of individuals who are all trying to satisfy some personal need through their joint association. Thus, individuals are not a group unless they are motivated by some personal reason to be part of a group (Bass and Cattell). Structured Relationships - A group may be a collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms. They share norms concerning matters of common interest and participate in a system of interlocking roles. Therefore, individuals are not a group unless their interactions are structured by a set of role definitions and norms (McDavid and Harari, and Shel and Sherif). Mutual Influence - A group may be defined as a collection of individuals who influence each other. Accordingly, individuals are not a group unless they are affecting and being affected by each other (Shaw). Not all these characteristics are equally important and although it is impossible to gain consensus among social
scientists as to which characteristics are most important. However based on these characteristics we may define a group for the purpose of group work as: A group is two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each aware of his or her membership in the group as well as of others who belong to the group, and their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals.
Factors Influencing Group Formation

There are four major factors that usually influence our decision to join and remain in a wide variety of groups: attraction to members of the group; the activities, goals, or the task of the group; belongingness to the people in the group; and meeting needs or goals lying outside the group. Attraction to the group most often grows out of proximity and the frequency of interaction. Your neighbourhoods, classmates, roommates, and friendship are largely determined by those who are in close proximity and also available for interaction. However, one must remember that proximity creates only the potential for attraction. Various other factors usually come into play when actually establishing a relationship. Similarities, especially attitudinal similarity or vibes, appear to be as strong in group formation as in interpersonal attraction. Several other attributes of groups render them more attractive to prospective members and thus contribute to group formation. prestige of a group; e.g. members who have positions of higher authority, aristocracy and eliteness possibility of cooperative relationships and joint rewards heighten the attractiveness of a group
the degree of positive interaction among members increasing the range of personal and social needs being met. size of the group; smaller groups offer higher possibility for interaction, for sharing similarities, and for meeting individual needs The task of a group, as experienced in its activities and goals, is the second factor influencing group affiliation. You join a photography club because you enjoy taking pictures, discussing and sharing that activity with others. You may even join a protest group to resist something that goes against your ideals; e.g. we join Green Peace to protest against environmental exploitation by Corporations, or, we may even join students movements to protest against the hike in tuition fees or cut down in transport concessions because you cannot afford to pay more. Thus, you are gaining rewards directly through group membership. The social exchange theory (Homans, 1959; Gouldner, 1960) to group formation predicts that we join and remain in groups when the rewards for doing so outweigh the costs, thus yielding profits. The third general factor of group formation is our desire to affiliate with the people in that group. We satisfy our need for affiliation through interacting with people, just as we meet our need for achievement through the activities and goals of the group. The fact that we affiliate for reasons of social comparison, in order to reduce anxiety, or to even to satisfy an innate craving, suggests that a group is a powerful forum for meeting our basic social needs and can yield a strong influence on our behaviour. Group membership may help us meet needs that lie outside the group - thus, group membership may be a stepping stone to achieve an external goal, rather than a source of direct satisfaction. A college professor may regularly attend
meetings of a professional association to enhance the probability of promotion. A candidate for political office may join a host of community organisations to enhance his or her chances for election.
Plausible Ex planations about Group Formation

Based on the various factors influencing group formation, the following may be hypothesized: 1) 2) 3) people join groups in order to satisfy certain individual needs. proximity, contact and frequent interaction provide an opportunity to satisfy certain needs. interpersonal attraction is a function of physical attractiveness, perceived ability of the other person (success or failure), need compatibility as well as various similarities - attitudinal, personality, economic, ethnicity, shared goals, etc. individuals join groups if the activities of the group attractive or rewarding.
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Types of Groups
All of us are simultaneously members of various types of groups. We are members of a family, members of friendship groups, members of work organisations and members of fan club or a even a religious group. Sociologists have attempted to classify is various types of groups as follows: Voluntary vs. Involuntary Groups We may join a political party or a particular association (typical of an occupation).Such groups we join through our own choice and effort are voluntary groups. In contrast we are forced to join or are automatically incorporated as
members of certain groups without choice; e.g. we are automatically classified in groups as members based on sex, age, nationality, religion and ethnicity. These latter groups in which we become members by birth or without any choice are involuntary groups. Open vs. Closed Groups Open groups are those groups characterized by changing membership. Here, virtually anyone can become a member. As certain members leave, new members are admitted, and the group continues. For instance, anyone can join the Hrithik Roshan fan club. On the other hand, there are some groups that maintain exclusiveness by restricting the membership and make it much more difficult to join. Only a few qualify to become members in such clubs. Such groups with restrictive membership criteria are closed groups; e.g. the mafia (underworld), Royal Enfield motorcycle clubs, night clubs, etc. Closed groups typically have some time limitation, with the group meeting for a predetermined number of sessions. Generally, members are expected to remain in the group until it ends, and new members are not added. There are some advantages to open groups that incorporate new members as others leave, one of which is an increased opportunity for members to interact with a greater variety of people. A potential disadvantage of open groups is that rapid changing of members can result in a lack of cohesion, particularly if too many clients leave or too many new ones are introduced at once. Therefore, it will be better to bring in new members one at a time as and when opening occurs. Vertical vs. Horizontal Groups There are certain groups, whose membership consists of individuals from all walks of life; e.g. religious groups may have members from all classes. Such a group may be
regarded as a vertical group. On the other hand, a horizontal group consists predominantly of members from one social class. Occupational groups of doctors (e.g. IMA); guilds or associations of persons of a trade e.g. electricians, carpenters, non-gazatted officers for instance are composed largely of members from the same social class.. Primary vs. Secondary Groups Cooley described primary groups as collectivities of individuals as in the case of play groups, neighbourhood or village characterized by intimate, sympathetic face- to-face association and cooperation. A primary group is a group in which members develop close, personal, intimate and enduring relationships; e.g. family, neighbours, work associates, etc. Here, the members know each other very well, are greatly influenced by one another and feel closely related. On the other hand, secondary groups are characterized by contractual relationships and communication on indirect media (Faris, 1937). These are relatively larger, relatively temporary, anonymous; they are also formal, impersonal groups, in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understandingand based on some interest or activity, and whose members interact on the basis of some specific roles. Natural vs. Formed Groups Natural groups consist of members coming together in a spontaneous manner, on the basis of naturally occurring events, interpersonal attraction or the mutually perceived needs of members. Family, peer groups and street gangs are examples of natural groups. (Whyte, 1993). On the other hand, formed group are those groups constituted by any influence or intervention external to the group. Such groups are usually formed for a particular purpose. Therapy groups, encounter groups, committees and teams are examples of formed groups.
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Formal vs. Informal Groups Formal groups are those groups that require someone to determine a task that needs to be accomplished, which requires some kind of organizational system, made up of various job roles, for which individuals are recruited (Artherton, 2003). Here, task is what matters, and everything elseparticularly the individuals and the roles they occupymay be changed. Informal groups work the other way round. A group of individuals meet: if they form a group, then they will informally allocate roles depending on individual preferences, and / or on talents. This collection of roles makes a system possible, and so occasionally they may undertake a task together, such as organizing a trip, or a night out or a party. It is the preferences of the Individuals which are paramount; tasks are incidental. Treatment vs. Task Groups Treatment groups signify groups whose major purpose is to meet the socio-emotional needs of the group members. Such groups often aim at meeting the members need for support, education, therapy, growth and socialization. Treatment groups include growth groups (e.g. encounter groups for couples, value clarification groups for adolescents, or educative groups for community women); therapy groups (psychotherapy groups, support groups for de- addicted or the sober) (Konopka, 1983); socialization groups (YMCA, half-way homes) (Middleman, 1982; Whittaker, 1985). In contrast, task groups come in existence with the purpose of accomplishing a goal that is neither intrinsically nor immediately linked to the needs of the group members, but rather, of broader constituency. The classic example for task groups in social work practice setting are Medical Teams, Treatment conferences convened to monitor treatment as well as Staff
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Development (Programs). Some of the major difference between treatment and task groups include the following: members in treatment groups are bonded to their common needs, where as in a task group, the members are working towards accomplishing a task or a mandate which eventually might lead to bonding roles develop through interaction in treatment groups, while in task roles are usually defined based on competencies communication is open in treatment groups, while communication in task groups are focused around a particular task procedures in treatment groups are flexible, while it is formal and based on agendas in task groups self-disclosure is high in treatment groups, whereas it might not at all happen in task groups proceedings are confidential and kept within the context of the treatment groups, where as in task groups it may be open to public scrutiny success of treatment groups is evaluated on the basis of the group meeting the members treatment goals, where as in task groups it is based on the achievement of task or a mandate The type of group that we discussed last formed groups as well as treatment groups are of great interest to group work, as the groups that we come across in group work predominantly belong to this type of groups. Other types of groups include the following: Reference Group - Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what are known as reference groups. These are groups to which the individual conceptually
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relates him/herself, and from which he/she adopts goals and values as a part of his/her self identity. Peer group - A peer group is a group of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers. Clique - An informal, tight-knit group, usually in a High School/College setting, that shares common interests. There is an established yet shifting power structure in most Cliques. Club - A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be dedicated to particular activities, such as sporting clubs. Household - all individuals who live in the same home Community - A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of overlapping commonalities, often - but not always - in proximity with one another with some degree of continuity over time. They often have some organization and leaders. Franchise- this is an organisation which runs several instances of a business in many locations. Gang - A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. Mob - A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are usually a group which gather temporarily for a particular reason.
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Posse - A posse was initially an American term for a group of citizens that had banded together to enforce the law. However, it can also refer to a street group. Squad - This is usually a small group, of around 3-8 people, that would work as a team to accomplish their goals. Team - similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a similar way to a squad Learning (groups) - Drs David and Roger Johnson of the University of Minnesota (the gurus of group work and co-operative learning research) identify three types of groups that can promote collaborative learning: Informal learning groups -Ad hoc, transient, short- term groups that can be quickly formed and utilised in even a large lecture situation. Formal learning groups - The sort of groups that we would use to work on larger collaborative projects. This type of group work is more structured and requires much more planning. Formal learning groups generally include multiple opportunities for reflection on the groups progress. Base groups (study group) - Self-selected groups of students who work together independently of specified class time or assignments. Logistics regarding Groups Group Composition Whether a group should be homogeneous (consisting of members from similar age-groups, sex and socio-economic background) or a heterogeneous in membership, depends on the groups goals. In the context of social group work, given specific target population with specific needs, a group composed entirely of members of that population quite
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similar in characteristics is more appropriate than a heterogeneous group. For example, let us consider a group composed entirely of elderly people. Such a group would be able to focus exclusively and deal more consistently on the specific problems that characterize their developmental period, e.g. loneliness, isolation, loss in income and eventually social position, rejection, deterioration of the body, atrophy in energy and so forth. This similarity among the members can lead to a great degree of cohesion, which in turn offers the possibility for an open and intense exploration of their life crises, leading to universalisation (as a principle) of their problems. Members are more likely to express feelings that have been once kept private. Moreover, their life circumstances create a bond with one another. Similarly, self-help groups (SHGs) for women also benefit greatly from the homogeneity of the composition of their group, enabling them to pursue the common goal of credit management (thrift-savings) or self-development in a concerted fashion. Alternately, where it is desired to provide diverse, socially challenging growth experiences, a microcosm of the outside social structure is desired. In such an event, a heterogeneous group is best. Personal-growth groups and certain therapy groups tend to be heterogeneous. Thus, participant members are allowed to experiment with new behaviour and develop interpersonal skills with the help of feedback from a rich variety of people in an environment representative of everyday reality. Group Size There has been contesting views regarding the desirable size for a group. The answer depends on several factors: the age of clients, experience of the leader, type of group, and nature of the problems to be explored. For instance, a group composed of elementary school children might be
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kept to 4 to 6, whereas a group of adolescents might be made up of 8 to 12 people. For a weekly ongoing group of adults, about 10 to 12 people with one leader may be ideal. A group manageable in size, is big enough to give ample opportunity for interaction and small enough for everyone to be involved and to feel a sense of group. Frequency and Duration of Meetings Another bone of contention is regarding the periodicity of group meetings. Questions frequently posed include: How often should a group meet? For how long should a group meet twice weekly for 1- hour sessions? Or is 1 to 2 hours once a week preferable? With children and adolescents it may be better to meet more frequently and for a shorter period to suit their attention span. If the group is taking place in a school setting, the meeting times can correspond to regularly scheduled class periods. For groups of college students or relatively well functioning adults, a 2-hour weekly session might be preferable. A 2-hour period is sufficient to allow some intensive work yet, not so long that fatigue sets in. You can choose any frequency and duration that suit your style of leadership and the type of people in your group. For an in-patient group in a mental health centre, it is desirable to meet on a daily basis for 45 minutes. Because of the members psychological impairment, it may not be realistic to hold their attention for a longer period. Group Life-cycle Other questions that have often intrigued us are: What should be the duration of a group? Is it wise to set a termination date?
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For most groups (in the social work perspective) a termination date should be announced at the outset, so that members will have a clear idea of the time frame within which they would be operating. Groups in educational institutions typically run for about 15 weeks. This would be long enough for trust to develop and for work toward behavioural changes to take place. But it should not be so long that the group seems to be dragging on interminably. A major value of this type of time limited group is that members are motivated to realize that they do not have forever to attain their personal goals. At different points in this 15-week group, members are challenged to review their progress, both individually and as a group. If they are dissatisfied with their own participation or with the direction the group is taking, they have the responsibility to do something to change the situation. Some groups compose of the same members who meet for years. Such a time structure allows them to work through issues in some depth, and offers support and challenge in making life changes. These ongoing groups do have the potential for fostering dependency, and thus it is important that both the leader and members evaluate the impact of the group on the clients daily living. Place for Group Meetings Other questions concern the environment and ambience for group meetings. Many places will do, but privacy is essential. Members must be assured that they will not be overheard by people in adjoining rooms. Groups often fail because of their physical setting. If they are held in a day hall or ward full of distractions, productive group work will not occur. You would require a room that is not cluttered up with chairs and tables and that allows for a comfortable seating arrangement. Members must be
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able to sit in a circle. This arrangement lets all the participants see one another and allows enough freedom of movement that members can spontaneously make physical contact. Dispersal and transformation of groups Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There are numerous reasons for stable groups to malfunction or to disperse, but essentially this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements of the definition of group provided by Sherif. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions regarding status or of norms). In a society, there is obvious need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavours than can be accommodated by separate groups. The military has demonstrated best as to how this is possible by its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies, corporations, government agencies, clubs, too have all developed comparable (if less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider the neighbourhood, country club, or the diocese, which are basically territorial organizations who support large social purposes. Any such large organisations may need only islands of cohesive leadership.
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For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long-standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few part-timers. The key concept is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive limit to this span of control on individuals often set at seven. Rapid shifting of attention can push the limit to about ten. Beyond ten, subgroups will inevitably start to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance order, and individuality, with confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and one teacher is a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of subgroups. Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in individuals); weakening of a settled dominance order; and weakening or failure of the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation, or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group.
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Benefits of Groups
Affiliation to groups carries certain implications, both constructive and detrimental. Given below are some of these: 1) In most circumstances, the productivity of groups is higher than that of the individuals. This synergy is best demonstrated in the form of team work whether it be in cricket, football or at work. Groups are likely to make effective decisions and solve the problems better than individuals working alone. When problems are discussed in groups, there is a better probability for clarification out of which a variety of solutions emerge. It is for this very reason that we constitute committees. It is through group membership that we inculcate values of altruism, kindness, compassion, responsibility and so forth. Family and peer groups are such primary groups responsible for engraving into us a wide range of such human values. The quality of emotional life in terms of friendship, love, excitement, joy, fulfillment and achievement is richer in groups and helps in personal growth. A person who does not have any relationship with others will not be able to experience most of the emotions. The quality of everyday life is better in groups because of the advantages of specialization and division of labour. Conflicts are absorbed better considering the possibility of sharing. Similarly, conflicts are managed more productively in groups owing to the peer support and a variety of ideas to problem solving. A persons identity, self-esteem and social competencies are easily clarified and shaped by the
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groups to which he/she belongs. Being a member of different kinds of groups provides you with an identity, e.g. a student, family member, caste, etc. Friendship (groups) offer opportunities to experiment with different kinds of behaviour without the threat of rejection thereby helping to develop the self- esteem. Even while groups provide a lot of benefits, social scientists have also pointed out aspects of groups that are not very constructive. For one, people in groups are for reasons of anonymity and security, are more likely to take more extreme positions and engage in impulsive and antisocial behaviours. Another negative aspect is the tendency of groups to force their members to conform, in extreme cases even threatening the identity of the individuals. Social scientists also point out that sometimes group affiliations become so strong that group members turn hostile on non- members and other groups. Intense group behaviour may precipitate several conflicts in the society. However, a proper understanding of groups and its proper application in dealing with groups within the context of social work will help us reap the immense benefits from using groups. Experiments conducted by social scientists have proved time and again the strengths of using groups for the development of the individual and society. That is the reason why an understanding of groups is crucial to the practice of group work. In the context of group work, groups contribute immensely to the personality development of individuals.
Conclusion
We constantly interact with groups that consist of individuals and for various purposes, every moment of our lives. Characteristically groups consist of two or more individuals mutually dependant, having similarities and
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shared goals, etc. The dominant factors influencing group formation are prestige, commonality of tasks, desire for affiliation, and need satisfaction. Groups come in various forms depending on the context and the purposes they are constituted for. The most common groups are: Voluntary and Involuntary, Open and Closed, Formal and Informal, Treatment and Task, etc. There are frequently asked questions regarding the size of the groups, the duration of group life, the ideals regarding the meeting place, etc. all of which may be determined based on the context and subject to scientific bases. More importantly, groups are instrumental in moulding the individuals personality, as it provides opportunities for problem- solving, self-esteem building, conflict resolution and for that matter the socialization of the person in a society. To this end, groups become very much relevant to social group work practice
References
1) Atherton J S (2003) Learning and Teaching: Group Cultures [On-line] UK: Available: http://www.dmu.ac. uk/~jamesa/teaching/group_cultures.htm Bonner, H. 1959. Group Dynamics: Principles and Applications. New York: Ronald. Cartwright, D. 1968. The Nature of Group Cohesiveness, Group Dynamics: Research and Theory. D. Cartwright, A. Zander, eds.,3rd Edition. New York: Harper & Row. Cooley, C.H., 1937. Social Organization. New York: Charles Scribners Sons. Corey, M.S. 2002. Group Process and Practice, New York: Brooks/Cole. Faris, E. 1937. The Nature of Human Nature. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
2) 3)
4) 5) 6)
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7) 8) 9)
Homan, G.C. 1950. the Human Group. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, P.F. Joining Together. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Shaw, M.E. 1977. Group Dynamics. New Delhi: Tata- McGraw Hill.
10) Stodgill, R.M. 1959. Individual Behaviour and Group Achievement. New Jersey: Oxford. 11) Toseland, R.W.2001. An Introduction to Group Work Practice. New York: Allyn and Bacon. 12) Hare, A. P. 1962. Handbook of small group research. New York: Macmillan. 13) Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1970. Oxford: Claredon Press 14) Sherif, Muzafer and Sherif, Carolyn W., An Outline of Social Psychology rev.ed. New York: Harper & Brothers 15) Simon, Herbert A. 1976. Administrative Behavior 3rd rd ed. The Free Press 16) Whyte, F.W. 1993. Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum. Chicago: University Press.
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Historical Development of Group Work

*Sonny Jose, Aishwarya Jyotiram
Introduction
The old adage no man is an island indicates the relevance and virtue of human interaction. Mutual association helps human beings in refining and in evolving into a well behaved citizen, with concern for his fellow beings rather than thinking individualistically. It is by virtue of relationships that we maintain at various levels - in the family, at school, in the neighborhood and religious institutions - that we learn the basics of adjustments, sacrifice, compromise, understanding, etc. Klein (1972) observed that open social systems do not exist in a vacuum; they are a part and parcel of the environment and constantly interact with their surrounding. Social group work as a basic method of social work, utilizes groups, group dynamics as well as the inherent synergy, in order to catalyse growth in the participating individuals. Social Work with groups represents a broad domain of direct social work practice (Garvin, Gutierrez & Galinsky, 2004). Social Group Work has its acceptance in all the settings practicing social work. Middleman and Wood (1990) have noted that for the practice to qualify as social work with groups, four essential conditions must be met:
*Dr. Sonny Jose, Loyola College, Trivandrum *Ms. Aishwarya Jyotiram, LISSAH College, Calicut
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the worker should focus attention on helping the group members become a system of mutual aid; the worker must understand the role of group process itself as the primary force responsible for individual and collective change; the group worker must seek to enhance group autonomy; the group worker helps the group members experience their groupness upon their termination. In trying to understand the origins of social group work we need to start with clubs and recreation movements, which are the forerunners of social group work. In order to develop a broad perspective concerning the potential uses of groups in social work practice, it is helpful to understand the developmental milestones that have happened in the study of groups and its implications in the practice of group work over the years. Such a historical perspective will also give you a firm foundation upon which a knowledge base can be built upon for effective group work practice.
Understanding Groups
There have been in general two approaches that may have enhanced our understanding of groups. The first, came from social scientists who experimented on groups in laboratories or observed groups functioning in community setting. The alternate approach came from group work practitioners who examined how groups function in practice settings such as social work, education, group therapy sessions and recreation. Such an understanding has led to improved methods of working with a variety of different types of groups. Social Psychology as a subject addresses to the basic research question that was asked by social scientists regarding the extent to which being a part of a group, influences the individual group member. Early findings
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suggest that the presence of others did indeed have a significant influence on an individual group member; groups tended to generate forces that force individuals to conform to the standards of behaviour and judgments of individual members. Le Bon (1910) recognising that people in groups react differently from individuals, referred to the forces generated by group interaction as group contagion and group mind. Another aspect that might interest us is cohesion. Cohesiveness of a group is the extent to which members are attracted to (or want to remain in) the group (Wilson, 1978). Cohesiveness is the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group (Festinger, Schachter and Back, 1950). In simple words, it is the measure of interpersonal attractiveness among the members of the group. Studies demonstrate that the satisfaction that members derive from associating with one another is only one reward that binds them to a group and therefore only one dimension of cohesiveness (Gross and Martin, 1952; Eisman, 1959; and Hagstrom and Selvin, 1965). Review of literature distinguishes other two types of rewards social interdependence and instrumental interdependence. Social interdependence occurs where members are attracted to one another simply because of the perceived advantage involved in being with and interacting with other members of the group. Instrumental independence occurs where individuals are attracted to one another in order to jointly achieve some goal; e.g. teaming up to win a race or game, participation in struggles to displacement resulting from development, working in an orchestra (Jose, 2008). The nature of the group too may influence the participating individuals. Allport (1924) for example, found that presence of others improved task performance. The concept of a primary group was also an important contribution to the study of groups. Cooley (1909) defined a primary group as
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a small informal group, equivalent to the family or a friendship group, which wields tremendous influence on members values, moral standards and even normative behaviour. The primary group was therefore viewed as essential in understanding the socialisation process and the development of the individuals involved. Faris E (1937) asserts three properties atypical of primary groups face- to-face relations, temporal priority and a feeling of wholeness (we feeling). As against this secondary groups (a classification never mentioned by Cooley) are characterized by contractual relationships and communication on indirect media (Faris, 1937). Weber attributed the evolution of secondary groups to the increased levels of bureaucratization, depersonalization and routinization happening in the society. Ferdinand Tonnies observed an irreversible moving away from the warmth of tribal life as experienced in small isolated communities to the cold urban anonymity. Accordingly, the gemeinschaft (characteristically similar to Cooleys primary group) was on the wane and would be superseded by contractual relationships of the gesellschaft.
Differentiating between Group Work and Case Work

The use of group work in settlement houses and casework in charity organisations was not accidental. Group work and the settlement houses where it was practiced, offered citizens an opportunity for education, recreation, socialisation and more importantly community involvement. Unlike charity organisations that primarily focused on the diagnosis and treatment of the problems of the poor, settlement houses offered groups to the participant citizens as an opportunity to join together to share their views, gain mutual support and to exercise the synergy developed as part of the group association, as an
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opportunity for social change. Unlike casework, where there is a sharp distinction in expertise, power and resources - between the giver and the receiver, group work evolved largely out of the idea of self-reliance, self-help of a group nature. This mutual self-help as the name implies, developed from the need for mutual aid and support. As compared to caseworkers who relied on insight developed from individual oriented, psychodynamic approaches and on the provision of concrete resources, group workers relied on programme content and activities in order to spur members to action. Programme activities of all types became the medium and vehicle through which group attained their goals. Group oriented activities such as camping, singing, group discussion, games, as well as arts and crafts, were increasingly used for recreation, socialisation, education, support and rehabilitation. Unlike casework, which largely focused on problem-solving and rehabilitation, group work activities were used for enjoyment as well as to solve problems. Thus, the group work method that developed from the settlement house work had a different focus and a goal distinct from the method of social casework. The difference between casework and group work can also be clearly seen in the helping relationships. Caseworkers sou ght o ut th e most underpri vileg ed vi ctims of industrialisation, treating worthy clients by providing them with resources and acting as good examples of virtuous, philanthropic, hardworking citizens. Although they also worked with those who were impaired and the poor, group worker did not focus solely on the poorest cases or on those with the most problems. They preferred the word (group) members to client. They emphasised on working with members strengths rather than their weakness. Helping was perceived as a shared relationship within which the group worker and the group members together worked for mutual understanding and action
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regarding their common concerns for the community in which they lived. As concerns were identified, group members acted to support material as well as psychological and to help one another. The worker on his part, acted as a mediator between the demands of society and the needs of group members. There was a feeling of ownership among group members over the activities undertaken, while the group worker officiated as a facilitator. Shared interaction, shared power and shared decision making, placed demands on the group worker that were not experienced by caseworkers. Group workers frequently had to act quickly, especially during complex and often fast paced group interactions, while remaining aware of the welfare of all group members. The number of group members, the fact that they could turn to one another for mutual help, and the democratic decision making process that were encouraged in groups, all meant that group workers had to develop skills that were versatile and much different from those possessed by caseworkers. Case work began in charity organisations in England and the United States, in the late nineteenth century, while group work evolved largely in English and American settlement houses. Group work was also later incorporated for therapeutic purposes in the state run mental institutions (asylums). However, much of the interest in group work stemmed from those who had led socialisation groups, adult education groups and recreation groups in settlement houses and youth service agencies.
Historical Evolution of Groups

The context Group work was seen as a movement before it became a field. From a field, it became a method, and back to a field (Papell in Middleman and Goldberg, 1988). Group
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work played an important role in dealing with a number of shifts happening in the U.S. in the late-19th century and early-20th century: the industrialization of the U.S.; large population shifts from rural to urban centers, and; the enormous wave of immigration, mainly to U.S. urban areas (Konopka, 1972; Garvin, 1997). The history of social work may be considered in particular focus is on three major phases: (1) the formation of a group work association, 1930s; (2) the merger into the National Association of Social Workers, 1950s; and (3) the rebirth of group work, 1970s. All the same one may consider some developments occurring between 1910 and 1920, those who were concerned with adult education, recreation, and community work began to realise the full potential of group work. They understood better that groups could be used to help people participate effectively in their communities, to enrich peoples lives and to support those persons whose primary relationship were not satisfying or dysfunctional. So did they become aware of the potential of groups for helping people acquire social skills as well as problem-solving skills. They began to make good use of groups in preventing delinquency and in rehabilitating those maladjusted. The organisations that built the foundation of group work were by nature self-help, informal and recreational ones; they were present in the form of settlement house s, neighbourhood centres, Ys, the Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Jewish Centers Camps and for that matter even in labour union organising in industries. Later designated as group work agencies, the novel element that united these services and appealed most were involvement in small groups, the democratic way of life, community responsibility and perceived membership in activities with implications at national or even global.
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Early in 1920, Mary Richmond realised the potentials of working with groups and wrote on the importance of small group psychology. Mary P Follett, a political scientist in 1926 wrote in the book The New State, that solutions to social problems would emerge from the creation of groups in neighbourhood and around social interest. Follett strongly believed in the power of the small groups formed in communities to solve social problems that neighbors had in common. John Dewey, who proposed and developed the idea of progressive education also found the usefulness of small groups as early as 1933. Dewey perceived social group work method as an application of the principles of progressive education to small informal groups in leisure time settings. Dewey, through his progressive education movement, advocated working with small leisure-time groups (Fatout, M., 1992). The influences of Follett and Dewey leading thinkers in group work reinforced an individualist perspective that became engrained in group work (Falck interview, 1998). Formation of Clubs The first form of group setting could be traced back to Sir George Williams, who organized the hard working labourers of Bridgewater draper shops, towards the Christian way of living. The success of such groups inspired the extension of such group setting to other draper shops or other young men, thereby giving birth to Londons Young Mens Christian Association in 1844. Soon the ripples of YMCA reached the women and girls of Germany and England, encouraging them for Christian companionship. In England, similar movements, having less association with the church, originated in 1855 simultaneously in two places. These were directly led by women - Emma Roberts, who started a prayer union among her friends, and Mrs. Arthur Kennard, who started the General Female Training Institute in London for the nurses returning from Crimean
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war. The successful working of these two organizations motivated Mrs. Kinniard and Miss Roberts to amalgamate both the organization under one head. Thus, the YWCA came into existence in 1877. Giving due consideration to the less fortunate woman, the privileged women in United States initiated many programmes over the years. One such notable movement was the formation of Union Prayer Circle by Mrs. Marshal O in 1858. This was transformed as boarding home in 1860, and later renamed as the Ladies Christian Union in 1866. Rooms were rented on top floor of the warehouses and equipped to meet the needs of the wage earners in New York. In America, the Boston YWCA began as an effort of thirty women in 1866 focusing on temporal, moral and religious welfare of their fellow beings. Now both YMCA and YWCA have established themselves as pioneering organizations with active involvement in educational, recreational and religious activities for young men and women. It remains a fact that the publications from these associations that have significantly contributed towards literature of social group work. The contribution from these associations in providing skilled volunteers while practicing group work is tremendous. The Settlement Movement Social disorganization, the child of industrial revolution, demanded the formation of an organized body to meet the welfare needs of the people bearing the brunt of industrialization. The settlement movement owes its origin to Jane Addams, the founder of the Hull House in Chicago in 1889. The movement focused on the causes of poverty and functioned through three thrust areas (three Rs) Research, Reform and Residence. Jane and the other pioneers, who believed in the group approach, set the objectives of the movement as follows:-
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1) 2) 3)
The residents of the area could share their learnings of cultural and religious among the needy. The identification of settlement workers with the local area The responsibility of the group for social reform.
The congested immigrant population became the target of most of the settlement workers. There they could observe the changing conditions and needs of the people while matching the various resources to satisfy the needy. They provided a variety of services including educational, health and legal services, and also advocated changes in social policy. According to Rameshweri Devi and Ravi Prakash (2004) settlements have also served as centres for classes in English and citizenship, as well as for clubs which gave both older and younger immigrants the best of American culture. Stanton Coit concentrated his activities in the formation of clubs in the neighbourhood, which would unknowingly develop deep bonding among the community members. He was the founder father of the Neighbourhood Guild, the first American settlement in 1886. Picnics and other recreational activities were taken up so that more youth would participate and develop the settlements to a structured informal association. Woods and Kennedy in the Settlement Horizon have commented that the settlement movements have provided ample opportunities for the actual interplay of association. The Playground and Recreation Movement The part played by recreation movement towards group living is note-worthy. The socialization process begins in a child when he starts to associate and accept another child to play with him. Even though the first municipal
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play ground of U.S. was the English Village Green, group games were not entertained until the nineteenth century. In 1868, the first church of Boston came up with a vacation play ground, while the Washington Park in Chicago was opened for team games in 1876. But it was in 1885, with the beginning of a sand park in Boston by Marie Zakrzewska, that the play ground was chosen as a movement in the history of social group work. She got the inspiration for such a concept observing the children playing in sand piles in public parks. Soon playgrounds and summer camps mushroomed under the initiative of settlements, churches and schools. It is the success of play ground movements and the need for more tax supported play grounds that resulted in the beginning of the Playground and Recreation Association of America in 1906. Schools and other social agencies supported the movement highlighting the importance of such a group experience in the social and emotional growth of a child. The World War Community Service organized during Word Wars I and II had greatly accelerated the recreation movement. Taking its origin from the privately owned small playground for the poor, the growth of recreation movements were far beyond imagination. It has grown to the extent that now it contributes the major source of the countrys wealth. The World Wars and after Post World War I, social scientists also began to focus on groups operating in the community. One of the earliest to do so was Frederic Thrasher (1927) who studied gangs of delinquents in the Chicago area. He studied groups by befriending gang members and observing the internal operations of gangs. Thrasher observed that every member of a gang had a status within the group connected to the functional role that the member played for the gang. Thrasher
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also highlighted the role of culture that developed within a gang, suggesting there was a common code that may be followed by all members. The code was enforced by group opinion, coercion and physical punishment. This work along with others have influenced the ways group work is practiced with youths in settlement houses, neighbourhood centers and youth organisations. Some later group worke rs relied on naturalistic observations of groups of boys in a summer camp to demonstrate how cohesion and inter-group hostility develop and operate. Social scientists also learned more about peoples behavioural in groups from studies done in industry and in the United States Army. Characteristically, workers in industries knit themselves into informal organizations in and about work, develop expectations that their jobs and work relations be limited to persons of a kind gender, age, ethnic qualities, education and social class (Jose, 2008; Warner, 1947). Such assemblages (also referred as a grid) manifest itself in places such as cafeterias where the employees sort themselves based on the rank, sex, age and place in the plant (Hughes, 1946). Theoretical Bases The 1930s witnessed the influence of small group theory especially the differentiation done by Cooley with regard to the Primary and Secondary groups. The proposition by Tonnies to differentiate between gesselschaft and gemeinschaft also aided a better understanding about groups. The 1950s witnessed an explosion of knowledge and development of theory concerning small groups. The major researchers included the likes of Bales, Homans, Bion, Lewin, Weber, etc. to mention a few. The major themes that developed in the first half of the twentieth century include conformity, communication and interaction patterns,
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leadership, interpersonal preference and social perception that are important components while dealing with group process in social work. It is also important to mention the contribution of psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, field theory, social exchange theory and the system theory that explains group functioning. A Glimpse of Professionalisation and the Development on Literature in Social Group Work Although it is often believed that group work is considerably younger than casework, group work agencies actually started only a few years after casework agencies established their forte. The first course of group work was offered by Clara Kaiser, in the School of Social Work at Western Reserve University in Cleveland. When she left for New York in 1935, Grace Coyle continued to develop the course. Group Work was taught partially as a method and partially as a field of practice. By 1937 about 10 schools offered specialised courses in social work. However, as Schwartz points out, the real historical differences between the two is that casework soon became identified with social work profession, where as group work did not begin to become formally linked with the profession, until much later during the National Conference of Social Work in 1935. This remained somewhat informal until 1955 and the founding of the National Association of Social Workers (Toseland & Rivas, 1998). A small cadre of group workers (15-20 people) met in New York City in the early 1930s to have informal discussions. This group proposed a gathering of group workers at the NCSW. In 1936, the American Association for the Study of Group Work was founded with the intention of clarifying and refining both the philosophy and practice of group work. This group created the National Association for the Study of Group Work under the leadership of Arthur Swift. It was a missionary spirit which motivated this early group (Kraft, p. 13).
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By 1939, group work began to be treated as a distinct subject, markedly with the National Conference of Social Work. The identification of group work with social work profession became stronger during the 1940s although group workers continued to maintain loose ties with recreation, adult education, and mental hygiene until the 1950s. In 1955, group workers joined hands with six other professional groups to form the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). In fact, group work was very closely associated with community organisation method and its concept of citizens participation. Later, during the 1940s and 1950s group workers began to use groups more frequently to provide therapy and remediation in mental health settings. This was significantly influenced by the increased interest in psychoanalysis and ego psychology and also partly due to the World War II, which created a severe shortage of trained workers to deal with mentally disabled war veterans. It was spurred on by the continued interest in the use of groups in psychiatric settings during the 1950s. Although there was an increased emphasis in the 1940s and 1950s on utilising groups to improve the social functioning of individual group members, interest remained in using groups for recreational and educational purposes, especially in Jewish community centres and in youth organisations such as Girls Scouts and the YWCA. During the 1940s and 1950s groups were also used for purposes of community development and social action in many different neighbourhood centres and community agencies. At the same time, there was an accompanying increase interest in the study of small group as a social phenomenon. The years post-World War II saw an immense rise in group work literature. Gertrude Wilsons Social Group Work Practice (1949), Harleigh B. Treckers Social Group Work (1949), Grace Coyles Group Work with American Youth
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(1948) and Gisela Konopkas Therapeutic Group Work with Children (1949) all appeared in a time span of hardly two years. All these books set out to clarify the orderly process of social group work as part of the helping function of social work on the wide scope of applications ranging from the healthy to sick, individuals and groups. The decade of the 1960s witness the decline in the popularity of group services. The skills of group worker were then viewed as being more significant in the area of community organisation in organising youths and adults around important social concerns. Also, during the 1960s, the push towards a generic view of practice and the movement away from specialisations in casework, group work and community organisations, weakened group specialisations in professional schools and reduced the number of professionals who were trained in group work as their primary mode of practice. The interest in group work waned still further during the 1970s. Fewer professional schools offered advanced course in group work and fewer practitioners used group work as a practice method. The late seventies saw the reemergence of a professional journal, Social Work with Groups in 1978. Additionally, in 1978 social group workers formed a committee to host a symposium in honor of Grace Coyle which paved the way for an annual conference in subsequent years (Northen & Kurland, 2001). The conference planning committee was transformed into the membership driven organization, The Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups (AASWG, 2006). In order to increase practioners awareness about the potential benefits of groups, group workers throughout the US and Canada came together and held the first Annual Symposium for the Advancement of Group Work in 1979. Each year since then, the annual symposium on group work as a practice method has been convened religiously without fail.
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Group work has also made inroads into the south-east Asia, especially India (to be discussed later) and China. Social work education in China has experienced a very rapid expansion over the past decade. Top Chinese leaders have advocated strongly for social work and in 2006, the government launched a series of new social policy initiatives aimed at professionalizing social work. This has provided an opportunity for researchers and educators to think about the possible impact and future challenges confronting the civil affairs sector and social work educators. Group work has survived through difficult times. Its resiliency is a testament to the persistence of the core of people as well as the strength of the method (Ramey interview, 1988). What kept group work going during the quiet years were the presence of individuals and legendary teachers and proselytizers of the like of [William] Schwartz [Saul] Bernstein, the [Sonia & Paul] Abels, and [John] Ramey (Ephross interview, 1998). The people who came together to begin AASWG, with their wonderful spirit of inclusion, validation and humanity that is imbedded in group work ideology (Papell, 1997, 10) determined that group work should survive. Group work ideology has stood the test of time because it is rooted in a clear understanding of the realities of human lives and the human condition. Concepts of citizenship, participation, community, mutual aid, and democracy are still powerful. According to Ephross (interview, 1998): We were right then, were right now. Middleman and Goldberg (1988, 234) remind us that it is group work that has anchored and continues to anchor social work in its tradition of social reform and concern for oppressed people ...
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Significant Group Work Literature during the Last Two Decades Carrell, S 1993 has written on group exercises for adolescents. The book also contains a manual for therapists. The exercises are useful for school social workers and group workers involved in life skills training. Morganett (1990) has written a book on life skills and group counseling for young adolescents. Rose, S & Edilson, J (1991) have also written a book on specific group work exercises for children and adolescents. Toseland, R (1995) is well known for his book on Group work with elderly and family care givers. Hurley (1996) has developed therapeutic group exercises for the elderly. Pehroozi (1992) has presented models of Group Work in his book Social Work with Group. Berecher (1990) has developed an innovative concept called Telephonic Group Work. Breton (1994) has developed the concept of Empowerment Oriented Group Work in his book Social Work with Group. Brown, A and Mistry , T (1994) have focused on Group Work with mixed membership group highlighting on race and gender based issues. Coxe and Parsons, R (1994) have developed their theories on empowerment oriented Group Work practice with elderly. Glassman, U and Kates, L (1990) have written on the Humanistic Approach in Group Work. Nosko, A and Wallace, R (1997) have highlighted on gender based issues in Social Work Group. During the last decade the following books on Group Work have contributed significantly to the understanding of Group Work An introduction to Group Work practice by Ronald Tosland and Robert Rivas (2001). Encyclopedia of Social Group Work with groups by Alex Gifferman, Robert Salmon
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(2008). Using Group Work by Mark Doel (2005). Social Work with group by Helen Northen & Roselle Kurland (2000). Perspectives on Social Group Work Practice, Alissi Albert, S (2001). The Essentials of Group Worker by Doel, Mark & Sawda, Catharine (2003). A Hand Book of Social Work with Groups by Gravin, Charles D, Lorriae M. Gulier (Ed) (2007).
Social Group Work in India

Group work as a method of social work came to India with the introduction of professional social work education in 1936, a decade after it was acknowledged as formal method of practice in the West. Even though there is evidence of the group approach being used in various contexts in delivering charity services, imparting religious education through oral tradition, in mobilising people for the freedom struggle against the British, in social reform strategies as in the Sarvodaya and Bhoodan movements. However, there is very little documentation or hardly any theorisation based on it. All the schools of social work in India teach a course/paper in social group work (alternatively titled as social work with groups) at both the graduate and the postgraduate levels. There was a brave attempt to develop some indigenous materials in group work by the then United Nations Social Welfare and Development Centre for Asia and the Pacific and the Association of Schools of Social Work in 1979. Compared to casework and community organisation, contributions in developing indigenous materials on group work could be traced back to the 1960s. The Association of Schools of Social Work jointly with the Technical Cooperative Mission (USA) laid down minimum standards for group work practice acted a benchmark to the developments in India. VD. Mehta (1987) and Helen Joseph (1997), two social workers who attempted to trace
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the historical development of group work in India, agree that the theoretical perspective taught in the schools of social work in India and the practice models are primarily American as in the case of social work itself. The practice of social group work in India is generally limited to correctional and other residential institutional setting, hospitals and so on in the urban areas. The general activities undertaken were recreational, educational and cultural in character. Group work method was also practiced in community work, as in the case of mahila mandals and yuvak mandals, but it was primarily recognised as community work. Practice of group work is also given emphasis through the fieldwork programme in some schools. Students placed in agencies and open communities work with groups of children, youth, adults and elderly who are either sick or healthy in urban and rural areas. For instance, the student of social work in Kerala placed in open communities are engaged in organising groups for children (balasamithis) and also for adult women (kudumbashree self-help groups) in the disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Such groups have a combined objective of socialisation, structured recreation, functional literacy, awareness generation on diverse issues such as effective parenting, health and hygiene, environment and local self- governance as well as other socially relevant issues. In the recent years, groups of adolescent girls and boys too have been organised in the villages to deal with issues pertaining to life skill development including home management, reproductive and sexual health, sexuality, family planning methods, etc., considering the social reality that majority of them will be getting married at an early age. This brief review of historical trends in group work practice is intended to enable you to understand current trends in group work practice from a broad perspective. At present, a remedial approach focusing on improving the functioning
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of individual group member continues as the preferred method of practice. This model of practice is based on problem identification, assessment, and treatment. The emphasis on mutual aid characteristics of group work also continues, where the workers role is to mediate between the needs of group members and society. Mutual aid and shared, reciprocal responsibility are appropriate in such settings such as short-stay homes and nari niketans that are designed to helping women in distress to live together, to support each other and to cope with distressing life events. It is also useful in community groups like mahila mandals, youth clubs and other community groups where reciprocal sharing of mutual concerns and the giving and receiving of support are central purposes. Professional social workers are also involved as consultants or facilitators of self-help groups that emphasise the mutual aid characteristics of a group.
Conclusion
In all this we can see the increased use of groups and associations in work with young people and adults. Progressively over the years, there has been a growing appreciation of group process and sophistication in approach within adult education. Beginning with the club movement and later in the settlements, there had been an emphasis on social investigation, a concern to deepen methodology and a wish to connect this with wider developments in the social sciences. Club work with boys and girls had established a great store of practice wisdom about the organization and functioning of groups which reflected in the literature. Group Work had survived the challenges posed by the two World Wars and had grown substantially in terms of its practice and resources. The development of thinking and practice about working with groups subsequently shifted across the Atlantic and spread fast to most of Asia, especially in India. The impact of
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psychology especially Psychoanalysis, the developments in thinking about human relations, and a developing literature about social groups aided its transition. The small group theory and, in particular, the idea of the primary group - small informal groups such as families and play groups too became the cornerstone to social group work practise. Group work has survived through difficult times. Alongside the professionalisation of social group work happened. Notable are the development of the AASWG, with their wonderful spirit of inclusion, validation and humanity that is imbedded in group work ideology (Papell, 1997, 10), the NASW etc. that were determined that group work should survive. Group work ideology has stood the test of time because it is rooted in a clear understanding of the realities of human lives and the human condition. Groups as an idea aid the assimilation of the concepts of citizenship, participation, community, mutual aid, and democracy. Middleman and Goldberg (1988, 234) remind us that it is group work that has anchored and continues to anchor social work in its tradition of social reform and concern for oppressed people.
References
1) Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (Revised edn.), Boston: D. C. Heath. Faris, Ellsworth, 1937. The Nature of Human Nature, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. Hughes, EC, 1946. (address to the 40th Annual Meeting, American Sociological Society). American Sociological Review, Vo. 11, No. 5, October, 1946, pp. 512-515.
2) 3)
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4)
Jose, S. (2008). A Study on Informal Relations among Teachers in HEIs in Kerala, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala. Wilson, Stephen, (1978). Inf ormal Groups: An Introduction, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p.60
5)
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History of Social Group Work in India

*Sreepriya
Introduction
Social Group Work is of recent origin in west as well as in India. Though social work and social welfare has been part of Indian history from time immemorial, professional social work emerged much later. Group work as a method of social work started gaining recognition only after social work attained a professional status. Group approach was being used in charity in ancient and medival India though it differed in its form, nature and methods. This chapter concentrates on the historical development of social group work in India in two different eras - the pre-independent and post independent India.
Development of Group Work In Pre- independent India

Group work practice in pre-independent India was not much organised, formal or systematic and is closely intervened with the unique features of Indian society. The essential functions of group work was carried out by the social institutions. Social institutions had a great command over the lives of the people in pre-independent India. The situations and experiences provided by these institutions benefitted its members and the need of external
*Ms. Sreepriya, LISSAH College, Calicut
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intervention by professionals or professional agencies was limited. The aspects of group work in pre-independent India found in all walks of life is briefed below. Familial Scenario Joint family system is unique feature of Indian Society and was the common practice in ancient days right from 2000 BC when the Dravidian traditions were established in India 1 . In a joint family three generations live together under the same roof. The management of the joint family rests in the hands of the elder member of the family. All its members have equal rights to income and property of the family though they differ in their earning capacity. This system provided its members economic support, emotional support, recreation, personality development, care to the less privileged group such as children, elderly and provided all its members opportunities for development. The purpose of modern group work is also similar. Each group may have different specific objective depending on the needs and problems of the target group but in general, group work is expected to provide its members emotional support and opportunities for growth and development. The joint family system was also taking care of these aspects of its members. It could even be concluded that as the joint families were fulfilling all the responsibilities of professional group work, its need was not felt in the earlier days Educational Scenario Knowledge building is an important function of group work. In that sense the ancient Gurkula system can be equated as a form of group work. Gurukulam is yet another unique feature of ancient India. This system began in Vedic times(1500-600 BC)2 . Under this system, a teacher possess
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the nine qualities of bramana as mentioned in bhagavad gita (peacefulness, self control, discipline, purity, tolerance, honesy, knowledge, wisdom and religiousness). Proper motivation, proper disposition and natural qualifications based on in built attributes form an integral part of students candidature and students must follow strict celibacy during the entire term3 . Under gurukula system all round development of students is taken care of by Guru and students must live in the house of mentor during the formative period. The centre of educational system lies on the principle of worshipping God. All subjects taught were from vedic literature and it contains all necessary knowledge of arts and science both material and spiritual. Contemporary group work is restricted to a group of people who share same need or problem or has the same objective. Similarly the gurukulas was confined only to one group. It is a group of Brahmin boys. They shared similar interests and objectives and strive together towards the attainment of their objective. Economic Scenario In the economic front a unique and multifaceted form of organisation emerged known as guilds. The guild system began in the early Buddhist period,i.e., in the 5th century and continued through the Mauryan period5 . The guilds played a vital role in the socio-economic structure of ancient India. As more and more people became craftsmen, people of the same craft began to band together. They found that they could do more than any one of them alone could do, so they banded together and began an organisation called guild. Different crafts and artisans formed different guilds. The purpose of guilds were to make sure that its members produced high quality of goods and were treated fairly.
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Guilds succeeded in passing many laws that controlled competition among merchants, fixed policies and wages and limited the working hours and ensured that the craftsmen were properly trained. These guilds also supervised community projects, various undertakings helped amass huge fortunes and Kautilya prescribed methods of extracting money from guilds in times of need by state. Guilds in ancient India played an important role in protecting the rights , welfare and privileges of a particular group which is yet another function of group work6 . Religious Scenario Caste system is also a unique feature of Indian society which was established during 1000 BC 600 BC 7 . Caste commands much importance in Indian social life even today. Caste system provides identfication to its members and determine their social status. Caste rules govern the social and familial life of its memebrs. It provides psychological support to people. Over the years, changes have taken place in the traditional caste system along with social changes and through sanskritization and social legislations. Even today in a democratic system caste is capable of acting as a pressure group. Though caste system has its own de-merits and brought about social discrimination to its members caste gives a sense of belongingness and strength to work for their common needs and welfare and hence can be considered as an aspect of group work. The Christian missionaries also require special mention in the context of group work in pre-independent India. Missionary activities started in British India. The devoted service rendered by christian missionaries and impact of christianity were significantly instrumental in bringing about a change in the out look of Indians, especially
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towards the then prevelant social evils like sati and social prohibition of widow re-marriage. Christian missionaries are an organised group of people engaged in the evangelical work of spreading the gospel, were active in the colonial period. Since then christian missionaries visited India at different times. The education mission began to flourish since early 1900. In 1928 Bandel church was entrusted to the Roman Catholic group of the salesians of Don Bosco. Throughout the colonial period and after , they established branches of Don Bosco school. The christian missionaries followed humanitarian ideas and emphasised the social development of people. Christian missionaries laid emphasis on improvement of indegeneous language and literature and spread of education as preparatory work to evangelation. The need of reform of hindu social institutions was also advocated by Serampore trio. They were instrumental in passing of laws. Serampore was the pioneer in the field of printing and publication also. They also championed bengal peasants cause. Contact with the village reality made them aware of the anamolies of the colonial land revenue policies and judicial system. The christian missionaries worked for creating public opinion in England and India in favour of reforms in the socio-economic system in India. Missionaries were the first to get over the gender bias regarding admission of women missionaries to the CMC. In 1877, the women missionaries were admitted as full members with the same status and rights of men. Such inter-denominational missionary conferences were formed in Bombay, Madras, Banglore between 1845-58. The Jesuits have also made substantial contribution in India whereby they have secured a place of prominence for themselves and the Catholic Church. They extended their
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activities to various fields like religious, spiritual, political educational, scientific and technical progress, etc. They still continue their activities with a missionary zeal. Though caste system and activities of Christian missionaries can not be equated with group work in its professional aspect, they can still be considered as beginning of professional group work because they mobilised groups and adopted a group approach in addressing problems and development of various target groups and areas such as women, peasants, education, technology, etc.Their activities targeted specific groups and provided support and developmental opportunities for specific groups. Political Scenario Political scenario of Indian society in ancient times was dominated by the ancient rulers. All of them adopted a welfare oriented approach towards their subjects and undertook several works of public utility. But there were not much of political organisations or associations or groups to which lay men were members of. Such associations emerged in British India along with the rise of national movement. Though there were lots of social evils prevailing in the society at that point of time, the issue that required immediate intervention was political freedom for the nation; the fruits of which would be equally beneficial to the entire nation. Indian National Congress and Gandhi needs special mention in this context. The birth of Indian national congress marked a new political awakening. Inspired by the words and writing of Mahatma Gandhi people from various walks of life joined congress and it became a mass movement. Along with advocating political freedom, they also addressed better status for women and sarvodaya which meant upliftment of all sections of society. To attain
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this Gandhi preached and practiced the constructive programme. The leadership of Gandhi and his activities through Indian National Congress and sarvodaya could bring people from various sections together and work towards a common goal, the ultimate aim of which was total welfare. Social Scenario In the pre-independent India there were a lot of reform activities at individual and group level. Some of the earlier reform activities are briefed below. The crusade against sati started by the Serampore missionaries culminated in the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy who succeeded in passing laws for the abolition of sati. He started Atmiya Samaj in 1815 later on grew into Brahma Samaj which advocated abolition of caste system, sati, promotion of equal rights for women , etc. These efforts were not only reforming the Indian hindu society but was also oriented towards the welfare of under privileged group called women, children, untouchables, and so on. Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar was the first to launch a movement against the prohibition of widow re-marriage by establishing that it was not in contravention to the preaching of hindu scriptures and it was a result of his incessant efforts, especially of an appeal made by him to the government in 1885, that the Hindu Widow Re- marriage Act was passed in 1856. Justice Ranade pursuing the cause of widow re-marriage formed Widow Marriage Association in 1861 which was aimed at promotion of widow re- marriage. In 1875, Arya Samaj was established to fight against idolatory, caste, child marriage, favour of widow re- marriage and abolition of untouchability by christian
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missionaries by permitting the re-admission of converts from Hinduism. In 1882, Arya Mahila Samaj was organised by Pandia Ramabai- an Indian christian missionary with a view to improve the condition of women. As these reform movements were organised movement for the welfare of under privileged groups, they can be considered as the earlier stage of development of professional group work. The aspects of group work prevalent in pre-independent India mostly lacked scientific knowledge. They mostly arised out of situational needs. There was no uniformity in the principles, methods and techniques adopted. This approach of helping people was later modified when social work developed into a profession in west and its influences were seen in India also.
Development of Group Work in Independent India

Social group work as a method of social work practice can be seen only in the context of social work education in India. Group work began with the founding of the first school of social work in 1936- the Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social Sciences. Soon after schools of social work was established in Delhi and Baroda and social work education received academic status and group work was recognised as one of its courses. The Baroda School of Social Work published the first records of group work practice in India in 1960. The Association of Schools of Social Work in India, jontly with Technical Co-operation Mission led down the minimum standards for group work. There was subsequently a rapid increase in the number of schools of social work throughout India and group work found a place in all of them along with case work and commuity organisation. The strong position for group work in academic resulted in the practice setting also9 . Today,
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social group work is practiced in various social work settings. The practice of group work in institutional and community settings in independent and contemporary India is analysed below.
Group Work in Institutional Setting

The feature of group work in institutional setting is that it caters to the needs of /or solve the problems of the beneficiaries of a particular institution. Group work developed through its practice in various settings as follows. Group Work in De-addiction Centres Addiction is a serious social problem affecting human beings and even the society at large. Social work intervention with addicts can be done at different levels like control, prevention and treatment. Social Group Work has a major role to play in these areas along with other methods of social work. Therapy Groups are important for their treatment. Alcoholic Anonymous is a good example of group work for drug abusers. AA consists of memebrs of similar problems who help each other by sharing their experiences, motivating, guiding and inspiring each other. An addict is put into de-toxification process at first and then put into AA group. Ther person passes through various stages in AA group which starts with an awareness building and acceptance of the problem and ends with assertive training. There can be group activities for the family members of the addicts who share similar problems. Through this group activity their problem solving capacity can be enhanced and emotionqal support can be provided.
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Family therapy, yet another form of group work is also used sometimes in treatment. Under this technique the groupworker meet the entire family as a group to help them workout their problems together. These practices of group work are commonly found in the de-addicion centres all around India. Group Work for Youth Welfare The attainment of political independence in 1947 marks a definite stage in the progress of Indian Youth. Political parties continued to count on student leadership. Student wings were organised by all of them in universities and colleges and these groups addressed the common needs and problems of student community through organised efforts. Some of the youth organisations to channelise youth power for nation building in independent india are Bharat Yuvak Samaj, NCC, establishment of Large number of rural youth clubs, etc. There was also an emergence of a few non-official youth and students organisations like the YMCA, YWCA, the Scouts and Guides , etc Nehru Yuvak Kendras establishment in 1972 as a part of the sixth five year plan needs mention in the context of historical development of group work in India. This was meant to serve as a focal point in the district for rural areas. The activities undertaken are youth leadership training, camps for community service, cultural, recreational and vocational training, etc. On the non official front, a significant step was the opening of the Vishwa Yuvak Kendra in 1969 as a national centre for the training of youth leaders and workers for promoting awareness of the need to develop youth organisation and youth services.
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Group Work in Schools School social work is gaining importance these days. Most of the private schools today, employ school social workers and are giving stress to the personality development aspect of children. Group work is the widely used method of social work in schools. Generally groups in schools are task oriented groups. The entire group share a common goal and activities are planned in such a way that they work together in attaining the group goal as well as their individual goal through group activities. The areas that are normally covered in group work in schools are career guidance, motivation, awareness, value education, leadership building, team work , etc. The group work practices equips the children to learn through experiences and mistakes especially when workshops are conducted. Some of the schools that effectively use groupwork in India are T.I. School, Chennai, Good Sheperd School, Ooty, Choice School , Cochin, Christ Nagar, School, Trivandrum Group Work in Hospitals Group work practices an integral part of social work practice in hospitals in both medical and psychiatric settings. The first medical social worker in India was appointed in early 1930s at J.J. Hospital, Mumbai. Mostly treatment groups are found in hospitals. Group work techniques are used in psychiatric settings for the possible patients for skill development. It is also used to provide their family members emotional support and also to enlighten them on the approach to be adopted towards the patient and how to deal with social stigma, stress and depression. Similarly group work practices are common in medical setting especially with terminally ill patients. Supportive therapy is provided to both the patients and their family members through group work. Group work provides them
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opportunities for catharsis, enables them to deal with feelings of grief, anxiety, stress, loneliness, etc. the group work process also enables them to participate in the treatment process in a smooth manner. Group work practices are common in neonatal clinics and diabetic clinics these days. In neonatal clinics, the stress is on hygenie, nutrition, family planing, proper care for new born, etc. It concentrates mostly on awareness building where as in diabetics clinic, the stress is on diet control and the consequences of diabetics. The group will give its members strength to conform to diet and provide emotional support. The immense scope of group work has been realised by both government and private hospitals and a growing practice of group work is seen in the hospitals today.to mention a few J.J. hospital- Mumbai,Government General Hospital-Chennai, NIMHANS- Banglore, etc Group Work by NGOs Non Government sector is a reckonable force in the field of social welfare always in India. NGOs are highly active in providing services to specific target groups through the processs of institutionalisation and through communities. Institutional services are provided to various target groups like women, children, aged, mentally or physically challenged, etc. In all these centres, social workers adopt group work approach in skill development, building self confidence and self esteem, motivation, goal achievement, building awareness and in short in the overall development of social work. Examples of such organisations are Spastic Society of India, SCARF, Chennai, Asha- Home for mentally Challenged children, Banglore, MV Foundation for street children, Hyderabad, etc.
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Group Work in Correctional Institutions Government institutions are aware of the need for social work intervention with under privileged and disadvantaged groups. As a result in all government homes for such category social workers are appointed. Group work is used to bring about attitudnal change, behaviour modification, goal setting, group counselling, etc. In other government homes such as childrens home, home for women, mentally ill, etc also social workers are appointed. The practice of group work in majority of the government homes in India is not very effective due to the ill effects of bureaucracy
Group Work in Community Setting

Group work is a prominent method of empowerment in community setting . Community organisation can be achieved through the formation and building up of small groups. Some excellent examples of group work in community settings are given below Anganwadi Anganwadis are part of the ICDS project implemented by the Government of India in 1975 as part of the national policy for children10 . This is a highly suceessful project. Through anganwadis , the educational and health needs of children and women in rural community are catered to. Anganwadis provide basic education and meals to the children. The anganwadi workers also form womens groups of the locality and give them health education. They stress on the health and nutrition of the pregnant women and children upto seven years in the locality. Awareness programmes and developmental programmes are conducted for the adolescent girls in the locality. It is thus seen that group work is a method and tool for the development of target groups in community based programmes.
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Self Help Groups Self Help Groups are a popular method of group work practice found in community. The Self Help Group is a viable alternative to achieve the objectives of rural development and get community participation in all rural development programmes. SHG is a viable organisation set up to disburse micro credit to rural women for the purpose of encouraging them to enter into entrepreneurial ventures.11 Self help groups are voluntary gatherings of peers who share needs or problems that are not being addressed by existing organisations, institutions or other types of groups. The broad goals of a self help group is to bring about personal and or social change for its members and society. All of these groups emphasise face to face interaction among members and stress a set of values or ideology that enhances a members personal sense of identity12 . Self help groups play an important role in women empowerment and social development. One area where SHGs have played an important role is in the micro credit. The SHGs distribute micro credit to the rural women for the purpose of making them enterprising and encouraging them to enter into entrepreneurial activities. Their credit needs are fulfilled through SHGs. The women led SHGs have successfully demonstrated how to mobilise and manage thrifts, appraise credit needs, maintain linkages with banks and enforce financial self discipline. Thus SHGs undertake entrepreneurial activities at a smaller level with minium capital required. SHGs enhance the equality of status of women as participants, decision makers, and beneficiaries in the democratic, economic, social and cultural spheres of life.
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An example for the success of SHGs is revealed through the study conducted by N. Laitha and Dr. B.S. Nagarajan in the three districts( Dindigul, Madurai, Theni) in Tamil Nadu. The study provides ample evidence to the fact that organisation of women in the form of SHGs has laid the seeds for the economic and social empowerment of women through the strategies of organisational savings, rotational credit system using their resources, facilitating regular interaction, exchange of information and exposures within and across these groups to enhance the mobility and awareness linking SHGs with external credit sources and government programmes13 . Kudumbasree Kudumbasree is a typical and successful example for group work practice in community setting. What the Kerala Government desired when it formulated Kudumbasree (Prosperity of the Family) in 1998 was absolute sweeping off of elementary poverty from Kerala through the social and economic empowerment of women. Now Kudumbasree has grown into the largest women - empowering project in the country itself. In 2006 07, 37,69,403 families became members of Kudumbasree through 1,79,403 ayalkoottam (neighbours gathering) Rs. 826 crore thrift was deposited through them. It was also possible to give loan to the tune of Rs. 2075 crore. Kudumbasree is not targeting just economic improvement only. It has the sublime objective of enabling the poor to implement their own initiatives in health, education and cultural activities. Kudumbasree is the source of power for the new generation women of Kerala these days. This women empowerment organization was established by the government to strengthen the women power and to show them the right path to grow their self-confidence and significantly improve their way of living to be independent. With such an initiative now it is learnt that more than 90 percent of women in Kerala
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have gained their self-confidence after being associated with Kudumbasree14 . These women also informed that their standard of living and social status also has improved a lot after their active participation in Kudumbasree. They are now more aware of their rights, and the right way to lead a healthy life. It also gave the women from lower society or caste the courage to stand up with others and lead a confident life. It guided these women to enhance their financial status by increasing their savings and plan accordingly. Kudumbasree also made women to improve their reading habits, discussion skills and also to develop their decision making quality. Along with that it imparted education to those women who were illiterate. In short the women have shown the right path for a better tomorrow by this social organization. At presents thousands of women are associated with Kudumbasree, giving a new perspective to their life with a bright vision. The Business Line has reported on March 24th, 2008 about the Kudumbasree units of Kochi that they have decided to widen their activities here to cover the collection and processing of household refuse and marketing of consumer products. As many as seven units of Kudumbasree have decided to launch its activities here before April 15. This follows the directive of the Ombudsman for Local Bodies, Mr Justice K.P. Radhakrishna Menon, to the Kochi Corporation to opt the units in the collection and processing of garbage from households. At present, five such units are functioning in the city. The Kudumbasree units need the support of the corporation for identifying land for setting up garbage processing units. Each unit would require at least 20 sq ft to 50 sq ft. Kudumbasree is also seeking the co-operation of resident associations in extending its operations to new areas as they will have to ensure the payment of users fee to the garbage collecting
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units, senior officials of the Kudumbasree Mission said. The refuse collected from households will be sold to the scrap dealers in the city15 . The authorities are also planning to convene a meeting of the residents association in the city to find out which all associations are willing to engage the Kudumbasree units for the collection of garbage. Kudumbasree has also plans to market its produce through the network.It is gradually building up in the city. The district authorities are also imparting behavioural training and personality development programmes to the members of the units for equipping them to take up the challenge professionally. They will also be issued ID cards and these steps would increase the acceptability of the team members among the general public, the officials said. The team members, working on shifts, will also be deployed for collecting and remitting the various service bills of the city dwellers. Once the programme goes full throttle, it will reduce the workload of the cleaning staff engaged by the Corporation, as the units will take care of the waste generated by the households.
Conclusion
Group work approach to social development has always been part and parcel of the Indian social life. The socio- religious institutions in India at all times adopted a group approach for the welfare and development of the society though the development of professional group work in India is a recent phenomena. Today in India, group work practice is popular social work method adopted at both institutional and community level. The milestones in the development of group work in India at different times are briefed in this chapter.
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References
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) http://www.iloveindia.com Ancient India Time Line- History of India Ibid http://www.indiaedu.com History of Education in India Ibid http://www.iloveindia.com Ancient India Time Line- History of India- Budhism http://www.infinityfondation.com- Sreni(Guilds): A Unique Social Innovation of Ancient India By Manikant Shah & D.P. Agarwal http://www.iloveindia.com Ancient India Time Line- History of India Jha,J.K. Encyclopaedia of Social Work.vol 1. 1st ed. Anmol Publications: NewDelhi, 2001 Bhattacharya, sanjay.Integrated approach to social work practice.rawat publicztions: New Delhi
7) 8) 9)
10) http://www.ecdgroup.com SITE VIS India Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) by the Consultative Secretariat, 1993 11) Social Welfare Vol. 52. No.6. Sep-2006.CSWB 12) Ravi, v. Reddy, Narayana.Venkataramana. M.(ed). Empowerment of People- Grassroot Strategy & Issues. Kanishka Publishers: NewDelhi, 2004 13) Ibid 14) http://www.minister-local admin.kerala.gov.in 15) http://www.hindubusinessline.com. March 25th, Kochi Bureau Report Kudumbasree units of Kochi to widen operations.
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Social Group Work as a Method of Social Work

*Joseph Varghese
Introduction
Social group work is a primary method of social work. In this chapter we briefly see how social group work became a part of social work and how it established itself as a method. We will discuss the concepts by first understanding what social work and group work are and the present trends in group work.
Social Work and Group Work

Group work is a method of group leadership used in organizing and conducting various types of group activities. Giselle Konopka defines group work as a method of social work which helps individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and to cope more effectively with their personal, group and community problems. Trecker gives the following definition Social group work is a method in social work through which individuals in many groups in a variety of community agencies settings are helped by a worker who guides their interaction in program activities so that they may relate themselves to
*Mr. Joseph Varghese, Christ University, Bangalore
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others and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities to the end of individual, group and community development. Allan Brown says group work provides a context in which individuals help each other; it is a method of helping groups as well as helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, and organizational and community problems. A definition of social work prepared by the National association of Social workers in 1956 considers five attributes as being basic to the practice of social work. These attributes are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Values Purpose Sanction Knowledge Method
All these attributes influence each other. Values of social work practice influences the purpose of social work and method used to achieve them. You are already familiar with various definitions of social work and social group work. Here we review some of the definitions of group work. We will see how the each of these attributes finds its expression in practice of group work. We will also see briefly how historically social group work and social work evolved separately and how in course of time group work became accepted as a method.
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Values The values of social work are rooted in the democratic and humanitarian principles. The inherent value of the human being and his dignity regardless of his status, position and his actions are recognized. Social work believes in equality, justice and freedom. Social challenges structures, institutions and practices which prevent individuals, groups and communities from realizing these goals. Therefore it can be said that human rights values are important part of social work values also. Another important value is the recognition that everyone has the inherent capacity to resolve his or her problems. Thus given the right conditions that person can successfully resolve his problems. The values of social work are codified as professional ethics which is implemented by the professional body. The principles of social work such as principles of acceptance, individualization, self determination, confidentiality, non judgmental attitude and controlled emotional involvement are derived from these values. Group work values are the same as the generic values of social work. Gisela Konopka describes the three humanistic concerns of group work. They are (i) individuals are of inherent worth.(ii) people are mutually responsible for each other; and(iii) people have the fundamental right to experience mental health brought about by social and political conditions that support their fulfillment. These values find its expression in the practice of group work. Group work emphasis on voluntary participation by the members. Group workers are sometimes do work with involuntary groups due to statutory or agency demands. But that is not the norm. Secondly, the social worker values the decisions made by the group-the
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principle of self determination. The group members are encouraged by the group workers to participate in the planning and implementation of group activities, even if there are disagreements between the group and the worker regarding the effectiveness of the activity, the worker will not impose her decision on the group. Negotiation and discussion are the means that the worker uses to help the group understand her point of view. Similarly, decisions regarding the group have to be made by the group using democratic methods. Participation by all members is stressed. everybody has equal right to contribute to the discussions in the group. fourthly, the group has to maintain the principle of confidentiality- members opinion and feelings which are shared in the group should be kept confidential and should not be revealed outside the group. However the group worker unlike the caseworker has to depend also on the group members to achieve this aim. Therefore often a confidential clause is attached in the contract. Social workers take special care to ensure that confidentiality working with children who have difficulties in doing that. Purpose The purpose of the group work is the way in which it contributes to society and derives its legitimacy. People and agencies accept groups as a method by assessing to what degree group work is able to achieve the aim it has set for itself. The aims of group work according to Alan Brown (1992). a) Individual assessment
Groups are used to assess individual behaviour. This assessment is based on the data made available by workers assessment, members assessment and group members assessment. Group assessments can be used to obtain
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data in juvenile delinquent centres, residential care centres and centres for elderly care. b) Individual support and maintenance
Groups provide psychosocial support to the members who are undergoing stressful situations. Groups are formed for individuals suffering from disability, caregivers of dementia patients and students with learning difficulties. c) Individual change i) Control of deviant tendencies in the individuals. For example, child abusers can be training to exercise control over their behavior. Socialization of individuals to learn social skills for living in the community.
ii)
iii) Improvement in interpersonal relations iv) Improvement in the economic area. For example, self help groups. v) develop better self concept and feelings. for example women in neighbourhood discussing common problems
vi) personal growth and development encounter group and T group. d) e) f) Educational, Information-giving and training groups Leisure/ Compensatory groups for recreation and enjoyment. mediation between individuals and social systems. For example, group worker may prepare the patients for discharge by training them to live outside the agency. group change and/or support. Working with natural or existing groups to improve a specific aspect of the group or to resolve a problem. Family therapy to improve the communication is one example.
g)
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h) Environment change Groups formed to demand facilities and services from government and non governmental organizations. i) Social change. These groups raise the consciousness of the members, organize them and help them fight unjust structure in the society.
Sanction Social group work as a method of social work is recognized as a primary method by various professional bodies - National Association of Social Workers, British Association of Social Workers, Australian Association of Social work and others. Group work is used in various settings of social work- health settings, school settings, industries, families and child agencies, de-addiction centres, communities, homes of elderly and juvenile reform centres. Group Work Education An international study on the presence of social group work in Schools of Social work in different countries of the world reveals the following. Of the 135 schools that participated in the survey the number of teaching faculty was 2497 and 174(7percent) were group work instructors and teachers. Group work was taught both as a separate course and as part of generic courses. the emphasis of group work in most places seems to be on individual needs such as support, therapy and self development. (Mayadas et al.) In India, group work is suggested as a separate paper in UGC model curriculum. Most universities and colleges teach group work as a method in India
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Method Method means a way of doing things a set of skills and techniques. But then everybody has a way of doing things which is based on his/ her theory of action. His assumptions regarding the situation guide his actions. A use of the method distinguishes itself from the spontaneous actions of a non professional in the following way 1) It is informed by the value system of the profession which has been arrived at by consensus of the members. The method is used deliberately and purposefully by the profession to attain the treatment goals Its practice is supported by the knowledge base which constantly increases by research and sharing of knowledge by professionals It is recognized as a method by competent authorities. The practice of the method helps the clients and through it the society.
2) 3)
4) 5)
According to Schwartz a profession should have three attributes- 1) 2) 3) A function to perform in society to which it is held accountable. Performance of this function involves certain modes of activity- a certain pattern of actions. These actions are performed within the systems in which it takes place.
Further, Schwartz says that method is function in action.
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Now what are the tasks of social work in our society? Schwartz identifies the following tasks- 1) Search for common ground between the clients perception of his own need and the aspects of social demands with which he is perceived. Identify the obstacles which prevent people from harmonizing their own self interests and the needs of others. Provide data-ideas, facts, value concepts which are not available to the client who will help him resolve the problems. Give the client a new vision (hope) and confidence about the future. Maintain a professional relationship with the client.
2)
3)
4) 5)
Advantages of Group Work 1) Groups are natural places in which people live and grow. Families, peer groups, workplace groups and neighbourhood groups are central to the social life of an individual. If these groups have significant influence on our personalities, cant groups be used to change the behaviour of the members? Group work aims at achieving these aims in different settings. 2) Group members who have similar interests and problems can help each other by sharing their experiences and their problems. The principles of mutual aid and self help are emphasized. Group works major advantage over casework is that each member becomes a helper and a helped in the group. Thus help is given and taken in a spirit of equality. Group members empower members by increasing their consciousness and awareness. Peoples personal
3)
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problems are made public and when it becomes known that large number of people is involved. Solutions are then discussed and further actions planned and implemented. 4) 5) 6) Groups are used to elicit opinions of the members in the agency regarding the services provided. Group work is able to show in practice the democratic principles. Group work is very effective for certain groups of people like adolescent, children and women. These groups find it more comfortable to get help in groups as their need for security and belongingness is fulfilled in groups. Group work is economical and time saving as a number of clients are treated at the same time.
7)
Disadvantages of Group Work 1) 2) Confidentiality is difficult to achieve as personal knowledge is shared with the group. Forming groups can be difficult. Members often drop out, are absent and do not cooperate which can lead to dissolution of the groups Agencies do not fully support group work as they are not clear about its usefulness. Group work often degenerates into games and fun neglecting the treatment process. Group needs resources like common time, place and resources. Individual attention is missing and non participating members become lonely.
3) 4) 5) 6)
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7)
Group work can further the stigma and discrimination that the members face in society as they become identified with the group. Professional expertise is often missing as group work is seen as being general skill everyone can master.
8)
Knowledge Knowledge is defined as the ability to understand. The knowledge base of group work has been constantly increasing. The main sources of knowledge for social groups has been 1) Knowledge of groups from other disciplines
Sociology, psychology and social psychology study groups especially small groups. C.H. Cooley(primary and secondary groups), G.H.Mead(in groups and outgroups), Robert Merton(reference group), Kurt Lewin (group dynamics), Moreno(sociometry), Elton mayo(importance and influence of groups) and Simmel are pioneers in the field of the study of groups. Asch, Sheriff Festinger, Kresch and Tuckman have made significant contributions increasing our understanding about groups, its influence on the members, group development etc. Another important source as in casework has been psychoanalytical school which has contributed group therapy. 2) Knowledge from the Practitioners
Gisela Knopoka, Grace Coyle, Josephine Klein, Gertrude Wilson and Gladys Ryland were earlier contributors to the group work practice. They documented their experiences and formulated the basic practices and rules of group work. Grace L. Coyles (1948) Group Work with American Youth: A Guide to the Practice of Leadership, and Gertrude Wilson
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and Gladys Rylands (1949) Social group work practice; the creative use of the social process were the earliest texts. Presently journals Social work with groups, Small Group research and Group workers are published to disseminate the knowledge of groups. 3) Knowledge from research
Research in group work has been relatively less than in other areas of concern in social work. Most of the group work literature available is anecdotal and descriptive accounts of practice (Mayadas and others in Gravin; 2004, Brown 1992). A study on the research work done on group work in the 1980s reveals that most research was done in the area of cognitive behavioural interventions among children. Researches on other approaches and for other clients were less. Further researches done were of groups which consisted of brief, highly structured, time limited and homogeneous clients. The relevance of these research findings to other groups require further analysis. In India the situation of research in group work is the same. Research based articles of social work are limited. A small number of PhDs have been done on the subject and these are mainly on the clinical side. Three models have evolved in social work practice. Papell and Rothman (1966) have suggested three models: remedial - where the aim on the part of the work/agency is individual social adaption. reciprocal - where the aim is to strengthen mutual aid and to mediate between individuals and society. social goals - where the concern is to further social justice often through collective, social action. (Mark Smith, 2008)
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Thus there is a constant growth of knowledge regarding social group work and how to integrate theory with practice. The knowledge base of group work has increased by the development of new research tools for evaluation of group work practice. A major lacuna in social work has been the lack of evidence on the effectiveness of its methods. In other words social workers have not been able to show conclusively those professional social worker skills and techniques applied deliberately in different situations have made significant difference to the clients. The growth of evidence based social practice is a response to these lacunae. Social group work practice has also been influenced by these trends. New research methods have been identified which address this problem. (Gant in Gravin, 2004.)
Present Trends in Group Work

1) Technology mediated group work Many support groups are forming group on line. For example women suffering from breast cancer have online support groups. Most of these support groups offer information on the problem and about treatments methods. They also provide accounts of people who have dealt with the disease successful. Often there are sections called Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) where doubts and clarifications related to the problem/ disease can be asked. These websites are maintained by hospitals and support groups.
Conclusion
Social work as a profession and academic discipline is expanding. But there are still unanswered questions about the effectiveness about its methods even within the
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profession. Research based finding has done little to clarify the position. It maybe because of the methodology that these researches use. Or it may be that the complexity of human behaviour makes it difficult to prove changes in persons. Group work as a method of social work seems to have the same problems. Social workers have to often rely on their personal experience and observation to establish that the method helps clients.
References
Tolman, Richard M. and Christian E. Molidor (1984), A Decade of Social Group Work Research: Trends in Methodology, Theory, and Program Development, Research on Social Work Practice; 4; 142 Lillington, Barbara (1985), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 10(4), Summer. Breman-Ross., Toby(1994), Social Work: The Collected Writings of William Schwartz, F.E.Peacock Publishers Inc. Itasca Brown, Allan(1994)Group Work, 3rd edition, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire. Dwivedi, K., N., and Robin Skynner (1993), Group Work with Children and Adolescents: A Handbook, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London. Corey and Corey (1987), Groups Process and Practice, Third edition, Brook/Cole Publishing Company, California. Cwikel J.G.& Behar L.C. (1999), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 29(4), Summer
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Greif, Geoffrey L. and Paul Ephross(2005), Group work with Population at risk, Second edition, Oxford University Press, New York. Gravin et al. (2004), Handbook of Social work with groups, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Karmakar, K.G.,(1999), Rural Credit and self Help Groups, Micro finance Needs and Concepts in India, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008), Group Work, Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Trecker, Harleigh (1972), Social Group Work, Principles and Practices, Follet Publishing Company, Chicago. Smith, Mark K. (2008) Group work, the encyclopedia of informal education. [http://www.infed.org/groupwork/ what_is_group_work.htm].
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Theories and Models in Social Group Work

*Ranjana Sehgal
Introduction
Social group work is based on the idea of man as a constantly developing human being in necessary and significant interactions with other men. He is shaped by others and also shaping others. Apart from basic needs, he needs to belong, to be an important individual, and to participate. Every human being requires help to fulfill needs, and to deal with dissatisfactions and frustrations in life. Social group work practice facilitates the development of the individuals personality through guided group interaction. Help is possible only when there is utilization of group potentialities through interaction. Thus, understanding group behaviour is indispensable and has utmost importance in the group. Theories in social group work help to understand this group behaviour. Since a particular way of group behaviour is the main modality for fulfilling needs or in other words for bringing change in the environment or in the members intrapersonal or interpersonal relationships, social group work uses various models or approaches to accomplish group goals. The present endeavour, hence, in this chapter will be to discuss various theories and models of social group work.
*Dr. Ranjana Sehgal, Indore School of Social Work, Indore
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Theories in Social Group Work

Theory is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of facts offered to explain phenomena. For example, Social Learning Theory describes how human behaviour is a product of environmental, social and personal factors. In the context of group work, theories are on the whole scientifically accepted facts or statements for understanding individuals and their relationships with others. Therefore, group work is based on eclectic theory of individuals and groups. There are no independent theories as such in social group work method, but in the core of social group work practice, we use theories of individual dynamics and theories of group dynamics borrowed from various disciplines for understanding group behaviour. Now we shall discuss those theories. Theory of Individual Dynamics An individual is understood, in social group work, on the basis of psychoanalytic theory and cultural components as well as knowledge of social psychology and sociology. Importance of early childhood experiences: A child initially engages in one-to-one relationship i.e. interacts only with the mother. Later on, he/she begins to interact with others outside the mother. The earliest experience of interaction within the family or outside provides the child a valuable mental and emotional learning experience which he/she begins to apply as he/she grows and begins to reach out beyond the intimate family group to peers (Konopka, 1963). Thus, these experiences have a great impact on personality development. Mans actions are influenced by unconscious motivation as well as by his capacity to act consciously and rationally: This concept is directly related to group work practice. The group worker guides
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the individual members in a group to participate in the programme activities and to relate to other members in the group in order to fulfill certain personal and social needs. In other words, the capacity to control difficult inner forces can be achieved and the insight of the individual can be strengthened through constant interaction with others through group work. The concept of ambivalence: The human being can experience two opposing emotions at the same time towards the same person or situation. In case of change, they wish to be involved in the change process, but at the same time they resist change and desire to keep their identity as it is. Development theory of human being: Human beings pass through various stages in their life. In the first year, when child is under the loving adult, a sense of trust is established. In the next stage a sense of autonomy, is felt when the child can understand the boundaries of his/her self-determination. The third, fourth and fifth stages are sense of initiative, sense of industry and a sense of identity respectively. Sense of intimacy, which comes next, is the beginning of interest in the other sex and in marriage. Adulthood is the period of parental sense. The last stage is the sense of integrity when a well-integrated adult can accept himself as different from others and yet able to have and accept others (Friedlander, 1976). Having accepted this developmental theory, a group worker tries to know whether the group member with whom he deals with constantly has had adequate development through their different stages of developments. He needs to lessen some of their negative experiences. The worker also facilitates positive group experiences to compensate for the developmental lags.
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Group association changes as per the need and focus in the group, depends on group goals: Every person in his/her lifespan belongs to three types of groups i.e. primary group (the family) where he is born, friendship groups, and the vital-interest groups. The primary group or family plays a fundamental role during childhood, the friendship group is most important in adolescence, and adulthood seeks vital interest groups. A person in his adulthood forms a new family, becomes a parent and feels the reversal of roles. A social group worker may apply the same logic for fulfilling group members needs. His focus or emphasis is intricately related to group goals. In growth- oriented groups (eg. therapeutic groups), the worker is aware of every individuals specific needs, whereas in task- oriented groups (eg. adult community groups), although focus is on every individuals needs, more emphasis is on the accomplishment of group goals (Friedlander, 1976). Theory of Group Dynamics When an individual belongs to a group, his behaviour is determined not only by his inner forces but also by the people around him. Hence, apart from the individual dynamics, a social group worker must know the group dynamics or various concepts of the group process. These concepts include: acceptance or rejection, isolation (neglected and rejected) sub groups, group bond, group hostility and group contagion, group support, and group conflict. Acceptance or rejection: A group worker must know every individual group members relationship with other group members or how much power each one has over the other i.e. whether he is accepted by others or isolated. If a member is isolated, the group worker must know the meaning and causes of isolation. It may be because the individuals behaviour has offended the other members
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due to variations in Socio-cultural background or personality differences. Sometimes the situation is worse than the isolation i.e. the individual is rejected by the group and exposed to open hostility. Thus the questions of isolation or rejection need to be addressed by the group worker by handling interpersonal and intrapersonal issues in the group. Sub groups: There is no group where all members come together to perform every task Formation of sub groups are very natural and they emerge spontaneously. The group worker has to observe whether these sub groups threaten the unity of the group or are friendly formations. He has to act accordingly. It should be known that emotional acceptance of the inevitability and legitimacy of sub groups is a pre requisite for good and skillful group work. A worker who works against the sub groups, loses the whole group (Konopka, 1963). Group bond: It refers to group cohesiveness or sense of belonging. It is the force bringing group members closer. Group bond may be emotional or task-related. Emotional bond derives from the connection that members feel to other group members and task-related bond refers to the degree to which group members share group goals and work together to meet these goals. The effectiveness of a group can be understood through group bond. The main factors that influence group bond are: members similarity, group size, entry difficulty, group success, and external competition and threats. Thus, group bond is a powerful aspect of group dynamics. Group hostility and group contagion: Group hostility, in most of the cases, is found among the exploited or depressed or minority groups. Hostility means aggression or resentment or unfriendliness. A very fine man or gentle person can express hostile attitude because of the fact
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that he is part of a hostile group atmosphere. Group contagion is the tendency to catch and feel emotions that are similar to and influenced by others in the group. In this regard, Barsade (2002) comments: It is a process in which a person or group influences the emotions or behaviour of another person or group through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and behavioural attitudes. Group contagion may occur during examination or when two children are upset in a camp or when some external threats come. Group support: Any work becomes easy in a group when support and courage come from other members. A child having good behaviour does not have any motive towards stealing but he/she may do it while interacting in a group. We find in group therapy that each individual shares experiences with others who are in the same boat and accumulate moral support, information as well as advice on the problems and experience growth opportunities. The group support thus is an instrument for solving individual problem in the group. Group conflict: There exists no group without any conflict. Maturity of a group can be understood by observing how a group resolves conflict. Normally conflict can be solved or mitigated through withdrawal of one part of the group (giving up or running away or starting another group), subjugation (powerful part forces others to follow their wish), majority rule (major people decide action), minority consent (minority agrees with any option), compromise (each party agrees to the limit set by them), and integration (conflicting opinions are discussed and reworked for solution) [Konopka, 1963]. Integration is the most mature way of conflict resolution (Friedlander, 1976). The worker, while performing the helping role in a group, should have knowledge on group conflict for better handling of the clash or arguments and decision-making.
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Models of Social Group Work

In the initial days, the conventional view for the purpose of group work was prevention, but afterwards group workers were gradually involved in treatment as a primary goal. As group workers embarked on practice in a range of settings, they attempted to describe repeated patterns of phenomena and to define practice in the language of science. This led to the development of a wide variety of theoretical models for practicing group work. A model enables the group worker to focus on problems in a holistic manner. What kind of model to be employed in a group today depends on the group goals or objectives or purposes. There are several classical as well as a few contemporary models and we shall discuss here the major models seemingly found in practice. Papell and Rothman (1966) have pioneered three models i.e. the social goals model, the remedial model, and the reciprocal model. These are at the core of social group work tradition. Social Goals Model: The settlement house movement, the social movement, the labour union movement, and the womens movements of the 1930s in USA are the roots of the social goals model (Sullivan et al., 2003). The central focus of this model is on social consciousness and social responsibility. It helps members of the community to work on solving social issues and bringing about social change for oppressed populations. The model has a strong avowed social values stance. Cohen and Mullender (1999) assert that the social goals model is referred to in recent literature as social action group work. The principles of democratic group process are fundamental to this model. Principles guiding practice involving the social goals model include: clarification of agency policy, positive use of limitations, identification with agency goals, determination of
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appropriate issues for collective action, and the weighing of alternatives for action and their consequences (Papell and Rothman, 1966). Remedial Model: The function of the remedial model is the treatment of individuals. It tends to be clinically oriented. The model focuses on those who have problems of adjustment in personal and social relations (Fatout, 1992). A worker undergoes this model while dealing with a group of persons with emotional problem or teaching skills of daily living to a group of mentally handicapped children. The group worker, in this model, is viewed as a change agent who facilitates interaction among members of the group to achieve change. He is in a some-what superior position than the group members whose social skills are impaired or not fully developed. The worker using this model exercises considerable authority, instructs model behaviour for group members, and creates an atmosphere which motivates individual growth. The group participants here are regarded as clients rather than members (Brandler and Roman, 1999). The remedial model is widely used in mental health centers, correctional institutions, family service organizations, counseling services, schools, health care facilities, and in many other agencies. Reciprocal Model: The reciprocal model has been derived from the systems theory, field theory, social psychological theories of behaviour, and the practice principles that are a part of generic methodology for social work (Skidmore et al., 1988). There is a duality of attention in this model i.e. it serves both the individual and society. In other words, reciprocal model focuses on the major concerns of both social goals model and remedial model at the same time (Fatout, 1992). According to Papell and Rothman (1966), the thrust of this model is to establish a mutual aid system and worker or members do not keep here any preconceived
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goals. The image of the worker is a mediator or an enabler who is viewed as a part of the worker-client system. Researchers have studied to understand how small groups develop. Thus, we find several models of Small Group Development such as Kurt Lewins Model, Tubbs Model, Fishers Model, Tuckmans Model, Pooles Model, Gersicks Punctuated Equlibrium Model, Wheelans Model, and Team Model. These have been discussed here briefly: Kurt Lewins Model: Kurt Lewin is remembered for coining the term group dynamics. His model of individual change is a stepping stone for many pioneers who have contributed theoretically. Kurt Lewins model has three stages such as unfreezing, change, and freezing in a change process or small group. The first stage makes effort to remove lethargy or sluggishness and dismantles the existing mind set. The second stage is the transition phase that brings change. In the last phase, the new mindset is crystallized and individual becomes stable. Tubbs Model: Stewart Tubb studied small group interaction and developed systems model with four phases such as orientation, conflict, consensus and closure. In the first phase, group members introduce each other, start talking on the problems and examine the strengths as well as weaknesses. Ideas are evaluated through conflict in the second phase. Conflict ends in the third phase and the last stage announces result. Fishers Model: Fishers model of decision emergence outlines four phases i.e. orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement. In the first phase, members get to know each other and experience primary tension. Second phase is meant for conflict and marked by secondary tension. Members there disagree with each other and debate ideas. Groups tasks as well as members viewpoints become
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apparent in the emergence phase and group members bolster their final decision in the last phase (www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/group_development). Tuckmans Model: Bruce Tuckman having reviewed almost fifty studies in the mid nineteen sixties proposed a new model of group development. The model initially (in 1965) had four stages, but later on (in 1977) added one more stage and thus today it includes forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning stages. Forming is the first stage when individuals are collected and each member is preoccupied with issues of joining or inclusion. Confusion, low morale, hidden feelings, poor listening, and un-involvement are visible more in this phase. Storming stage is the point at which members are beginning to seek individual roles or space and conflict arises as they search for compatible tasks or struggle for status in the group. In the third phase, there are establishment of norms or accepted ways of doing things. Group culture emerges. Members start using the term our group. Group develops trust, cohesion and a degree of intimacy (Brown, 1986). Performing is the fourth stage where group becomes self- sufficient and use all the skills as well as potential of the members to achieve its aims and solve problems. In the last phase group disbands Pooles Model: Marshall Scott Pooles multiple-sequences model addresses decision making. The model has several tracks such as task track, topic track, relation track, and breakpoints. The tasks track refer to the process by which the group accomplishes its goals. The topic track concerns the specific item the group is discussing at the time. The relation track deals with the interpersonal relationships between the group members and breakpoints occur when a group switches from one track to another (Poole, 1981). Gersicks Model Gersicks punctuated equilibrium model
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suggests, that groups develop through the sudden formation, maintenance, and sudden revision of a framework for performance. The model works in the following way: Phase I The first half of the groups calendar time is an inertial movement whose direction is set by the end of the groups first meeting. In this meeting, members behaviours may be influenced by prior expectations, contexts relating to the sponsoring organization, and preferred behaviours. Midpoint Transition at the midpoint of the allotted calendar time, groups undergo a transition during which the direction of the group is revised for phase 2. Gersick calls this a problematic search and pacing which stems from the groups awareness of problems. Phase 2 - the second period of inertia focuses on carrying out the plan formulated during the transition. Progress may spurt ahead in order to reach a markedly accelerated conclusion (Cole, 2005). Wheelans Model Susan Wheelans integrated model of group development has five phases i.e. dependency and inclusion, counter dependency and fight, trust/structure, work/productivity, and final. The first stage is characterized by significant member dependency on the designated leader, concerns about safety, and inclusion issues. In the second phase, members disagree among themselves about group goals and procedures. The next phase shows, member trust, commitment to the group, and willingness to cooperate increase. The fourth stage of group development is a time of intense team productivity and effectiveness. Separation and members appreciation of each other are addressed in the final phase (www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/group_development). Team Model : Team Evaluation and Maturation (TEAM) model identified by Morgan, Salas and Glickman has seven main stages such as first meeting (forming), unstable situation (storming), accommodation (norming), inefficient
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patterns of performance (performing-I), re-evaluation and transition (reforming), effective performance (performing- II), and completion of assignments (conforming). The TEAM model postulates the existence of two distinguishable activity tracks present throughout all the stages i.e activities that are tied to the specific tasks being performed and activities devoted to enhance the quality of the interactions, interdependence, co-operation, etc. (www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/group_development). We have discussed so far a number of models for group work practice, nevertheless there exist many more models. Allan Brown (1986) has classified those, even though arbitrary, based on the major differences in aims. These clusters of models are as follows: Intake Models: Brown, Seymour Hankinson, Stephens, Todd and Barcome, are popular for these models where focus is given on contact initiation or individual assessment or orientation about agency function. These models are primarily concerned with the intake process when an individual first engages with an agency, and not with specific interventions such as the provision of support, achievement of change or the amelioration of a specific situation. Guided Group Interaction Models: The guided group interaction approach was originally developed by Lloyd McCorkle in the late 1940s in the treatment of military offenders (Harstad, 1976). The basis or central focus of this model is positive peer culture. Individuals normally learn deviant behaviour, attitudes and values from the peer groups. Therefore, the present model is used in reverse sense i.e. it carefully constitutes peer group as a vehicle for changing behaviour from the anti-social to the law- abiding. The key principle is to mix offenders with ex- offenders and others in the residential or day care setting with programmes that have positive peer culture.
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Problem-Solving, Task-Centred and Social Skills Model: This group of models is concerned with solving specific behavioural problems, achieving specific tasks or developing specific behavioural skills. Every model belongs to this category does not have exclusively a group approach as it uses a blend of individual, pairs and group methods. The major emphasis is on co-operation rather than competition, safe and structured environment, building self-esteem and using positive reinforcement practice. Psychotherapeutic, Person-Focused Models: These models are concerned with the person, his feelings, emotions and relationships. The aim is to strengthen an individuals mental health and self-concept. Psychoanalytic group therapy, gestalt therapy, psychodrama, transactional analysis and so on come under this category of models. In psychoanalytic group therapy, the therapist interprets the behaviour of the clients, the content of discussion, looking for patterns that will reveal intrapsychic conflicts or maladaptive defenses. Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential psychotherapy that focuses on here-and-now approach. It enables an individual to get in touch with immediate problematic experience and emotion, and work through the conflict. Psychodrama is used to express problems, issues, concerns, dreams and highest aspirations of person through spontaneous and dramatice role-play. Experience in action, rather than words, is the touchstone of this model. Transactional analysis is an integrative approach because it has elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive approaches. It emphasizes a pragmatic path in treating patients or develops models to assist understanding of why certain treatments work. Mutual Aid or Self-Help Models: The concept of mutual aid was first elaborated by Kropotkin (1903), one of the most important evolutionary theorists and socio-biologists
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of his time. The Mutual Aid Model of group work practice proposed by Schwartz (1961) was introduced in the article The Social Worker in the Group. Schwartyz envisioned the group as an enterprise in mutual aid, an alliance of individuals who need each other in varying degrees, to work on certain common problems. This type of group is largely self-governing and provides its members with a source of mutual help and support. In India, at present, self-help model is used very widely in micro credit programmes in order to alleviate poverty. Alcoholic anonymous group is also example of this type. There are also a few models based on psychotherapist care such as NEEDS-ABC Model, Neurolinguistic Model etc. A brief description about these is as follows: NEEDS-ABC Model: Tom Caplan has developed this model based on decades of actual practice in group and family setting. The model emphasizes the theme-based relational needs behind maladaptive behaviours, rather than the behaviours themselves. ABC means acquisition and behaviour change which may be applicable to a wide public within the field of psychotherapeutic care of clients engaging in group, couple and marriage therapy. The present model is an integrated therapeutic approach that combines observation, elucidation of client and group process, using concepts also described in cognitive- behavioural, motivational, narrative and emotion-focused model (caplan, 2008). NeuroLinguistic Model: This model is a systemic imaginative method of psychotherapy with an integrative- cognitive approach. It aims at goal-oriented work with a person paying particular regard to his/her representation systems, metaphors and relation matrices. The model helps to position the selectively good intentions underlying the symptoms of illness and/or dysfunction so that old fixations about inner and outer unproductive behaviour
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and beliefs can be dissociated and sound behaviours and beliefs can be established and integrated. This approach, as a method of personal development and communication training, is also used in other fields: education, counseling, supervision, coaching, management training and health psychology (www.nlpzentrumat/nlptarteng.html).
Conclusion
We have understood, in this chapter, theories and models used in social group work. Theories are the scientifically acceptable body of facts that help to understand individual behavior as well as to carry forward the group process. Though this group process itself is a greatest teacher, group members sometimes feel puzzled and can not set any direction. It is then that the group worker enters in the scene and helps through his/her knowledge on theories. With regard to models, there are many classical as well as contemporary models. The war on poverty and demands of group work in therapeutic settings during 1960s, 1970s and 1980s has propounded numerous new models in this field. Therefore, the final consideration in selecting a single model for practice with groups is very important and the same depends on the competence of the practitioner. Simply knowing the model is not sufficient competence. Worker must examine, before selecting any model, whether they possess adequate knowledge and skills to make maximum use of the same model. Many practitioners feel, in order to resolve this problem, it is always better to use an eclectic model i.e. multiple models for best interest of the client system.
References
Barsade, S.G. (2002), The Ripple Effect: Emotional Contagion and Its Influence on Group Behaviour, Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644-675.
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Brandler, S. and Roman, C. (1999), Group Work: Skills and Strategies for Effective Intervention, New York: Haworth Press, P-8. Brown, A. (1986), Group Work, England: Gower, P-74 to 80. Cohen, M.B. and Mullender, A (1999), The Personal in the Political: Exploring the Group Work Continuum from Individual to Social Change Goals, Social Work with Groups, 22(1), pp3-31. Cole, M.B. (2005), Group Dynamics in Occupational Theory: the Theoretical Basis and Practice Application of Group Intervention, New Jersey : SLACK Incorporated, P-33. Caplan, T (2008), Needs ABC: Acquisition and Behaviour Change Model for Group Work and Other Psychotherapies, Whiting & Birch Ltd: London. Friedlander, W.A. (1976), Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall of India: New Delhi. Fatout, M. (1992), Models for Change in Social Group Work, New York: Aldine de Gruyter, P-12-13. Harstad, C.D. (1976),Guided Group Interaction: Positive Peer Culture, Child and Youth Care Forum, Vol-5, No-2, P- 109-120. Konopka, G. (1963), Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Kropotkin, P. (1903), Mutual aid: A Factor of Evolution, Indy Publish.com: Mclean, Virginia. Poole, M.S. (1981), Decision Development in Small Groups I: A Comparison of Two Mode ls, Communication Monography, 48, 1-24. Papell, C and Rothman, B. (1966), Social Group Work Models: Possession and Heritage, Education for Social Work,2 (Fall), 66-77.
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Sullivan et al. (2003), Social Work with Group: Social Justice Through Personal Community, and Societal Change, New York: Haworth Press, P-67. Skidmore et al. (1988), Introduction to Social Work, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, P-84. Schwartz, W. (1961), The Social Worker in the Group. In B. Saunders (Ed.), New Perspectives on Services to Groups: Theory, Organisation, Practice, National Association of Social Workers: New York, P-7-29. w ww .en .w iki pe dia.o rg /wi ki/g rou p_de ve l o pme nt, www.nlpzentrum.at/nlptarteng.html
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Stages/Phases of Group Development

*Ranjana Sehgal
Introduction
Today, the importance of group work as an effective method of social work intervention is being increasingly realized. More so when professionals from other fields, such as Psychology, Psychiatry and Management have also become appreciative of its value. The need for satisfactory group life is a fundamental need of human beings. All of us are in search of meaningful relationships in our social milieu, irrespective of our age, religion, class or caste. The modern day living is characterized by a sense of alienation and isolation where one feels lonely amidst the sea of humanity. This can be a frustrating experience, further accentuating our need for a sense of belonging. Social Group Work fills this vacuum by providing not only the pleasure of association, but also giving an opportunity to the members to utilize and enhance their capabilities and to develop themselves. While Social Group Work, is a method for the group worker, for the members it is a significant new experience designed to give them an opportunity to come together and fulfill their needs and desires through a group process. From its inception to its termination, a group goes through various stages of development, and experiences on which the
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members put their own interpretations. While for some it may be the first opportunity to carry out any responsibility, for others it may be an important means of giving expression to their needs and for still others it may be a way of development of some skill. Let us now understand the concept of group development and its various stages.
Group Development and its Stages

What is Group Development? Group development is a process of the growth and progress of a group towards full maturity over a period of time with primary focus on the relationships in the group. In Social Group Work through guided group experience, the group is helped to develop responsibly and with maturity. From the stage of forming the group, to its termination, through carefully and well planned programme activities, the group is helped to achieve its potential. Regular meetings of the group, a wider interaction among the members, a free flowing conversation, laughter, general spirit of cooperation and accommodation, are signs of a positive environment in a group, reflecting a clear sign of group development (Siddiqui, 2008) Group development, thus, is an index of the specific level of growth, task accomplishment and emotional integration of the members which goes through different stages. Understanding the stages of group development helps in developing appropriate ways of intervention in the group process so as to bring about groups growth and induce behaviours that help in achieving group goals. Indicators of Group Development 1) Attendance 2) Punctuality
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3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)
Definite meeting time and attendance Development of a formal organization Willingness on the part of the members to undertake initiative and responsibility Increased innovation and motivation Controlled behaviour of the members High level of participation Emergence of leader
10) Shift from I and Me to We and Us Stages of Group Development The achievement of the goals is the objective of any professional encounter; the tasks are done with a purpose. The Social Group Work process is conceived of as one that is systematic and proceeds through stages also referred to as phases. A group can pass through various stages of development; from the initial stage where it may appear as a mere assembly of individuals, it can go on to become a group with a strong we feeling. The stages and the activities associated with it provide structure and direction to the process. The different stages are but a reflection of the process of maturity of the group. Theoretically, we may segregate different stages of group development for conceptual clarity but in reality they are intertwined. Throughout the stages there are two concerted concerns of the Social Group Worker, namely, building and sustaining a collaborative relationship and working on the tasks directed at achieving goals. The tasks and activities chosen reflect the Social Group Workers ideas about what is necessary at different points in time to bring about change.
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Different theorists based on their interpretations have given their own models of the stages of group development as depicted in the chart below:
The Stages of Group Development
Bales (1950) Tuckman (1963) Klein (1972 Trecker (1972) Garland, Jones and Kolondny (1976) Pre- affiliation Northen and Kurland (2001) Inclusion- Orientation
Orientation Forming Evaluation Storming
Orientation Beginning Resistance
Emergence power and uncertainty- of group control exploration feeling
Decision making
Norming Performing
Negotiation Development Intimacy of Bond Intimacy strong group differentiation Mutuality and Goal Achievement
Adjourning Termination Decline in Group Feeling Ending
Separation Separation- Termination
Source : Group Work: Theories and practices, H.Y. Siddiqui, 2008
Another author Ken Heap (1985) has described the stages of group work as comprising of group formation and planning; the first meetings; the working phase; use of activities and action; and the termination of group. Toseland and Rivas (1985) have more simply described the stages as planning phase, beginning phase, middle phase, and ending phase. On the basis of the classification by different experts we can say that a group can have maximum six stages as discussed by Trecker or a minimum three stages of development, as explained by Bales. The various models describe the progressive stages in group development which may range from three to even six
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stages. Drawing from the various models, for our purpose, we have classified the stages as follows:
First stage: Second Stage: Third Stage: Fourth Stage: Fifth Stage: Forming the group (Beginning) Exploration Performing Assessment Termination (Initial sessions) (Action Phase) (Evaluation) (Separation)
Before we present a discourse on the different stages of group development, we need to understand that group work as practiced in the Indian context may be at variance with practice in the western countries. As the idea of joining a group voluntarily for therapeutic or recreation purposes may be an alien concept to the target population, the social group worker practicing this method in the Indian settings following the Western theoretical framework may find it an uphill task. The importance of group work as a therapeutic method of social work intervention is being gradually realized in our country. In our discourse on the various stages of development of group, we shall make a conscious effort not to lose sight of the Indian context of practice.
First Stage: Planning and Forming the Group (Beginning)

Social agencies, in conformity with their objectives help people form groups so as to provide them opportunities for a satisfying group experience. Individuals join groups to seek avenues of self expression and social creativity besides satisfying their needs of being loved, wanted and accepted by others. The first stage of this process comprises efforts of the group worker that primarily focus on the planning and the forming of the group.
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The Beginning This phase marks the beginning of the process of group development and is also called the pre-group or pre- affiliation stage by some experts. In India the groups have to be formed by the group worker in most cases. S/he may form the group from among the existing clientele of the social welfare agencies/NGOs or from among the open community settings. Before forming a group, the group worker must study the target population along the following points: Geographical location Age/sex Socio-economic background Needs Interests Reasons for joining the group Any other relevant details This information helps the group worker to form the group on some common ground and accordingly determine the group goals. Careful planning should precede the formation of the group which includes decision about the target population, needs and goals, the resources available etc. An accurate understanding and analysis of the needs of the target population is important at this stage so that there is no gap between the members and the workers perception of the felt needs of the group. However, the process of the study and planning is a continuous one; it enables the group worker to steer the group through the different stages of development. The members may have to be convinced to join the group as they may be ignorant of the usefulness of being a part
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of a group and may not have had any such experience in the past. Groups in India are initially conceived by an organization or welfare agency, as people themselves generally do not take such initiatives. Both the voluntary and the government organizations have found working with the group a useful strategy. The worker in India therefore, has to carry the idea of forming a group for an already defined objective to the people. S/he has to educate the potential members about the needs and issues the group will address and how it is likely to benefit them. The worker generally meets the members for the first time and many members have little or no experience of working with such groups. The formation stage thus, will require careful planning. There are two sets of plans that a worker must prepare. The first part of the planning concerns how the formation of the group will be accomplished, and second, what issues will arise once the group gets going and how these will be dealt with.(Siddiqui, 2008, 98) The other details that have to be focussed while planning and forming the group are: 1) The size of the group The decision about the size of the group is dependant on various factors such as the needs of members, purpose of group, nature of group membership etc. for instance self help groups may be large in size but therapeutic groups work best when they are small. Though there is no ideal size, a group size ranging from eight to fifteen members may be a good size. 2) Composition of the group Planning about the composition of the group has to be in keeping with its purpose. Whether it is a self- help group, task group or treatment oriented group, it may be either homogenous or heterogeneous.
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Before deciding the nature of membership, the group worker should familiarize herself with the client group along the points already mentioned above such as their socio-economic background etc. 3) Frequency of the sessions and their duration Though there is no hard and fast rule, frequency of the sessions may be decided in accordance with the needs and purpose of the group. There should not be too long gaps between the sessions, lest the group gets disintegrated. Recreation groups, therapeutic groups, task groups should meet at least once or twice a week. 4) Time and place of meetings The place where the group is to meet at the designated time has to be decided in consultation with the members. The guiding factors are the convenience of the members, availability and adequacy of space and resources. 5) Duration of the group Whether the group will exist for a long or short term may again have to be in keeping with the needs and goals of the group. The group can be terminated after achieving its objectives and a tentative time may be earmarked for it. There should however be an element of flexibility in deciding the time-frame.
Second Stage: Explorations (Initial Sessions)

Exploration In the initial sessions the group may appear more as a constellation of different individuals than an organized entity. This stage is usually characterized by a low group
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consciousness. There may be shyness, hesitation, indecision and lack of participation. Some members maybe hyper active, and some may be insecure and nervous, not having had such an experience in the past. However, this phase marks the beginning of the development of a feeling of belonging and oneness among the members. Tuckman has used the term storming to explain this process of exploration. In the initial meetings a semblance of order has to be restored so as to ensure a free flow of ideas and actions. This stage involves the following steps: Orientation and Induction The initial stage is important as it lays the foundation of the success or failure of the group work program. The worker should introduce the members to the group by outlining her/his role and the purposes for which the group has been formed, the members should be encouraged to speak about themselves, their hopes and aspirations. In the initial sessions the members have to be inducted into the group with a certain sensitivity so as to raise their level of comfort and sense of ease. The members may be unfamiliar with each other and may be interested in finding out about the agency, the worker, other members and the purpose of the group. The group worker helps members become part of the group. This does not happen overnight but is a gradual process as in this process the members may have to give up some of their individuality as also their biases and prejudices. They may have to exercise more self control and discipline. Some people re late more e asily than others, all nevertheless, start making efforts to adjust which may not be always easy. Some may be easily accepted and accept the group, others may take more time. Gradually the members start speaking the same language as the other
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members and accept the group goals and consider them as their own As the individual starts developing a sense of belonging there may be a change in his/her behaviour patterns. Preparation of the Profile of the Members Just as there is a need for the members to know each other, the worker too should study and observe the members closely. The worker should prepare a profile of each member giving his/her age, family background, physical characteristics, habits, interests, level of confidence , any peculiar habits or traits etc. It would help if this is based on the facts gathered and his/her observations in the initial sessions. This would not only help her/him understand the group relationship levels and interaction patterns better but also begin from where the group is. Further this may help her/him map the development over a period of time, especially at the stage of evaluation. Setting Specific Objectives While there may be larger goals which a group may strive to ultimately achieve, specific interim goals also need to be explored, which can form the basis of program planning. Here the worker has to help the group determine the desired level of behaviour or social change. Although in the first stage the group has been formed keeping in mind some purpose, It is at this stage that goals have to be specifically delineated. Here the group worker encourages the active participation of the group members and helps the group assume the responsibility to determine the level of change they desire to achieve in their behaviour or social situation. e.g. kicking up the habit of smoking/ chewing tobacco, giving up using abusive language.
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Objectives are nothing but statements of what the group worker is trying to achieve through the group work process. They give meaning to the process. Objectives serve the same purpose as a compass; they guide the agency and the worker to a determined destination. (Trecker , 1955, 57) They should be clear and specific and later reviewed at the stage of evaluation in terms of their accomplishment. At this stage there is a need to spell out the specific objectives which delineate the actual outcomes expected from the group workers intervention. For instance in the case of a group of school dropouts, some of the objectives could be To develop an interest in studies by simplifying the methods of teaching and learning To motivate them to resume studies by making them understand the benefits of formal schooling To remove the fear of subjects like maths, etc. Here the worker should pay attention to the feasibility on one hand and the needs and aspirations of the members on the other. S/he should focus on the specific benefits the members are likely to get and refrain from imposing her/ his point of view. The objectives have to be interpreted to the members, and their doubts and queries are to be encouraged. Developing a Structure As the group is now ready to settle down, it can be structured at this stage. The members must now be prepared and encouraged to assume roles and responsibilities. They are to be told about the expectations of the group from them in terms of tasks, on the basis of their capabilities and talents. In the Indian context the members may have to be closely assisted till they learn to
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assume responsibilities on their own. Some may need constant help of the group worker to carry out their roles. The worker at this stage must constantly encourage the members to use their latent talents and capacities. A functional organization must emerge at this stage so as to enable the members to assume an active role and make responsible decisions. Every group that aspires for independence and self-determination must arrange its constituent members in such a way that they can said to be organized. The form of organization is in itself of minor importance .if a group is to develop and carry out its program, it must have ways of assigning or delegating responsibility, ways of getting the whole group to participate in the planning, carrying out, and evaluation of the activities that make up the program and ways of handling routine relationships with the agency and other groups. (Trecker,1955, 150) With the emergence of a formal organization the group starts giving evidence of its flexibility and maturity. After the group is geared to assume responsibility, it is ready to move into the next phase.
Third Stage: Performing (Action Phase)

Action Phase After some sessions, the signs of group development start emerging as the group progresses into its active phase. The focus of this stage is on the provision of program experiences designed to offer opportunities for adjustment and growth. The programs may be of a long or short term depending on the immediate and long term objectives. This stage is the peak time in the group process as the members start taking the group seriously. The sessions become regular, the attendance is likely to be high and so is the involvement and participation of the members. This phase is likely to be characterized by a flurry of activity as
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considerable time is devoted to program planning and implementation, e.g a group of youth in a community, who may have been spending their leisure time aimlessly are formed into a group. The group worker after observing their talents for singing and acting encourages them to put up a musical drama. The group is encouraged and helped to write its own script, compose the songs and choreograph the dances .Then with the help of the community support the group puts up the first show and gradually becomes an established theatre group. In the active phase the scripting, composing followed by continuous frantic rehearsals for the show may consume the maximum time and efforts of the members. Side by side they may also be busy mobilizing and utilizing the resources to put up the show. This is but one example, there may be several others. During this stage the development gets more pronounced and may be reflected in high attendance, regular meetings, and members taking more responsibility. More and more responsibility is transferred by the worker to the group. The group starts surging ahead; setting its programs, moving constantly to its destination. The accent is now on we and us. The members get comfortable with each other, anxiety declines, leadership emerges, and members start taking initiative and are ready to assume leadership roles and responsibilities. They may be more forthcoming with their talents and more ready to take on challenging and complex programs. This is the most active phase of the group work process and spans over a major part of the working life of the group. The group may now well be on its way to achieving its goals. Planning and development of the program, its execution and monitoring are the defining features of this stage. Program Planning and Execution Program is a series of activities based on the discovery of interests and needs of the members and an important
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component of Social Group Work process; the way it is planned even more important. It may range from art and craft to music, dance, social events to picnics excursions. At this stage the program interests are likely to emerge from within the group. The members who may be initially be at a loss from where to begin must now be encouraged to take over. The members are stimulated to discover and use their own resources. The program planning and development process by itself is an important tool in helping the group to realize its potential Program should evolve from simple to more complex, with movement coming as a result of group growth in ability and readiness. Movement from initially personal to social or community concerns should be an ultimate objective if our programs are to have greater social significance (Trecker, 1955, 162) Task accomplishment When the group begins to show signs of readiness to move ahead, the worker should help the members realize their wishes for different and more demanding experiences. When group members begin to express desires to correct inadequacies and improve their work, they have reached an advanced point in their development. Programs that may have been self-centered shift in emphasis to the larger agency and community concerns. Specialized interests may be revealed, and there may be an interest in a variety of small group activities within the larger group. Here the worker is called upon to use his knowledge of agency and community resources. His role becomes that of an interpreter to the group, especially in regard to future possibilities. Evaluation occupies a larger share of time as the group becomes confident of its capacities (Trecker, 1955)
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As the group strives to accomplish its goals and related tasks, it may face many barriers which may obstruct change. Besides members own anxieties and fears, there may be dysfunctional behaviours or dysfunctional processes within the group that may impede progress and pose barriers to goal accomplishment. Non-availability or restrictive access to resources or services may require the group worker to assume the role of a mediator or advocate. Monitoring Progress The group worker at this stage steps down and allows the group to take over. However s/he needs to constantly monitor and keep a track of the ways the program is being conducted. As work towards the group goals gathers momentum it is important to monitor the progress on a regular basis. The program can be monitored on the basis of specific indicators such as interaction patterns, self improvement, emotional integration with the group, leadership and communication skills etc. Based on the information gathered, programs can be modified and consolidated. If an intervention or program is not producing the desired effect, the worker after analyzing reasons can negotiate a different approach or strategy.
Fourth Stage: Assessment (Evaluation)

Evaluation After the action phase is over, the group should be ready to evaluate the outcome of its efforts in a free, frank and objective manner. Evaluation is that part of Social Group Work in which the worker attempts to measure the quality of a groups experience in relation to the objectives and functions of the agency. Evaluation may centre upon individual growth, program content or worker performance because all these aspects tend to influence the general achievement of the group.(Trecker, 1955 ) Evaluation is
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continuously done during the group work process, but, after the group activities are over, before the termination phase; a comprehensive assessment of the entire experience is a must. This helps in improving subsequent group work experiences on the basis of the lessons learnt; a guide to future. If you recall, during the exploration phase a profile of the members was prepared; at this stage a comprehensive summary report of each member and group as a whole, reflecting the individual and overall level of development and achievements is to be prepared. The overall purpose and objectives of the experience should not be lost sight of while making this assessment. Imperatives of Evaluation Evaluation helps the agency and worker to reorganize their practice and modify their objectives in the light of the outcome findings of evaluation. To make the process of evaluation a positive and conclusive exercise and in order to make an unbiased, objective evaluation it is imperative that there exist certain predetermined indicators on the basis of which the assessment can be done. Indicators To determine these indicators the following aspects may be taken into consideration, namely: 1) Individual growth From the members perspective, evaluation presents an opportunity to find out the outcome of their actions from the beginning to the end of the process. It aids the process of development and helps in assessing some of the following aspects:
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The level of growth in each member in terms of confidence, decision making, etc. The extent of the use of the opportunities provided to the members for the expression of their creativity and talents The level of their participation and involvement in the group programs The development of we feeling and a sense of belonging Resolution of disabling conflicts and development of capacity to foster cooperation and sharing Development of a social consciousness and the ability to take up responsibility and leadership in the community. Enhancement of communication, organizational and interaction skills 2) Worker performance Evaluation presents to the group worker a mirror of his/ her professional competence or incompetence as the case may be. The worker can be evaluated along the following points: Ability to identify indicators for judging the growth and development of the group Effectiveness in planning and conducting the group sessions Extent of success in helping the group achieve its objectives and goals Mistakes and shortcomings Ability to use professional knowledge and skills.
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3) Agencys purpose Evaluation gives the agency the information it needs to maintain the quality of its services and bring about the improvements in its policies and programs along the following lines: Lay down objective standards for the appraisal of its personnel Ensure conditions under which effective group work can be done Improve its organizational and administrative procedures Reformulate objectives for groups and agency in line with its needs Review the program content and method Record keeping Another imperative of evaluation is proper record keeping. Carefully maintained records are a great aid to the evaluation process. Records are integral to the entire group work process but are most useful at the point of evaluation. The worker should maintain detailed records of each member and activity. Well maintained records help to objectively assess the growth of the members; their strengths and shortcomings. Among other things, it helps the worker understand which strategies worked and which did not. According to Trecker, it is doubtful whether evaluation of the program, individual growth or worker performance can be satisfactorily made without records. Evaluation is a kind of research or fact finding which involves data collection and data analysis. The source of data could be the records or progress reports made by the worker, any task files maintained by the members, other
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agency personnel, feedback- verbal or written of the members, their family members, video tapes etc. For this s/he should develop some formats for recording the happenings in the group. Although partial judgments can be made on the basis of memory, thorough evaluation is possible only if adequate records have been kept. The worker at this stage must go back to her records and prepare an analysis and summary. S/he should not only review the growth and development of the group but also his/ her role and relationship with the group; and how well s/he understood the changing interests and evolving needs of the members. Though not very popular in India, attitudinal and personality measurement scales to measure the changes in the members behaviour, knowledge and attitudes could be put to effective use to make the assessment more authentic and scientific. Feedback Though some kind of feed back at the end of each session may be taken, a detailed exercise is usually done at this stage. Effective use of praise and constructive criticism are the defining features of the feedback exercise. The group worker can provide her feedback to the members on various aspects such as participation, program development and implementation, leadership, teamwork, how well the members adhered to and worked for the achievement of the group objectives etc. The worker too should solicit feedback regarding how her/his behaviour affected the process S/he must welcome criticism and respond to it positively as it illuminates the pathway to growth and makes the worker aware of her/his strengths and weaknesses. The resultant feedback helps the group worker to be more aware of their positives and negatives which they must keep in mind for future. The members
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should be also trained by the group worker in giving and receiving feedback. Positive feedback should be given first It should be specific Criticisms should be given as a suggestive alternative Initially the members may be encouraged to give a written feedback The worker may prepare some formats for the purpose.
Fifth Stage: Termination (Ending Phase)

Termination There comes a time/point in the life of every group when it comes to an end, which could be a positive or negative experience as the case may be. The group is deemed to be terminated on a positive note, when it is said to have achieved its goals and the group worker has ensured its smooth closure through a proper process. Sometimes the groups may have to close on a negative note, when the members drop out prematurely; fail to develop strong relationships; the relationships are marked by bitter conflicts or the worker cannot continue with the group any longer. When the Group worker leaves the group for whatever reason, the group may not sustain for long. Should the date of termination be set in the beginning? Some experts are of the view that a termination date should be announced at the outset so that the members know the time at their disposal to achieve their objectives. The duration should however be long enough for the group to develop and allow behavioural change. The group should review its progress from time to time and accordingly take decisions for the future course of action.
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Just as the group worker has done in the previous stages of development; at this stage she has to ensure that the group is terminated in a proper way. Despite highly satisfactory experiences, groups sometimes reach a period in their natural life when interests diminish and decline is noticeable. The group seems to have served its time attendance falls off; members withdraw and become related to other groups.this is a period which calls for careful thinking and analysis on the part of the worker . The agency.should operate as a helpful agent for the proper closing of the group which has fulfilled its function in the lives of the members. By arranging satisfying terminal experiences with groups it is possible to make the conclusion of group life a vestibule for further group experience. Those members who wish to continue may be helped to form a new group (Trecker, 1955) Ending the Group The group has to end in a planned manner. Members may react differently to the termination of the group. The worker has to keep the group informed about the ending time and should not break the news suddenly. While nothing much may be done when the group comes to an end abruptly, in other cases the ending of the group can be carried out in a planned way. The last Sessions Towards the end of the social group work process the worker has to help the members come to terms with the fact that there may be no more regular meetings and guide them how to face the challenge of filling up the vacuum that the termination might create. The worker has to prepare the group For the termination stage
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Share with the group the final evaluation. Analyze how far they were successful in accomplishing some of the goals and failed to achieve others, as the case may be. give the members an opportunity to express their happiness, anxiety, fears, good/ bad experiences, talk about their accomplishments Discuss their future plans Developing leadership among the group members, capacity building of members and developing systems to carry on the functioning of the group can make the termination smooth (Siddiqui,2008)
Role of Group Worker in Group Development

Factors Affecting Group Development The development of the group is influenced by a variety of factors, depending on which groups develop at varying pace. This explains why some groups organize very well and are able to achieve their goals without facing many hurdles, while others fail to accomplish their tasks and achieve their goals. We have listed some such factors as examples, which we do not propose to discuss in detail as they are already explained under one heading or the other in the block. 1) Group structure 2) 3) 4) 5) Communication and interaction patterns group goals expectations from the group leadership
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6) 7) 8)
group norms and culture group discipline The role played by the group worker
Our primary focus here is on one important ingredient that ensures the development of the group through the successive stages, namely the role played by the Social Group Worker at each stage. Role Of Group Worker The role of the worker is very important and varies at each stage of development, the bottom line being that the worker has to understand the level of the group at each stage and proceed at the pace of the group. For this s/he must study and analyze to understand where the members are in their development. The worker plays a variety of roles, sometimes as an enabler, helper, guide and facilitator, sometimes as a trouble shooter, mediator and educator and at other times as an advocate or a leader. S/he provides direction to the group members in planning the group activities and then executing them. S/he enables the members to make choices and helps them to become self-directing as early as possible. Through all stages the worker has to develop and exhibit a professional behaviour. It is not possible to have a standard blue print of the role and tasks of a group worker as it is affected by a variety of factors. Trecker (1955) rightly said that the workers role will vary with different groups as the situations operating within groups are so different, that the worker has to first understand the group and the circumstances surrounding it before attempting to define the specific aspects of his job with it.
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In the Initial Phase At the initial stage the group worker helps the members build a sense of belonging, which is an emotional experience. The skill and understanding in initiating in them a sense of belonging is a crucial task of the worker. She has to foster those conditions under which this belongingness is fostered. For this s/he needs to accept as well as get acceptance from the group. the greatest single element in the beginning stages of work with the group is the workers ability to accept the group as it is, with both strengths and limitations, positives and negatives In the beginning the worker should place emphasis on warmth and friendliness rather than on group organization or planning. (Trecker, 1955, 31) With the sense of belonging comes a feeling of pride, warmth, affection, sharing and commitment; a sense of respect for other members as well as a respect for group objectives. Real belonging builds up a sense of companionship and accelerates the psychological process of growth in human relations. The group may go through various stages of belonging. All members may not experience the same intensity of belonging especially at the early stages. Initial stages may need more worker time as well as an active role on her/his part. In the initial phase, where exploration is central, the Social Group Work needs to focus her attention on the following: 1) Pay attention to the orientation and induction and give the members a clear idea of what the agency stands for. spend time in trying to gain information about each member and the needs of each. helps the group determine its objectives and goals
2) 3)
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4) 5)
try to relate the purpose of the group to the overall purpose of the agency. look for ways to strengthen the ties among the members.
The group worker can make the following efforts at this stage, among others: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) establish rapport help the members to get familiar with each other by organizing ice breaking sessions take up simple activities with the object of helping the members open up and start talking and sharing if the members already know each other, inform them about the purpose of the group he lp the membe rs deal with their anxietie s, apprehensions or misconceptions, if any explain the basic rules to be followed during the group activities.
In the Middle Phase Subsequently the workers responsibility is to help the group create a type of functional organization that will make possible the sort of program the group wishes to conduct. S/he does not structure the group but helps it to structure itself; the bottom-line is to keep the structure as simple as possible. The worker while helping the individuals in groups to create and maintain satisfying constructive relationships should encourage role allocations on the basis of merit. Program is an important tool in the hands of the worker and at this stage, the worker has the task of helping the
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group to plan, develop and execute the program. Her/his main role in program development is to consciously stimulate and guide the process of interaction for individual and group development. S/he helps the group to understand its capacities and limitations and guides the interaction in relation to the process of group development. S/he not only helps to stimulate the group to action but also helps it to discover and use the agency and community resources and those within the group. S/he constantly encourages the members to take initiatives in performing the group tasks and develop leadership in the group by identifying the potential leaders and creating opportunities for them to take up leadership roles. The group worker may at this stage be called upon to address the power issues that arise in the group. Some members may try to dominate and control the group which may not just lead to conflict and groupism albeit generate hostility among the members and even towards the group worker. The worker has to deftly resolve the power issues which s/he can do by encouraging and developing a sense of co- peration, partnership and a mutual respect for each other. The worker will be especially helpful in working with the leadership that has grown out of the group. In the active stage of group development the worker should modify her role. Rather than being active she must now allow the members to assume responsibility. Remaining in the background, her primary task should be to monitor the changes and progress that are taking place in the group. S/he will guard against too rapid progression and ensure that the groups do not take on more than they are prepared to handle successfully. During this phase, programmes of longer duration and more involved organization may be encouraged
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In the Last Phase The role at the final stage begins with reviewing the group experiences and dealing with feelings of separation. It is important that the worker plans for this phase and handles it skillfully and sensitively. The manner in which group process is concluded will strongly influence how the members continue to maintain the progress they have achieved. The worker should develop proper formats for recording all the happenings in the group. Records have both short term and long term goals and usage. An important task of the Social Group Worker is to maintain the records with keen observation and sensitivity. S/he should maintain full records of the behaviour of the members and their responses and in doing so be careful in the selection, organization of the material, and analyze and summarize from time to time. The last phase calls upon the worker to primarily assess whether individual and group goals have been successfully obtained and plan for the maintenance of change and continued growth after termination. Though the actual write up and interpretation and utilization of the records is done at different stages of development, it assumes special significance in the concluding stages. Records are most useful at the point of evaluation and termination as realistic judgments cannot be made on the basis of memory. The worker at this stage has to make realistic evaluation of the program, individual growth and how her/his role has changed and evolved through the various stages of group development. S/he has to review the entire process and understand all that has happened in the group and retrace the role played by her/him in bringing about the group development. S/he has the crucial task of carefully and objectively evaluating the outcomes of interventions and share this information
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with the group; helping them to assess their achievements and failures. This review is particularly important if the group is terminating or being handed over to a new worker. If the group decides to end, the worker should ensure a smooth termination and if it decides to continue sans the worker, s/he can continue to monitor the functioning of the group and keep the contact alive. In the last phase the worker should create situations within the group where the members can act out the changed behaviours independently. This helps the group to come to terms with the scenario where the group support may be no longer available. Successful termination involves preparing the members adequately for separation from the group and enhancing the transition of the members from being dependant on the group to being on their own.
Conclusion
Social Group Work, whereas a method for the group worker, is a significant new experience for the members, designed to give them an opportunity to come together and fulfill their needs and desires through a group process. In Social Group Work through guided group experience, the group is helped to develop responsibly and with maturity. From the stage of forming the group to its termination, through carefully and well planned programmes, the group is helped to achieve its potential. The stages and the activities associated with it provide structure and direction to the process. Theoretically we may segregate different stages of group development for conceptual clarity but in reality these stages are intertwined with each other. On the basis of the classification by different experts we can say that a group can have maximum six stages as discussed by Trecker or a minimum three stages of
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development, as explained by Bales. We have discussed the stages as follows:

First stage: Second Stage: Third Stage: Fourth Stage: Fifth Stage: Forming the group Exploration Performing Assessment Termination (Beginning) (Initial sessions) (Action Phase) (Evaluation) (Ending phase)
Before forming a group the group worker must study the target population. The details that have to be focused while planning and forming the group are the size of the group, its composition, frequency of the sessions and their duration time and place of meetings and duration of the group. The exploration stage involves the following steps, namely orientation and induction; Preparation of the profile of the members; setting specific objectives; developing a structure. Planning and development of the program, its execution and monitoring are the defining features of the performing stage which is the most active phase. After the action phase is over, the group is ready to evaluate the outcome of its efforts in a free, frank and objective manner. In the last sessions the worker prepares the group for the termination stage. Here s/he shares the final evaluation with the group and analyzes how far they were successful in accomplishing some of the goals and failed to achieve others, as the case may be. The role of the worker varies at each stage of development, the bottom line being that the worker has to understand the level of the group at each stage and proceed at the pace of the group. Though the importance of group work as a therapeutic method of social work intervention is being gradually realized in our country, the fact remains that it is still
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primarily practiced by the students of social work as a part of their field work training and thereafter the scope of using this method is generally limited. In India the groups have to be formed by the group worker in most cases. S/ he may form the group from among the existing clientele of the social welfare agencies/NGOs or from among the open community settings.
References
Garvin, Charles D. et al (eds.) (2008) Handbook of Social Work With Groups, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Konopka Gisela. (1963) Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Englewood Cliffs , N.J. Prentice Hall Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008) Group Work: Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Trecker, Harleigh B. (1955) Social Group Work- Principles and Practices, New York: Association Press Wilson, Gertrude and Gladys Ryland. (1949) Social Group Work Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
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Process of Group Formation

*Manju Kumar
Introduction
You have already learnt about nature of groups and the meaning of group dynamics. You may recall that groups have a life span of their own, i.e. they come into being; go through different phases of development including conflicts, threats of disintegration, and / or achievement of cohesiveness; and then come to an end. Studies on group work practice have demonstrated that group experiences influence considerably the persons constituting its membership and in a significant manner. A professional Social Worker using group as a vehicle to help people has, therefore, to be very careful whether use of group as a medium of help is clearly indicated. Social Work is defined as a planned change activity. Planning, therefore, is crucial element of all social work interventions, including social group work. The discussion on the stages of development through which a group passes highlights the importance of the processes that a group worker has to engage in before the persons joining a group ever come together. Planning and actions that a social group worker undertakes at the pre-group stage have a far reaching impact on the success of the group, in terms of the cohesiveness a group achieves; in the context of its performance in achieving group goals; or
*Ms. Manju Kumar, Dr. B.R.A.C. University of Delhi
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with reference to the satisfaction its members experience. In fact, group formation is the starting-point of all group development and performance.
Group Formation
An Assembly of the Elements Assembly is the deliberate combination of parts to form an envisioned whole, according to an implicit or explicit plan or plans. The primary challenge of assembly is .to select and combine people and resources keeping in mind how different combinations of elements with different arrays of attributes are likely to fit together. (Arrow, et al, 2000) Group formation can be viewed as resulting from the planned assembly of elements plus dynamics emerging from the process of this collection. The most important elements in a group are people with their resources, and intentions. The other elements are external and contextual. Before we move forward, let us recall some descriptions of a group. Group is a collection or assemblage of persons having common characteristics, interests, goals, or objectives; two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by the other. They both recognise themselves as a group and are seen by other people as a group. The formation of a group is driven in part by the motivated action of their members. The structure of new groups is also determined in part by constraints, opportunities and demands in the contexts in which the groups are situated. People who are not group members are often instrumental in forming new groups. External and internal forces contribute to both assembly and dynamic patterns
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emerging due to the transformation of people, resources, and intentions in the context of the whole. Group formation is not a single process with minor variations. Distinctly different sequences of events can result in the formation of new and different groups. Cartwright & Zander (1968) identified three distinct circumstances under which groups come into being: Deliberate formation - formed by one or more people in order to accomplish some objective. Spontaneous formation - Formation of the group is based on voluntary interpersonal choices. The group is formed because people expect to derive satisfaction from associating together, for example, friendship groups, gangs and professional groups. External designation - formed because they (individuals) are treated in a homogeneous manner by other people. These external designations can lead to the deliberate formation of groups. In deliberately formed or concocted groups, agents external to the group deliberately assign people to groups and typically designate the groups purpose as well. Many work groups, problem-solving groups, therapy groups, social action groups, and advocacy/ mediating groups; and the vast majority of groups in Social Psychology, and groups formed for educational purposes fall in this category. Besides spontaneous groups mentioned above are circumstantial groups, where events throw people together and give them a reason to interact and form groups for collective action. In self-organised groups, a new collective arises out of interaction amongst a sub-set of people in a larger social setting. These people are not actively trying
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to form a group, it just happens. High levels of inter- member coordination because of interpersonal interaction prior to group formation influences this. Factors Affecting Group Formation Many factors come into play in the creation of groups. According to Tosi, Rizzo and Carroll (1986) important variables which influence group formation include: Personal characteristics, which include shared beliefs, values, attitudes, security needs and affiliation needs. Interests and goals in common. Influence, since a group can exert more power and influence to get proper attention and action. Opportunity for interaction, which helps in developing affinities and relationships. Other factors are similar functional departments, cooperative physical activities, intellectual pursuits, emotional needs or protection, and attention and friendship Wilson and Ryland (1949), highlighting factors which needed to be kept in mind while forming groups said, Every social worker who works with groups need to be aware of such factors such as the size of the group; the setting- both agency and community, in which the group is meeting; the personality and health of the members, their cultural, social, and economic backgrounds; and the relationship of this group to other groups in the agency and the community. Factors of likeness and difference religious, ethnic, political, economic, social class, and generation play a large role in even those groups that are smallest in numbers and youngest in point of members ages. (p. 36)
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In nutshell, three main factors which influence group formation and subsequent group development and performance are individual- group society, that is, individual and group goals; resources, expectations and motivations of individual members; group structure including composition and size (internal factors); environment and resources of agency, socio-economic conditions, social context of groups (external factors). External and internal forces, planned assembly, and emergent processes play a part in the formation of all groups. However, the balance of forces that shape their formation differs markedly across groups. Theories of Group Formation A number of authors and researchers have put forth different theories and perspectives to explain why and how people come together to form groups. An understanding of these perspectives is useful while matching the purpose of the group with prospective membership. Researchers have yet to develop a comprehensive theory to explain how and why groups form, but there are two perspectives that offer some answers: functional perspective suggests that groups form because they serve a useful function or fulfill a need for their individual members. The interpersonal attraction perspective suggests that groups form because its members like one another and seek to spend time together. (Cottam, et al 2004, p 66-68) Functional Perspective states that groups are formed to fulfill survival needs, including feeding, defense, nurturance, and reproduction; psychological needs like need for affiliation; need for power need to control others. According to FIRO (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
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Orientation) given by Schultz (1958), joining a group can fulfill three basic needs inclusion (desire to be part of a group); control (the need to organize an aspect of the group); and affection (the desire to establish positive relations with others). Another category of needs that can often be served well by groups is informational needs. People often have a need to determine if their own view points are correct and accurate. This perspective suggests that people join groups to better understand social reality. Groups can also meet peoples interpersonal needs. Many groups can provide social support, giving emotional sustenance, advice, and valuable feedback. Social support can be a valuable function of groups protect us from harmful effects of stress; protect us from being lonely. Finally, groups can fulfill important collective needs groups can be more productive and efficient than an individual working alone, that is, by pooling the efforts of multiple people. Some of the collective goals sought by groups include engaging in the performing arts; enriching the leisure time of its members; changing the opinions of the persons outside the group; and making routine individual tasks more tolerable. Interpersonal Attraction Perspective Sometimes, groups form because individuals discover that they like each other and want to spend more time together. Many factors that influence our liking of another include the following: We tend to be attracted to those who are most similar to us in attitudes, beliefs, socio-economic status, physical appearance and so on.
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We tend to form relationship with those who are physically closer to us - those living next door, those we sit next to in class, and those we work with closely. We like people who like us We are attracted to people who are physically attractive. Within the twin perspectives mentioned above various theories have been developed to explain why people form groups. One of the most fundamental theories of group formation is propinquity or proximity which asserts that people tend to affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical closeness. Another comprehensive theory of group formation is the social systems theory which states that individuals tend to interact in a group to solve problems, reduce tension, attain goals, and achieve balance. Still another theory of group formation is the balance theory that asserts that individuals are attracted to one another because of their identical attitudes towards some common objects and goals. Attempts are made to maintain a symmetrical balance between the attraction and the common attitudes. The exchange theory, which is based upon rewards-costs results of interaction, also deserves attention. A minimum positive level (i.e. rewards exceeding costs) of a result must be maintained so that attraction occurs. Here, rewards from interaction satisfy needs while costs cause tension. (Dwivedi 2001, p.265-269) There are two other theories that assert that homogeneity has primacy in forming of groups. Research on both similarity-attraction theory and self-categorization theory suggests that people are likely to be attracted more to those who are similar on demographic characteristics such as race, age, and gender. Thus, it has been suggested that self-organized groups will tend to be homogeneous.
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Planning Group Formation in Social Group Work

Group workers form groups frequently in social agencies, court services, clinics, hospitals and schools. Groups may be formed around specific symptoms (epilepsy, bed- wetting); certain behaviours (groups of hyperactive or withdrawn children); or specific forms of treatment (patients undergoing by-pass surgery). Groups may be formed around common concerns of people for others: parents seeking or needing help with problems of their children; relatives trying to understand their mentally sick spouses, parents or children; citizens working on specific community problems such as housing, playgrounds, better schools or health facilities, sanitation or provision of other civic amenities. (Konopka, 1972; p.42) Support or self- help groups are formed by people who share common concerns. The groups may be participant-initiated or sponsored by a health care institution, social services agency or nonprofit organization. Various definitions of social group work highlight the fact that it is a purposeful activity; it is planned; and it covers within its purview individuals, groups, group worker, social agency and the community in which the group and social agency operate. Primary purposes of social group work include helping individuals with their social functioning (Konopka, 1963) as also providing a context in which individuals help each other; it aims at helping groups as well as individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, organizational and community problems. (Brown, 1986) Planning a Group All social work activity is a planned and purposeful. Very often, in a rush to get a group going, adequate attention is
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not given to planning. As stated earlier, a thorough planning is essential for the success of a social work group. According to Northen and Kurland (2001, p.109-111) planning comprises the thinking, preparation, decision making, and actions of the social worker prior to the first meeting of a group. Within the social and agency contexts of service, the following interrelated components of planning need to be considered for the formation of the group: 1) 2) Need what are the problems, issues and areas of concern of the prospective group members Purpose Purpose flows out of the previous component of Need. What ends and objectives will the group pursue collectively? What are the goals of the group members individually? Composition - How many members will there be in the group? What are important points of similarities and differences between them? Structure Specific arrangements to facilitate the conduct of the group, especially in terms of time and place. Content What will actually take place in the group? Pre-group contact
3)
4)
5) 6)
If the group membership is predetermined, the process starts from composition, for example, all female students studying in a particular class of a school or an entire floor of a residential institution. The worker then tries to ascertain the needs, capabilities and motivations of the persons mandated to be in the group; determines the purpose, structure, and content and engages in pre-group contacts.
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Components of Purpose and Composition listed above are explained further. Purpose: There is need to find the best fit among different perceptions of purpose of the proposed group the purpose envisaged by the agency, the group worker, the individual member and the group as a whole. Purpose defines the type of the proposed group (Northen and Kurland, 2001, p.126): a) Socialization and growth-oriented groups- to develop members competence in area of common need, to enhance personal growth and to cope with challenges of developmental tasks; Support and self-help groups: to provide peer support and mutual aid in relieving stress related to difficult life situation, to fight discrimination and enhance self- esteem when persons are stigmatized as a result of other persons lack of understanding or prejudice concerning their ethnicity, situation, illness, or behaviour. Task groups, teams and social action groups: to accomplish a particular task. The boundaries of purpose in Growth-oriented and task groups may often get blurred overtime.
b)
c)
Composition: Composition refers to the number and characteristics of both members and the worker who will participate in the group. An understanding of need and a tentative formulation of purpose are key determinants of composition. (Malekoff, 2004, p.70) A widely accepted principle of composition is that the group should be similar (homogenous) enough to ensure commonality of need / interest and compatibility but disparate (heterogeneous) enough to ensure that members
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will contribute to each others benefit. Referring to number of studies, Benson (1987, p.23) states that a group is more effective if members have similar descriptive attributes (age, caste, gender, residence or geographical proximity, marital status, disability or difficult social situation, occupation or socio-economic status, etc.) as this encourages cohesion, interactiveness and compatibility. On the other hand, different behavioural attributes (ability to communicate, motivational levels, ability to relate to others, degree of disturbance etc.) will be useful to the group in fostering interest and responsiveness. Knowledge of interests (assumed, expressed or implicit), needs, motivations and aspirations and their social milieu helps worker to make reliable assessment of potential members to anticipate members behaviour and responses in the proposed group. In the therapy groups, extensive formal intake interviews are required to identify the members likely to benefit most from the proposed group. Decisions to be taken Much before the group is brought into existence or formed and the method of group work applied, the professional social worker has to find answers to some important questions and take certain decisions. 1) What are the aims, mission and programmes of the social agency or any other auspices within which social worker is operating? Who constitute the target groups of the social agency? Is group work the best way to help the target group? Can individuals better be helped through use of case work? Are there some needs, problems or concerns which are shared by a number of people for whom some common aim can be identified? Is the group likely
2) 3)
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to be a useful and efficient device for helping the target population? To decide to use groups because it is comparatively economical (vis--vis case work) is a mistaken notion. Group work has its own demands on the worker and the members which require serious consideration. 4) Is using groups to help people feasible in terms of required resources in terms of time, space, equipment, finances or skills, necessary support and social environment? What are the likely costs and benefits of joining the group for the prospective members and for those outside the group? Since usually the professional social workers are not trained in the use of specific methods of social work (especially in generic courses), the worker planning to form the group needs to ascertain his / her own expertise and comfort level in working with groups. What is the specific purpose of the group under consideration? Who decides the purpose for the group the agencys service delivery system, the workers perception or judgment, some social group or an individual in the community? What benefits can the worker hope to procure for the persons drawn from the target population? The purpose of the group may develop from the client group of the social agency or from the agencys decision itself. Who are the prospective members of the group? How will they be selected and enlisted in the group? Are you acquainted with the population group from where the members will be drawn? Often, while working in a community, a residential institution, hospital or school, the worker may be familiar to the persons in the target group. However, the decision to
5)
6)
7)
8) 9)
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form a group will require deeper insight into potential members personal characteristics and their capacity to benefit from group experiences. 10) Will the selection of the members be on the basis of - self-selection where individuals are free to come together on their own, such groups tending to be of people known to each other, having affinity in some area of common interest. the worker deliberately selects prospective members according to their interest, skill, need, problem or concern keeping also in mind the purpose of the proposed group; membership is mandated by some authority as in the case of delinquents / probationers mandated by the Courts; or the Principal of a school directing students engaged in indiscipline to report in a group; 11) The group worker needs to make detailed planning decisions about the structure and character of the group. Thinking out a suitable group structure for a population of persons is a fairly complex task which requires an understanding of the population, information about the range of groups which can be designed, and an appreciation of the demands which different structures make on group members and of the experiences which different structures are likely to generate (Whitaker1985, p 12) What is the expected duration of the group in terms of number of sessions (say, 10 to 20 sessions) after
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which the group is expected to disband or terminate, or it will be open-ended as it very often happens in groups in the open community, or in residential institutions where the inmates population is fluid because the inmates may get discharged and new inmates join in. What will be the duration and frequency of the sessions, for example, weekly sessions of one or one-and-half hour each. What will be the size of the proposed group? How many members will be enrolled? Social group work is more effective in small groups as it facilitates interactions, communication and efficient role performance. Usually the preferred size is 7-8 members but the range of 5-10 members is acceptable (Yalom quoted by Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.136). However, depending on the purpose, a relatively larger group also may work well. Another determinant of the size is the prospective members capacity to interact in groups. For members with limited interactional skills, the size of the group could be limited to 4-5 persons (e.g., in case of mentally challenged children) Decision about the composition of the group has to be made right at the planning stage. We have already referred to the issue of homogeneity and heterogeneity among the members (i.e., similarity or dissimilarity along social categories like age, gender, minority status, ethnicity, social problems, etc) as also the factors which may influence members willingness to join in the proposed group. In therapy oriented groups size and composition are of vital significance.
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What programme will be followed in the group discussions open or topic oriented; activities games, art & craft work, drama, role plays, simulation, community service etc.; get-togethers or combination of these? What resources in terms of space, time, finances and technology will be required by the group? Are the same available in the agency / community or do they need to be generated? 12) Does the worker need to make pre-group contacts with prospective members or engage in some preparatory work with them? 13) Deciding how to open the group, how to monitor the group through its life span, how to evaluate the groups performance and development, and when and how to terminate the group is equally important for efficient planning of a group. 14) In many of the non-social work institutions like schools, hospitals, prisons the social worker needs co-operation and support of staff belonging to other disciplines. It is important to ensure that the proposed group will receive necessary support from other staff of the agency. 15) The worker has to ascertain whether s/he needs permission of some authority for launching the proposed group. In case of community based self-help groups, support and sanction of community leaders is often vital for the success of the group.
Process of Group Formation Tasks Undertaken by the Social Group Worker

We mentioned in the forgoing discussion that the worker has to find answers to certain important questions while
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embarking on the use of a group to help the target group. Now we will outline the actual tasks the worker has to engage in to initiate the process of group formation. 1) Once the use of group has been accepted as the best possible option (after considering different alternatives) for helping the designated population group, the group worker has to formulate a tentative purpose for the group. The worker identifies a common need or concern of the target group and translates that need into a tentative purpose of the prospective group. The following situations may illustrate the rationale for selecting group work as a better option to help: a) several people facing similar situation can benefit from sharing their experiences (parents of mentally challenged children); b) persons belonging to same stage of development like adolescents who can benefit from positive group experiences; c) when individuals have problems with authority figures, in relating to others or having problem of isolation; d) when the target for change is in the social environment like sanitation, educational or health services and the need is for enhanced civic amenities; e) when people wish or need to avail of the benefit of some beneficiary-oriented scheme of the govt. which requires formation of a group, like self-help groups for procuring microcredit. 2) If the worker is required to work with an already existing group, s/he needs to comprehend its purpose before s/he begins work with the group.
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3)
Achieving optimally effective composition of the group is a crucial task during the formation process. Will the group constitute only of women or young girls, only of men or male youth, of children, of able-bodied or differently-abled persons; will it be a mix of persons belonging to different regions, religions, languages and cultural background, with different educational and socio-economic status? This decision will largely be based on the tentative purpose formulated, anticipated member behaviour and emotional response to prospective members and the knowledge of the patterns of habitual social intercourse prevailing in the larger population group. For example in Indian society, groups with the mix of genders are socially not very acceptable, unless the groups purpose is task-oriented (for example in the corporate sector) which may benefit by a combination of diverse skills and perspectives; or a group composed of all aggressive or all withdrawn persons may not benefit from interaction with each other. Who is selected to be the member of the proposed group has lasting impact on the individual member and the group as a whole. If persons are placed in groups that are unsuitable for them, they may be harmed by the membership or may drop out of the group. Different results flow from different combination of people. What is important is to see that there is a good fit between any one person and the other group members. (Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.129) The size of the group should be determined by the nature of interaction among the members and their participation necessary for achieving the purpose of the individual members and the group as a whole.
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4)
The worker identifies potential members from the designated population group on the basis of different criteria mentioned earlier. a) The worker may select members from students of a class; from a list prepared on the basis of a survey of the families below poverty line or of children afflicted with some specified disability; from the census report; from membership of previous groups; from the list of persons who may have applied for a particular course or training; or the official records of courts, hospitals, therapists, psychiatric clinics etc. b) The worker may need to advertise (by word of mouth, leaflets, posters, ads in the newspapers, letters to the institutions like schools from where the potential members can be drawn), state the purpose of initiating the group and invite members to join. (i) In a community-based agency, the worker talked to the community leaders, local MLA and Municipal Councillor, visited the potential members personally and explained the purpose of the group and its likely benefits for them. In an epilepsy clinic for children, parents accompanying their wards were contacted by the social worker and the purpose, content and structure of the proposed group was explained to them personally. In a residential Home for destitute children, the worker, though known to the inmates on account of her different responsibilities, explored the strengths and liabilities of the prospective members in terms of the purpose
(ii)
iii)
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envisaged, the contribution expected of the members for the proposed group and informed all potential members about the group to be launched and its purpose and structure. 5) Pre-group contacts form a significant part of the workers tasks during the group formation process. The aim of these contacts is to secure appropriate members for the group being planned and their preparation for participation in that group. Through these contacts, the people in the target population get to know the availability and nature of the group- based service, their eligibility for that service, ascertain if their goals are similar to others to be met through the group and prepare them for entry in the particular group. (Northen & Kurland, 2001, p.155). The above- mentioned tasks may require more than one visit or meeting. The worker informs the potential members the tentatively planned group structure, the duration and the frequency of the sessions. In case of a group of children or young adults, pre-group contacts also entail meeting the parents / family members to apprise them of the proposed group, its purpose, the benefits it will offer and its structure. Pre-group contacts may occur during a meeting of the community residents and community leaders or during some social / religious event during which the worker gets an opportunity to introduce the group to be launched. Pre-group interview (one or more than one) with potential member helps clarify and alleviate members anxiety about the groups structure, expectations of the group in terms of his role, response of other members towards his membership. It brings out valuable data about the members attitudes, perception of his need, life situation or difficulty; and his capacity to relate to and to communicate with others;
6)
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In therapy groups, Intake interviews are held with individuals to arrive at an in-depth assessment of the nature and severity of the problem, difficulty or situation; on the basis of which their compatibility or incompatibility to group membership may be decided. 7) Even when the potential members are convinced of the purpose of the group, they may be anxious to know as to what exactly is expected of them, how will the group work and what will the other members be like. Pre-group contact also initiates worker member relationship, whether conducted through an individual interview, a visit to the locality of the potential members, or in a meeting held in the community. Certain rules and norms that the members are expected to observe initially, the issues of confidentiality, democratic participation, anti- discrimination, and the manner of modifying the norms need to be shared with the potential members during pre-group contacts.
8)
9)
Right from the point of worker / agency agreeing to plan the group; spelling out its purpose, structure, membership; undertaking publicity; selection and recruitment of potential members, worker has to perform numerous important tasks which have long lasting impact on the groups success in terms of achievement of its goal individual members and the group. Planning the entire process of group formation before the group has its first meeting is vital for the groups success.
Practice Principles: Guidelines for Group Formation

A number of practitioners and authors have formulated Practice Principles for effective and efficient group work
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practice. Some of these are particularly concerned with the group formation phase of group work. These principles offer guidelines to the worker for securing effective formation of the proposed group. 1) Comfort level of the worker - Since the professional social workers are usually not trained in the use of specific methods of social work (especially in generic courses), the worker planning to form the group needs to ascertain his / her own expertise and comfort level in working with groups. Whether the worker needs to enhance his / her knowledge and skills before embarking on group formation or to enlist the help of a more experienced co- worker is an important issue to be resolved. Planning for a groups formation is a most vital step in the group based service to the target population. To avoid its conflict with the value of clients right to self-determination the plan should not be rigid. In fact, flexibility and creativity are two essential attributes of planning undertaken for group formation. Secure organizational support and sanction for group, and address organizational resistance to groups if needed. The purpose of forming the group in view should be clearly for the benefit and service of the target population and not merely to receive aid and grants from some financing organization, to collect data for an undisclosed purpose, or to project certain image in the community. This kind of hidden agenda involves manipulation of the target groups and is unethical practice. Develop and articulate verbally and/or in writing a clear statement of group purpose that reflects member
2)
3)
4)
5)
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needs and, where appropriate, agency mission. (AASGW) According to Newstetter, the deliberate formation of a new group should be encouraged only after the careful review of three considerations: a) the interests, abilities, experiences and needs of each prospective individual member, b) the agencys purpose, c) the availability of suitable facilities, leadership and supervision. (1980, p.101) 6) The workers often feel uncomfortable in honestly admitting of the purpose envisaged by them or by the agency. They feel that the purpose as it appears in the blue print of the plan may not sound too attractive to the prospective members and, therefore, speak of the purpose in terms which they think may be acceptable to the prospective members. This is likely to create mistrust, confusion and anxiety among the potential members. Particularly in the case of involuntary groups (mandated membership like in groups under court order or students under suspension for indiscipline), the clarity in the statement of purpose, the proposed group structure and content is very vital to win prospective members, participation, interaction and trust. Develop and articulate clear statement of worker role that reflects the groups purpose. Use preparatory empathy to tune into members feelings and reactions to groups beginning.
7)
8) 9)
10) Tuning-in helps the worker anticipate members needs and feelings and develop preliminary empathy. The worker also tunes-in to ones own feelings, attitudes and thoughts about the ensuing group encounter.
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11) Establish meeting place, time, etc. that promotes member comfort and cohesion. 12) Negotiation and contracting with the members in the context of purpose, structure and norms of the proposed group contribute significantly to future stability and cohesiveness of the group. 13) Groups need to be formed in a way that enables them to do the work that they will be asked to do. This involves minimizing barriers to group cohesiveness and then giving them the resources they need (in terms of talent, time, etc.). 14) For the formation to be efficient, group workers need to take into account any constraints that can influence the performance of the group as a whole and that of the individuals within the group, such as their previous experience, gender, ethnicity, and interests. 15) The worker needs to pay special attention to composition issues to achieve a balanced group. 16) The worker is accountable for his /her professional expertise which is made available for the service of the people. While formulating Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups, AASGW recommended the following areas of knowledge for the group worker at the pre-group stage: A) Organizations mission and function and how this influences nature of group work service B) Social and institutional barriers which may impact on the development of group work service C) Issues associated with group composition D) Human life cycle and its relationship to potential members needs
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E) Cultural factors and their influence on potential members lives and their ability to engage in group and relate to others F) Types of groups and their relationship to member needs G) Specific types of individual and social problems that lead to a need for group
Conclusion
Getting a group formed takes time and skills. Called variously as the group formation stage, pre-group or pre- affiliation stage, it requires thoughtful and serious planning and its rigorous and patient execution before the first meeting of the group is ever conducted. Group formation constitutes of a series of interconnected activities, which are based on a judicious and well thought out plan. Society, social agency, the social group worker and the people availing of the group-based services together determine what kind of group is planned and launched; who join the proposed group and why; and what is going to happen in the group in the forthcoming period. Prior to the first meeting, a conception of the necessity and utility of group experience has to be framed in the contexts of the worker / agency perceptions, which in turn, is based on the workers personal and professional experiences, knowledge of human development and social systems. Other relevant factors follow from this initial conceptualization. The major components of the group formation plan embedded in the social and agency contexts are need, purpose, structure, content and pre-group contacts.
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Worker has to engage in a number of tasks to recruit and prepare potential members for the proposed group. How balanced a group membership is managed by the worker will ensure, to a great extent, the success of the group in terms of achievement of individual / group / agency goals. You have learnt practice principles particularly relevant to pre-group or group formation. These principles go a long way in guiding group formation process along effective and ethical pathways.
References
1) Malekoff, Andrew, Group Work with Adolescents: Principles and Practice, The Guilford Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2004 Wilson, Gertrude, Ryland, Gladys, Social Group Work Practice: The Creative Use of the Social Process, Houghton Mifflin Co., The Riberside Press, Cambridge, USA, 1949. Brown, Allan, Groupwork, Gower Publishing Company Ltd., Aldershot 2nd ed. 1986 Johnson, Louise C., Social Work Practice: A Generalist Approach, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 6th Ed.1998 Northen, Helen & Kurland, Roselle, Social Work with Groups, Columbia University Press, New York, 3rd Ed.2001 Benson, Jarlath F., Working More Creatively with Groups, Tavistock Publications, London, 1987 Konopka, Gisela, Social group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1972, 1963
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Balgopal, Pallassana R. & Vassil, Thomas V., Groups in Social Work- An Ecological Perspective, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1983 Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups, Inc., Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups, AASWG, Alexandria, VA, 2nd ed., 2006 Whitaker, Dorothy Stock, Using Groups to Help People, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1985 Newstetter, Wilber, Regulatory Principles, in Albert S. Alissi (ed.) Perspectives on Social Group Work Practice: A Book of Readings, The Free Press, New York, 1980. Dwivedi, R. S., Human Relations and Organisational Behaviour: A Global Perspective, Macmillan India Ltd., Delhi, 2001, 5th Ed. Pp 265-269 Tosi, H.L., Rizzo, J.R., & Carroll, S.J. 1986. Managing Organizational Behaviour. NewYork, NY: Pitman (Quoted in Management of agricultural research: A training manual. Module 4: Leadership, http:// www.fao.org/docrep/W7504E/w7504e05.htm Cartwright, D., Zander, A. (eds.), Group Dynamics, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1968. Cottam Martha L., Dietz-Uhler Beth, Masters Elena M., Preston Thomas, Introduction to Political Psychology , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, London 2004 Roth, Jeffrey D., Dynamics differ when group is mandated to participate, Addiction Professional, 2005
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http://www.encyclopedia.com/printable.aspx?id= 1G1:134274628 17) Baugher, Dan, Varanelli Jr., Andrew,.and Weisbord, Ellen, Gender And Culture Diversity Occurring In Self-formed Work Groups, Journal of Managerial Issues Volume XII Number 4 Winter 2000 Ounnas, Asma, Semantic (Group Formation), PhD Research Proposal, 2007 University of Southampton, UK
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Values and Principles in Social Group Work

*Ranjana Sehgal
Introduction
No man is an island unto himself said John Donne and rightly so. Human beings were not meant to live alone. The process of growing up takes place in one or the other group; be it family, peers, neighbourhood or community. Man is a social being and cannot survive alone. Group life is thus, basic to human life. A group is a collection of human beings who enter into social relationships with one another involving mutual give and take. Social Group Work is focused around a group; it emphasizes the intellectual, social and emotional growth and development of the members of the group. It is a process in which a qualified social work practitioner helps individuals in a group to have a satisfactory group experience through different programs aimed at enhancing their psycho-social functioning. It is through different activities in a group situation that an individual is able to discover her/his hidden strengths, talents and abilities. Social Group Work plays a vital role in the all round development of an individual, thereby contributes to the better functioning of the community and society as a whole.
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Social Group Workers have an ethical obligation to function within the confines of a theoretical base comprising of tested interventions and principles of practice. The Social Group Work as a method of social work has embraced a set of values which have been translated into certain principles which seek to govern the conduct of practitioners. We shall now take a look at the values and the principles that define the Social Group Work practice.
Values in Social Group Work

Observations pertaining to the fact that groups influence the psycho-social and psychological makeup of man have been the bedrock of the theoretical and value base of Social Group Work. All professions have value preferences that give purpose , meaning and direction to people who practice within them.Professional values however do not exist separate and apart from societal values; rather professions espouse and champion selected societal values. (Hepworth and Larsen, 1992,) According to Northen (2007) values are abstract propositions about what is right, desirable or worthwhile. Values of group work refer to how the practitioner should view and treat people, their goals and how these goals should be reached during the process. In a profession, the values are translated into ethical principles of practice. According to the National Association of Social workers (NASW) code of ethics broad ethical principles are based on social works core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of individual, importance of human relationships, integrity and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire. The basic values of group work deal with human relationships. These basic values as conceptualized by Northen (2007: 77) are given below:
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Dignity and Worth Like in case work and community organization, an important value of Social Group Work is the belief in the inherent worth and dignity of each person. All persons should be accepted as they are and their special strengths recognized. They should be treated with respect irrespective of their differences and similarities and their integrity is of paramount importance. Every individual is unique and has an inherent worth, interactions with them as they use resources and opportunities should not hurt rather should enhance their dignity and individuality. Without fear of negative sanctions, they should have the freedom to express themselves. The group worker should recognize the value that every member no matter whatever are her/ his drawbacks and handicaps has worth and deserves to be respected and treated as a dignified member of the society. Social Justice Inherent in all social work is the value of promoting social justice wherin all should have equal access to resources and opportunities. Everybody has the right to civil liberties and equal opportunity without discrimination as to race, ethnicity religion, social class, gender, sexual orientation, and capacities. They should have access to resources that are essential to meet their basic needs. They have the right to self-determination and to participate in making group, family, or organizational decisions within the limits imposed by the individuals culture and status. Individuals may sometimes need resources that are not available, the worker has to then take on the role of an advocate and take up their cause. S/he may organize support groups and self-help groups to help people cope with the difficult problems of their living.
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Mutual Responsibility The value of mutual responsibility is based on the conviction that people are interdependent for survival and fulfillment of their needs. Neither the individual nor the society can be conceived without each other. As individuals interact, they influence and in turn are influenced by each other. They are capable of helping one another. Group work builds on this interdependence, which can become a potent force for development and change. The worker is responsible for helping members to develop patterns of communication and norms of behaviour that foster mutual aid. Members should fulfill their responsibility to society by actively participating in the democratic processes. Northen (2007) is of the view that though social workers are bound by ethical principles set forth in the codes of ethics, they need also to understand and differentially apply these principles, when working with groups.
Principles of Social Group Work

Principles are the fundamental truths tested by observation and experiment which guide action. Over the years from social group work practice, have emerged certain principles which provide a theoretical framework to the practitioners while working with people in groups. They provide a set of guidelines which help them achieve a certain level of competence by guiding practice. Social workers with groups have a responsibility to practice within the realm of the accumulated theoretical base, tested interventions, and ethical principles. (Northen, 2007) Social science theory is always in a fluid state, as it keeps changing and evolving. The principles of Social Group Work too will keep changing in tandem with our progressive experience and discovery of new insights into social group
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work as a method of social work. Different authors have outlined different principles of working with groups from time to time, conceptualizing the important areas of focus for the Social Group Worker. It is not possible here to discuss all the principles put forth by different authors, therefore we shall outline the principles propounded by only two authors, reflecting the earlier and the modern day thinking, respectively. In 1948 Harleigh B. Trecker wrote at great length about the principles of Social Group Work in his famous book Social Group Work: Principles and Practice which is still read widely. The ten principles of Social Group Work as conceptualized by Trecker are briefly discussed below outlining the main points: The Principle of Planned Group Formation The Social Group Work process uses group as a medium for providing services to the individual, hence the formation of a group is a prerequisite for a group worker. Whether a group worker works with groups already functioning or forms her own group, s/he should be aware of certain factors while forming a group so that the group becomes a positive potential for individual growth. A group has to be formed in a planned way before initiating the group work process. From what is explained by Trecker we can say this principle comprises the following fundamentals: Groups like individuals are different, evolving, developmental and ever-changing and tremendously influential upon the behaviour of individuals. The group in Social Group Work must possess elements of conscious design and plan.
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The group worker should not seek to require all groups to be alike nor expect them to meet identical needs. The group workers skill will be evident in the way s/ he consciously gives aid at the point of group formation. In India group formation can become a difficult exercise as the people may lack the motivation to join a group and may do so after much persuasion. So the group worker must have the skill to deal with the resistance of such members. The group worker should be equipped with an in-depth understanding of the client population, and pay attention to interpersonal compatibility and other factors such as age, caste, gender, socio-cultural background etc. The Principle of Specific Group Objectives Specific objectives of individual and group development must be consciously formulated by the worker in harmony with group wishes and capacities and in keeping with agency function. The group worker should help the members achieve the overall objectives of social work through its own specific objectives, which are to assist individuals to grow and change; supplement emotional and social nourishment; promote democratic participation and remedy individual and social disorganization. Agencies and their workers must be aware of what people want from group experiences and help them to get it. The group worker who recognizes the need for consciously formulated specific objectives for individuals and groups becomes a purposeful, rather than an unfocused worker and makes the group work in a planned than haphazard exercise.
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Objectives, thus, become a controlling force in the life of the group and the group worker should have clarity about the specific goals s/he wants to achieve along with the benefits s/he is hoping the members would get. When the worker focuses on individual and group objectives, s/ he reduces the likelihood of permitting her/his own needs to get in the way of the group. S/he helps the members to see their strengths and limitations and set their objectives accordingly, in alignment with the agencys formulated purposes. The expectations and the aspirations of the members should also be given due weightage while formulating the objectives and activities planned accordingly. The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship A consciously purposeful relationship must be established between the worker and the group members based on mutual acceptance. This principle is based on the premise that it is both possible and necessary to create an effective working relationship with a group before the worker can be of any help. Before the worker helps the group members to develop meaningful relationships with each other, s/he should first create a meaningful and purposeful relationship with the group. The workers relationship with the group is a major tool, and the quality and strength of this relationship determine the extent to which the group can be helped to the fullest realization of its potentialities. When the group workers adopt the procedures suggested by this principle, they begin their work
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motivated by an initial desire to understand the group as a basis for helping it. By encouraging the group to be itself and accepting it as it is, the worker becomes accepted and helpful to the group. The Principle of Continuous Individualization Groups are different and individuals utilize group experiences in a variety of ways to meet their differing needs; consequently, the principle of continuous individualization must be practiced by the group worker. Each group has to be seen as unique, different from any other group, like the members in the group. When the group worker individualizes a group, she accepts the fact that human beings are naturally different. To work with groups in awareness of their differences as well as similarities is a reinforcement of the belief that people have a capacity to change, when given adequate opportunities for and help in changing. The worker should be ready for a variety of individual responses rather than a uniformity of response. S/he should accept the differences in individual ability and growth; strive to help individuals understand themselves and help them modify their behaviour towards those who have special needs. Individualization should be a continuous process on the part of the group worker who accepts the certainty of change.
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The Principle of Guided Group Interaction Social Group Work is a method through which individuals in groups in an agency setting are helped by a professionally trained worker who guides their interaction in various program activities. The idea is that they relate themselves with others and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and capacities. Interaction is a process whereby two or more persons are in a meaningful contact, whereby their behaviour is modified. When people are in groups, the possibility of interaction and inter-stimulation are always present. The main source of energy which propels the group is the interaction of the members and the group worker influences this interaction by the quality of her/his participation. As the possibility of inter-stimulation through interaction is always present in a group, the Social Group Worker must harness and consciously direct and utilize this natural social process. The presence of the worker whose role is to actively influence the type and the degree of interaction, converts the social process into the social group work process. The worker is primarily interested in helping to bring about individual growth and social development for the group as a whole as a result of guided group interaction. S/he enhances the potential for interaction by helping members to assume participating roles.
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The Social Group Worker uses methods that stimulate the group to the fullest possible analysis and understanding of their own situation and thereupon influence the social interaction of the constituent members of the society The Principle of Democratic Group Self-Determination The Principle of self-determination is a core value of the social work philosophy and has to be practiced, irrespective of the method of working. In Social Group Work method, as in other methods of social work this principle is of great significance. The idea is to inculcate in the members an ideology of democracy. The group must be helped to make its own decisions and determine its own activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with its capacity and ability. The group has a right to make its own choices and the capacity to make satisfactory decisions. The aim of the group worker is to encourage an ever- increasing capacity on the part of the group to take responsibility for its actions. This principle assumes that groups can develop only when they are given opportunity to behave responsibly but it is to be consciously judged as to how much responsibility a group can be asked to assume at any point in its development. The group worker must first help the group to develop a conscious group-self before it can become responsibly self determining. The worker should give up any need to dominate the group and instead work with the group on the basis
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of her/his ability to share her/his wide experience and competence. The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization Every group has some informal organization of its constituent members that enables it to function. As the group is formed for specific objectives, it should also have a formal organization to help it achieve these objectives. This formal organization should meet a felt need, be flexible, adaptive and should change as the group changes. The principle does not imply that group worker should organize the group; rather she should help the group organize itself. The group should be encouraged to explore its needs, set its objectives and determine specific functions and helped by the group worker to make its own decisions. The worker should help the group to determine who should take the leadership assignments along with the qualifications and expectations, so that the members are aware of what the group expects from them. Not only the structural details of this formal organization, but the process through which the worker guides the group to have a formal organization is equally important. Group efforts which may be scattered and haphazard become focused when formal organization is made available, as it allows the energies of the group members to be properly channelized. Tasks and duties should be identified and allocated in an orderly manner and members helped and encouraged to assume responsibilities. The process to organize itself is an excellent vehicle for growth.
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The formal group organization should be simple, stable yet flexible, open to changes as per group needs. The experiences of the group members in solving the organizational problems are no less valuable than the other program experiences. The Principle of Progressive Program Experiences Program in Social Group Work does not only mean the activities or events but is a broad concept that includes the entire range of individual and group relationships, interactions and experiences deliberately planned and carried out with the help of the group worker to achieve the group goals. The group worker should not impose her/his program plan on the group but help the group to develop its own program by extending to the group a variety of choices. S/he may only make suggestions as to possible programmes. The program development is a continuous process and grows out of group potentialities. This principle implies that there is starting point for all group programmes. Small beginnings can culminate into bigger and more challenging tasks as the group progresses. The program experiences in which the groups engage should begin at the level of member interest, need, experience and competence and should develop in tandem with the developing capacity of the group. The worker should help the group to enjoy a progressive series of program experiences in consonance with the groups potential and capacities. The group cannot be expected to do the same thing all the time.
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After success in simple activities, the group can be encouraged to move to more complex experiences. The Principle of Resource Utilization This principle guides the group worker to utilize the available resources to enrich the content of the group experience for individuals and group as a whole. For this it is imperative that the Social Group Worker should possess knowledge about the resources available in the group, agency and the community. S/he should use her/ his skill in locating and then acquainting the group with the various resources which can be utilized by the group for different programs. The worker serves as a liaison between the group and the community and her/his ability becomes apparent in the skill with which she draws upon the environment. S/he not only helps to stimulate the group to action but also helps them to discover and use the agency and community resources and those within the group. She must ensure that the members procure the required material for the smooth conduct of the group sessions. S/he should take initiative in mobilizing both material and human resources and oversee the utilization of the available resources by the members for the common good. The Principle of Evaluation Continuous evaluation of process and programs in terms of outcomes by the worker, agency and the members is not only desirable, albeit essential. Carefully maintained records can facilitate proper monitoring and evaluation.
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The social group worker should carry out the evaluation of the outcomes in a carefully planned manner. Maintaining records in a systematic and orderly way aids the evaluation process. Evaluation carried out in an objective and neutral way helps in revealing the extent to which the group has been successful in achieving the group goals. A feedback from the members along with the observation and assessment of the worker help the group members develop insights into their strengths and weaknesses. Evaluation should be done at the end of each session and at the time of the termination. According to Siddiqui, the evaluation of the group work generally focuses on the following points: What group goals have been achieved? What individual needs have been met? What programme and activities have been successful? What are the shortcomings? What changes will help improve the effectiveness of the intervention? Without continuous evaluation objectives become outmoded, programs become static and groups fail to meet needs. It is the fundamental obligation of every worker and every agency to rethink and reorganize its practice in the light of thoughtful evaluation. (Trecker, 1955) p. 219
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Reflecting the modern perspective, different from the earlier conceptualization focusing on the therapeutic power of the group, we have Sharry who in his book Solution Focused Group Work has put forward some principles of Social Group Work which we have listed below: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Focusing on Change and Possibilities Creating Goals and Preferred Futures Building Strengths, Skills and Resources Looking for Whats Right and Whats Working Being Respectfully curious Creating Co-Operation and Collaboration Using humour and Creativity
The principles as underlined by Sharry show a shift in focus from problems to solutions, self-help and competence. He emphasizes the therapeutic objective and power of group, which he calls solution focused brief therapy.
Conclusion
Social Group Workers have an ethical obligation to function within the confines of a theoretical base comprising of tested interventions and principles of practice. The aim of this chapter was to make the learner understand the values and principles a professional social worker should follow in group work practice that help in achieving the goals of profession. Social group work as a method of social work has embraced a set of values which have been translated into certain principles that govern the conduct of practitioners. According to the National Association of Social workers (NASW) code of ethics broad ethical
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principles are based on social works core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of individual, importance of human relationships, integrity and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire. The basic values of group work deal with human relationships. These basic values profess belief in the dignity and worth of the individual, social justice and mutual responsibility. Everybody has the right to civil liberties and equal opportunity without discrimination as to race, ethnicity, religion, social class, gender, sexual orientation, and capacities. The value of mutual responsibility is based on the conviction that people are interdependent for survival and fulfillment of their needs. From Social Group Work practice over the years, have emerged certain principles which provide a theoretical framework to social group worker while working with people in groups. They provide a set of guidelines which guide practice. Different authors have outlined different principles of working with groups from time to time, conceptualizing the important areas of focus for the Social Group Worker. Trecker has listed the following ten principles: The Principle of Planned Group formation The Principle of Specific Group Objectives The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship The Principle of Continuous Individualization The Principle of Guided Group Interaction The Principle of Democratic Group self-Determination The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization The Principle of Progressive Program Experiences
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The Principle of Resource Utilization The Principle of Evaluation Reflecting the modern perspective, focusing on the therapeutic power of the group, Sharry in his book Solution Focused Group Work has put forward the following principles of Social Group Work : Focusing on change and possibilities Creating goals and preferred Futures Building strengths, skills and resources Looking for whats right and whats working Being respectfully curious Creating co-operation and collaboration Using humour and Creativity As social science theory is always in a fluid state and keeps changing and evolving, of Social Group Work too will keep evolving in tandem with our understanding of Social Group Work as a method of social work.
References
Friedlander W.A (ed.) (1958) Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall MC, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Garvin, Charles D. et al (eds.) (2008) Handbook of Social Work With Groups, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Konopka Gisela (1963) Social Group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Hepworth, Dean.H. and Larsen, Jo Ann (1992) Direct Social Work Practice: Theory and Skills, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California. 4th ed.
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Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008) Group Work: Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, New Delhi. Trecker, Harleigh B (1955) Social Group Work- Principles and Practices, New York: Association Press Wilson, Gertrude and Gladys Ryland (1949) Social Group Work Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
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Leadership and Power

*R. Nalini
Introduction
Leadership is an important requirement for social development. We need individuals who can effectively steer groups towards attainment of goals. However, research and experience indicates that good leaders are hard to come by, because of the qualities and abilities leadership demands. One finds individuals with a natural flair for leadership and also individuals who are trained to be leaders. Both the aspects of being a born leader or a trained leader is feasible, according to behavioural scientists. Some authors believe that individuals with substantial experience in working with groups as members (prior to becoming group leaders) are found to excel in leadership tasks. Thus, leadership is an ability that grows out of partaking. While India has had many charismatic leaders, especially in the political arena, in this material we shall be looking at group leaders and their profiles.
Group Leadership
Leadership is the capacity to motivate a group of individuals towards fulfilment of groups objectives. The capacity to motivate could derive from power that is both formal and informal for formal and informal influence is
*Dr. R. Nalini, Pondicherry University, New Delhi
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important in leadership. It is widely accepted that leadership can transpire from within a group as well as by formal appointment to lead a group. In social group work, one finds and encourages emergence of leaders from within the group. Some kind of leadership is present in every group, though it is not definite whether the group is aware of this fact. It is also observed that the type of leadership has an effect on the group. Depending on the objectives, nature, size and composition of the group, leadership needs to evolve.
Group Leadership: A Skill

A skill is an ability that has to be learnt with training and practice. However, there is many a difference between the manual skills required for accomplishment of a task. For instance, the potter making pots out of clay and sand in various shapes and designs requires a different set of skills in comparison to the intellectual skills required for leadership. The potter can work with speed and dexterity to produce 100 pots a day to near perfection, double the speed of a beginner. This is obviously different in the case of acquiring skills towards managing personal and group affairs. The focus is on individual growth and on gaining knowledge again dependent on enriching the realistic aptitudes. All the way through this learning process the emphasis is on painstaking understanding and forgetting of the self. The leader has to consistently introspect his skills and abilities the extent to which his approach is stipulated by the expectations of those he wishes to influence, and also by his own individuality.
Theories of Leadership
Several theories on leadership have been developed by researchers studying leader behaviour. The broad basis
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of understanding leader behaviour and its theorization has been in the context of: Leadership as a trait (inborn quality) Leadership as a behaviour (acquired/attained through training) Task oriented leadership People oriented leadership Trait Theory The Trait Theory of leadership focuses on personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from non leaders. These traits are being charismatic, enthusiastic, and courageous. The following traits are believed to be possessed by leaders: desire to lead, ambition and energy, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, high self-monitoring and job-relevant knowledge. Thus, traits can predict leadership. They do a better job in predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership in actually distinguishing between effective leaders and ineffective leaders. However, the fact that an individual exhibits the traits and others consider that person to be a leader does not necessarily mean that the leader is successful at getting his group to achieve its goals. Behavioural Theories of Leadership These theories propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non leaders. While Trait theory assumes that leaders are born rather than made, behaviour theory believes that if there were specific behaviours that identified leaders, then leadership could be taught through effective training and other interventions.
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Task Orientated Leadership A task oriented leader is one who defines and structures her role and those of the members towards fulfilment of tasks. She plans, organizes and assigns tasks to group members and insists on its completion within the stipulated time. People Orientated Leadership A people oriented leader, on the other hand focuses on relationships in the group, has high concern for the members and their comfort level, emotional well-being and contentment. She is keen on helping members in their personal problems, is approachable and does not discriminate. Development-oriented Leadership What is most relevant to social group work leadership is the development-oriented leader the one who values experimentation, seeks new ideas, and generates and implements change. In a changing world, effective leaders need to exhibit development-oriented behaviour. Heresy and Blanchards Situational Theory This theory looks at leadership through centering on the followers. Leadership, according to this theory is dependent on the followers willingness to execute the task in question. If the follower is: a) incapable and reluctant to take up the assigned task, the leader has to provide precise and exact directions to this effect incapable but prepared to take up the assigned task, the leader has to firstly compensate for the followers lack of ability and relationship orientation and also provide precise directions
b)
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c) d)
capable but reluctant the leader has to be helpful and play an active part in task accomplishment capable and enthusiastic then the leaders role is minimal
Path-goal Theory of Leadership This theory stipulates that the prime responsibility of the leader lies in helping the members to reach their objectives and that individual goal and group goals are complementary. It is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group. The term path- goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers get from where they are to the achievement of their work goals and to make the journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks.
Understanding Leadership Styles

While there are various leadership styles, it is generally agreed that leadership styles is in accordance with the circumstances the ability of members, urgency of the situation and many such crucial factors. The following are a few important leader behaviours: Directive When the task to be accomplished is unclear or difficult to be achieved, the leader ensures its successful accomplishment through clearly defining individual tasks and role expectations of members. His intervention is meaningful in such instances. However, this style may not be suitable where the tasks in question are well defined and easy to attain.
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Supportive The leader shows high concern towards group members and their needs. This style is suitable for groups working on well defined tasks. Members under the supportive leader are found to be happy and highly satisfied. Participative Here, the leader involves the group members in decision making and in all functions of the group. Discussions, consultations and group consensus are stressed upon. However, this calls for members who are responsible and who understand the importance of their contribution to the groups success. Charismatic Medha Patkar pioneer of the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada Movement) is considered to be a charismatic leader for the following reasons: (i) ability to inspire followers towards goals that appears incredible to the common man (ii) vision about the future (iii) understanding followers needs and limitations. Transformational This highlights on leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. Seven characteristics were found: sincerity of the leader; bonding effort to develop the organization as a family by personalized relationships; consultation and participation; collectivization and teamwork; empowerment and support; serving as a role model; bringing in changes continuously while maintaining continuity and being innovative Robbins & Sanghi: 2005.
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Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness

Individuals, especially leaders, who engage in social interface, are expected to emotionally intelligent. Leaders low in emotional intelligence are found to be less capable of handling stress, problematic situations and people. What constitutes emotional intelligence? The five components of Emotional Intelligence Self-awareness: exhibited by self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, and a self-depreciating sense of humour Self-management: exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity, and openness to change Self-motivation: exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism, and high organizational commitment Empathy: exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients Social Skills: exhibited by the ability to lead change, persuasiveness and expertise in building and leading teams Robbins & Sanghi: 2005
Factors Influencing Group Leadership

A group leader has to shoulder many responsibilities and facilitate the group in task accomplishments. Many a times he needs to face challenges and has to exhibit qualities that inspire the group. The vital factors influencing leadership are given below:
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Acknowledging the Importance of the Leadership Role The leader has to possess a strong conviction and definiteness about the vitality of the role assigned or volunteered for. Being apprehensive about the usefulness of group and its objective would make leadership a burden. Group Spokesperson The group leader is a spokesperson for the group both within and outside the group. She is the group representative and has to possess good knowledge of the group its purpose, composition, size, history, past and current activities. Therefore the leader should determine what the group is trying to achieve, its progress inclusive of pace and path of progress and the ability to enlighten the group members and the outsiders about the groups purpose whenever the need arises.
Qualities of A Successful Leader

Though there are several leadership styles, every leader has to develop a style appropriate to the needs of the group and the situation. It is a universal fact that every persons leadership skills are unique and cannot be borrowed from another. The leader has to grow on her own. To be a good leader one needs to have a positive sense of humour that is not derogatory or distasteful, possess good listening skills, ability to truly enjoy being with people and genuinely accepts the other persons view points. The leader has to be optimistic, unruffled and capable of handling difficult situations deftly. The leader has to be friendly within the prescribed limits of the societal norms. This friendliness has to be done with appropriateness not too close or too isolated. Essentially, the leader has to be broad minded, relaxed
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and open to criticisms. However, she cannot afford to be silent to criticisms that are not related to the job or damaging her image. While working with group members from diverse cultures, a broad cultural background is an advantage. This aids the process of the cultural melting pot further enabling smooth interaction and accomplishment of group tasks. The leader is a human being too, with all her problems and fears to handle. But a wise leader fully understands that it is essential to keep her problems, especially the personal ones to herself. Making the group members listeners to these aspects, the good leader knows is only self-damaging. Burdening the members with personal difficulties is detrimental to the leaders functioning. The leader has to necessarily control her emotion, temper and has to be extra cautious of imposing her feelings on the group. Finally, the leader has to be well groomed physically too. The leader has to stick to comfortable, clean outfits, well kept hair, no clattering trinkets, flashy colours, heavy costumes or any disturbing accompaniments. The leader has to make sure that his appearance is appropriate to the groups culture and expectations. He has to avoid improper mannerisms and gestures. In short, by staying poised and collected, the leader makes the group too fall in line.
Leadership and Decision Making

Indecisiveness is a silent killer that robs the group of efficiency, resulting in dismantling of the group and its purpose. It is very important for the group to come to a consensus, and decide on its key issues to enable successful accomplishment of its goals. A decision could
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be arrived at through groups brainstorming, discussion and dialogue depending on the time available, the complexity of the problem and the group members capacity. A leader has to make the group understand that it is important to finalize goals that are achievable and apposite to the groups capacity and resources. Being pushy can lead to unrealistic targets that could lead the group to collapse. Decision making is necessary to assign responsibilities to group members. It also is an important aspect of problem solving processes. A leaders uphill task lies in ensuring completion of assignments that the members had agreed to. While persuading her group members to arrive at a decision, the leader has to exercise the skill of appropriateness; the sense of timing realizing when to take hold of an issue and when to let go. Realizing that the group is in a position to go ahead, the leader shall seize the opportunity to press hard for a decision. There could also be occasions when the ideal thing to do could be to motivate the group to ascertain further facts prior to the decision. The leader allows himself to be put in a difficult position whenever he uses steam roller tactics to secure a particular course of action. By doing this against the groups better judgment, he assumes full responsibility for the possible failure of action. The group members learn from this that it is all right for them not to take responsibility. Moreover, if failure results, they learn that the leader is untrustworthy, and their motivation to participate in the next action sinks. Finally, the (often unconscious) resentment of the leader, which certainly is to be expected, is likely to sabotage the action so that it will be a failure.
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To put it another way, the leaders job is to set and maintain the conditions required for the groups maximum intelligence to assert itself. If everyone leaves a meeting with the justifiable feeling that he could have reached a better decision in five minutes all by himself, then leadership has failed Toseland, W.R., & Rivas, F. R. (2005).
Leadership and Communication

A leader is expected to communicate effectively with everybody. While one to one communication is also important, the leaders capacity to communicate with the group as a whole is most vital. This is one skill that is indispensable for a good leader. The leader is a good interpreter and proud voice for her group. She is ready, able, and willing to explain clearly its purpose to persons who may not be familiar with it. She can do it in simple language and in so doing increases his own skill in social communication. The leader is expected to persuade the not so vocal members to converse freely. Some members will find it difficult to partake in discussions for very many reasons. This could be fear of speaking among a group of individuals, being unsure as to how their ideas would be received; difficulty in choosing the appropriate words and inexperience in putting forth their ideas. Managing poor participation of members (due to their problems in communicating) is a significant aspect the leader will have to tackle through persuasion and also by setting a personal example. In meetings, the leader is expected to make people comfortable and at ease with one another. By doing so, she facilitates easy flow of interaction and positive exchange of ideas between the members.
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During discussions it is important for the group leader not to putforth her views before the other members have done so. For, too early a viewpoint from the leader would possibly be opposed or accepted by all members present keeping with the trend of safely supporting the leader. Listening is an important aspect of communication. The leader needs to be a good listener, who through her effective listening encourages members to speak without hesitation or inhibitions. Experience indicates that the time available before and after the conduct of group meetings is a key opportunity for getting a true picture about the status of issues and the groups functioning.
Bonding and Relationship

The leader has an affirmative outlook of the group. Bonding and relationship building are vital ingredients to successful accomplishment of group goals. The following are some ways in which a leader can bond her team: Focusing on the positive aspects of the group members and also the situation instead of spreading despair through looking at the negative face of issues Firmly believing in the democratic approach in group dealings; for finding solutions and for arriving at decisions Zealously learning from other people and amending her ways of thinking on the basis of combined experience and thinking of the group members Sensitivity to the differences in capacities, ideas, approaches of individual group members thereby enabling their optimum contribution to the groups functioning.
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Acknowledging that groups are different and that she needs to develop understanding of group members and helping each individual to become a part of the group. Following the principle praise in public and reprimand in private to the fullest extent; prompt and consistent appreciation for the good work of all members that ensures motivation and satisfaction among the members Handling problems of individual behaviour and personal relationships without letting it hamper the groups functioning Impressing on the group that individuals are diverse and that their diversity is the groups most priceless plus Finding and maintaining conditions that facilitate optimum contribution of each group member Leadership then is concerned with the discovery and coordination of member resources, on the assumption that individuals are not equal and that their differences are the groups most valuable asset.

Power refers to the workers resources for changing conditions inside and outside the group. Actual power depends on the sources of a workers influence. The power bases described by French and Raven (1959) follow: Connection power being able to call on and use influential people or resources Expert power having the knowledge or skill to facilitate the work of the group
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Information power possessing information that is valuable to and needed by others Legitimate power holding a position of authority and the rights that accrue to that position in the organization or larger social system Reference power being liked and admired; the group members want to be identified with the worker Reward power being able to offer social or tangible rewards Coercive power being able to sanction, punish, or deny access to resources and privileges Power and leadership are largely interconnected. The effective leader understands that legitimate power and influence are needed to direct the group, especially at the initial stages when the group looks up to the leader for guidance. The leader has to take up a mature use of power rather than being uncomfortable or too much in control. This power should be used to empower the group towards shouldering responsibilities willingly and also in successfully completing them. Groups need leaders to avoid disorganization and chaos; leadership and power are inseparable (Etzioni, 1961). The leader needs to aid power-sharing with the group by highlighting the importance of member-to-member communication rather than member-to-leader communication.
Handling Groups Problems

Generally, leadership is a smooth journey if the things are going well, but there are many instances when the going is not smooth. However, it is true that brooding or becoming hurt easily does not in any way help leadership assignments.
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The group and the leader have to internalize two facts to move ahead successfully (i) it is normal for problems to occur while working as a group and (ii) almost every group has in some point of time gone through such troubles
Eight Commandments for A Group Leader

The Leader Understands that the focal point of effective group leadership lies firmly grounded in human relationships Shapes a comfortable work atmosphere, both psychologically and physically for the members, making happy working together feasible Accepts the group as it is and moves at the pace of the members rather than making the group uncomfortable with a different one Realizes the need for clarity in group objectives among all the members through appropriate initiatives Facilitates group members to work in unison for accomplishment of group goals Constantly self-introspects objectively and is aware of her strengths and weaknesses; develops the ability to be stable in the face of praise and attack alike Takes the group along with her in all times; encouraging the group to express its opinions and viewpoints freely by apposite interventions Does not permit scapegoating of any member by the other members during crisis situations or during hostile encounters
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Conclusion
To conclude research studies and experience in working with groups indicates that there is no one size fits all approach to leadership. Different styles of leadership are relevant to different situations. Leadership skills are dependent to a large extent on the extent to which the group can operate independently. Obviously, the less independent the group, more the leaders role and strategies and vice versa ultimately the leader looks forward to developing leadership from within the group. Thus, effective leaders are highly respected individuals who have a vision. They promote safe, welcoming environments that avoid the extremes of aggressive confrontation of members or passive abdication of leadership to members who attempt to dominate groups (Kivlighan & Tarrant, 2000; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallai, 2001). Next, leaders have to understand the abilities, values, and personalities of members. They use this understanding to encourage and guide members as they contribute to group goal attainment, while at the same time helping members to satisfy their own needs and achieve their own personal goals. Effective leaders must also skillfully deploy the resources they have at their disposal. This includes empowering members and reinforcing feeling of confidence and individual and group efficacy (Bandure, 1995, 1997b). It also includes making sure that the group engages in good information processing and decision making, so that when resources are deployed, the environmental demands on members and the group are carefully considered (Chemers, 2000). In a very real sense the right to leadership must be earned again and again.
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References
Balgopal, R. P. & Vassil. V. T. (1983). Groups in social work. United States of America: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Coyle, L. G. (1947). Group experience and democratic values. New York: The Womans Press. Milson, F. (1973). An introduction to group work skill. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Ottaway, A. K. C. (1966). Learning through group experience. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Robbins, P. S., & Sanghi, S. (2005). Organizational behaviour. Delhi: Pearson Education. Thelen, A. H. (1954). Dynamics of groups at work. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Toseland, W.R., & Rivas, F. R. (2005). An introduction to group work practice. USA: Pearson Education Inc. Trecker, B. H., & Trecker, R.A. (1952). How to work with groups. New York: Womans Press.
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10
Skills and Techniques of Social Group Work

*R. Nalini
Introduction
A social worker has to understand and imbibe skills of social group work. It would be one of his or her major tasks in the job as social work often involves work with groups differing in its size and composition. What is a skill? The term skill refers to a conscious, disciplined use of ones self and ones abilities which can be acquired reliably only through the disciplined experience of professional training for social group work, during which the potential group worker not only takes help in his learning from teachers and supervisors but carries responsibility in a group work agency simultaneous with his acquisition of group work theory. On the one hand the social worker has to understand his professions philosophic values and also draw from social works professional purposes. These are the roots of social group work skill. The capacity to translate values into professional efforts that precipitate movement toward the fulfillment of purpose constitutes social group work skill. (Philips: 1957).
Roles of the Group Worker

A group worker plays two vital roles while working with groups: as a member and as a leader switching roles as
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and when tasks emerge. Membership and leadership skills are viewed jointly due to the following rationale: For the groups efficient functioning, the leader and his members need to be dealt with skillfully. Similar concerns of individualistic communication emerge for leaders and members. A group worker has to perform various functions which are broadly grouped into (i) job oriented functions that facilitate the group to converge and concentrate towards fulfilling groups objectives (ii) individual oriented functions to cater to the personal needs of group members that ensure healthy group cohesiveness and (iii) maintenance oriented functions that ensure the consistency of group members contribution.
Skills and Techniques of Group Work

According to Trecker (1955), skill is the capacity to apply knowledge and understanding to a given situation. Trecker (1955: 36-37) also has specified skills for social group work as follows: 1) Skill in Establishing Purposeful Relationships A) The group worker must be skillful in gaining the acceptance of the group and in relating himself to the group on a positive professional basis. The group worker must be skillful in helping individuals in the group to accept one another and to join with the group in common pursuits The group worker must be skillful in judging the developmental level of the group to determine what the level is, what the group needs, and how quickly
B)
2)
Skill in Analyzing the Group Situation A)
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the group can be expected to move. This calls for skill in direct observation of groups as a basis for analysis and judgment. B) The group worker must be skillful in helping the group to express ideas, work out objectives, clarify immediate goals, and see both its potentialities and limitations as a group. The group worker must be skillful in determining, interpreting, assuming and modifying his own role with the group. The group worker must be skillful in helping group members to participate, to locate leadership among themselves, and to take responsibility for their own activities. The group worker must be skillful in controlling his own feelings about the group and must study each new situation with a high degree of objectivity. The group worker must be skillful in helping groups to release their own feelings, both positive and negative. He must be skillful in helping groups to analyze situations as a part of the working through of group or intergroup conflicts. The group worker must be skillful in guiding group thinking so that interests and needs will be revealed and understood. The group worker must be skillful in helping groups to develop programs which they want as a means through which their needs may be met.
3)
Skill in Participation with the Group A)
B)
4)
Skill in Dealing with Group Feeling A)
B)
5)
Skill in Programme Development A)
B)
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6)
Skill in Using Agency and Community Resources A) The group worker must be skillful in locating and then acquainting the group with various helpful resources which can be utilized by them for program purposes The group worker must be skillful in helping individual members to make use of specialized services by means of referral when they have needs which cannot be met within the group. The group worker must have skill in recording the developmental processes that are going on as he works with the group. The group worker must be skillful in using his records and in helping the group to review its experiences as a means of improvement.
B)
7)
Skill in Evaluation A)
B)
Thus, the social group worker has many skills to master, but the important ones are discussed below: Skills in Building Group Cohesiveness The group worker must know his group members their strengths, capacities, fears, problems and roles they can play in the groups progress. The following are the other factors the worker needs to concentrate upon in building himself within the group: Effective rapport building with the group members; to get on the same wave length with people easily and quickly Winning the confidence and trust of people by accepting members as they are and enabling them to see the worth of every job that has to be done in the group large or small
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Establishing a good working relationship, based on friendship and mutual confidence that would facilitate influence over the group members Ability to avoid splinter groups, especially sub groupism by empathizing and thinking for all the group members. The group worker has to be cautious to interpret the silence of the group members. Silence always does not denote negative aspects; it could just indicate the individuals hesitation. Skill to remain cool and composed while listening to the distasteful understanding and internalizing the fact that two people can look at the same thing and look at it differently. It is important that the worker has to strengthen his inner self without getting upset or hitting back at unpleasantness of the group. He needs to understand that this is in light of the larger good of the group. Capacity to get the group to willingly shoulder responsibilities rather than taking up all the burden on himself the ability to segregate works that can be delegated and executing those which are best done by the worker. Facilitation Skills This involves the group worker helping the group to stay focused on the goals to be achieved, to ensure that the group members work towards a common direction. Facilitating skill, also sometimes called the here-and-now of group interaction is often missed by the group workers. This is because group processes take a back seat when group interactions are intense. Also, at times the group worker may hesitate to intervene during a lively yet dispersed discussion.
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However, the group worker has to acquire this skill to enable spirited group accomplishments. To help a group accomplish the goals it has set for itself, the worker will often find it helpful to guide the groups interaction in a particular direction. By limiting or blocking a group members communications, by encouraging another member to speak or by linking one group members communication to those of other group members, the worker can guide the groups interaction patterns. This method has been referred to as selecting communications patterns purposely (Middleman & Wood, 1990). Helping the group maintain its focus can promote efficient work by reducing irrelevant communications and by encouraging a full exploration of issues and problems. The group worker does this by minimizing unwanted interactions and by stirring optimum search investigation of concerns and tight spots. Skills of Information Collection and Evaluation Information is power and this is true in working with groups too. It is handy in impacting communiqu designs in the group. Through information gathering and evaluation skills, the group worker bridges the gap between the process-oriented approach of facilitating group processes and the task oriented approach of using action skills to achieve goals and satisfy members needs. Without effective data gathering and assessment skills, workers interventions are not ground in a complete understanding of the situation. This can result in the use of premature, oversimplified, or previously attempted solutions that have not been carefully analyzed and weighed. Requesting Information, Questioning and Probing By skillfully questioning and probing the group worker may gather data effectively. A broad outlook to the task in question and to the pursuits of the group could be added
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(with this supplementary information) that could benefit the group immensely. Skills are needed in properly wording the questions leading questions; double questions etc should be avoided. The questions need to extract information that is clear and precise. Care should be taken while dealing with sensitive issues and concerns. Analyzing Skills Once the data have been gathered and organized, the worker can use analyzing skills to synthesize the information and assess how to proceed. Analyzing skills include: Pointing out patterns in the data, Identifying gaps in the data, and Establishing mechanisms or plans for obtaining data to complete an assessment. Synthesizing Skills Another useful data gathering and assessment skill is blending verbal and nonverbal communications. Examples of synthesizing skills include: Making connections among the meanings behind a members actions or words, expressing hidden agendas Making implicit feelings or thoughts explicit Making connections between communications to point out themes and trends in members actions or words Synthesizing skills can be useful in providing feedback to members about how they are perceived by others. Listening Skills We convey our listening skills verbally and non verbally. By appropriate feedback and playback the group worker
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conveys verbally whereas through his eye contact, gestures and body language he conveys it non verbally. Egan (2002) suggests that, in addition to body position and eye contact, skills that indicate that a worker has heard and understood a member are part of effective listening. Research has shown that effective listening skills are an important characteristic of successful leaders (Johnson & Bechler, 1998). Effective listening skills include repeating or paraphrasing what a member says and responding empathically and enthusiastically to the meaning behind members communications. They also include what Middleman (1978) has referred to as scanning skills. When scanning the group, the worker makes eye contact with all group members, which lets them know that the worker is concerned about them as individuals. Scanning also helps reduce the tendency of workers to focus on one or two group members. Reframing and Redefining Often, one of the greatest obstacles to the work of a group or an individual is failure to view a problem from different perspectives that block attempts to find a creative solution (Clark, 1998). Redefining and reframing the problem can he lp membe rs e xamine the problem from a new perspective. Thus, a worker may want to reframe or redefine an issue or concern facing the group. Action Skills This includes modeling, role playing and rehearsing situations in the group. Action skills can be helpful in both task and treatment groups. Modeling refers to the worker or a member demonstrating behaviors in a particular situation so that others in the group can observe what to do and how to do it. Role playing refers to having group members act out a situation with each others help. The two primary purposes of role playing are to assess
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members skill in responding to an interpersonal situation and to help members improve particular responses. Responses can be improved through feedback, rehearsal of a new response, or coaching (Etcheverry, Siporin, & Toseland, 1987). Role playing can be a very useful tool when trying to help members improve responses to stressful situations. Rehearsing refers to practicing a new behavior or response based on the feedback received after a role play. Because it is difficult to learn new behaviors or to diminish less adaptive but habituated behavior patterns, a member may have to practice a new response several times. Confrontation Skills From handling conflicts and resistance to enthusing group members, confrontation skills could be a valuable tool for the group worker. Confrontation is the ability to clarify, examine, and challenge behaviors to help members overcome distortions and discrepancies among behaviors, thoughts, and feelings (Egan, 2002; Toseland & Spielberg, 1982). However, one has to vigilantly judge the state of affairs and about the acceptability of his interventions during confronting situations. He has to be fully aware that confrontations are forceful, emotionally charged and also anticipate strong responses. Since confrontations often involve indicating members mistakes and limitations, the worker has to prepare the group for a candid examination on these lines by underlining the fact that ultimately such discussions aid in identifying potentials and abilities of the group. Skills of Conflict Resolution Conflict resolution skills are needed to smoothen out frictions within the group and also with those outside the group inclusive of social systems. There could be several
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grounds for conflicts among the members. The group worker should facilitate the group to consider conflicts as a factor nourishing the groups development. Conflicts, if constructive and issue based, help the group to get a clearer vision of its goals and discover individual strengths and weaknesses. It is well known that conflicts are bound to happen; through efficient group facilitation, conflicts could be minimized and antagonistic disagreements avoided. Critiquing Skills Constructive criticism is an important skill for the worker, for lots of learning happens while critiquing the groups progression and activities. It enables retaining the focus on the groups primary purpose. It also means appropriate questioning of the leaders inputs and interventions, contribution of members and patterns of groups functioning. Critiquing by members is healthier and many a times anticipates and prevents flaws. Leadership Skills This is a vital skill that is disputed by researchers is leadership a trait or a behavior? Is a leader born or made? Despite differing views, it has been proved beyond doubt that leadership skill can be learned. However, there is no one size fits all solution to mastering leadership skills. Group leaders have to constantly remind themselves that they are working with human beings each with different viewpoints, personalities and ways of functioning. The key skill of the leader is communicating and keeping communication channels open within the group at all times. This means the leader has to involve all members in discussions the quiet ones, the ones who may not be comfortable talking in groups or those who can be easily silenced. The other key skills of leadership are:
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Consensus seeking Gate keeping Setting standards Self understanding that leads to enhanced communiqu Inter-personal understanding that leads to understanding members viewpoints Preventing disruptive behaviour such as diverting, blocking, dominating, silence, attention seeking, sympathy seeking etc
How to Acquire Group Work Skills?

Reach out and ascertain the qualities of individuals who are successful in working with groups. By checking yourself against this list of traits you could perhaps figure out where you stand with regard to working with groups. The most important point to be kept in mind is that no one individual shall possess all the qualities and that all of us can endeavour to imbibe them. Keenly observing democratic leadership styles in action and understanding reasons behind all the reverence and influence these individuals possess over their groups. Experience shows that it is worthwhile observing good presiding officers and good discussion leaders. Do not stop with observation, but do take hold of the skills of competent leaderships. Reading relevant material from libraries, authenticated websites, journals, reports etc will keep you updated on the latest in the field. Maintaining a dairy of everyday work with the group gives a written documentation for reference. It indicates the areas for improvement, when reviewed periodically. It is a tool for self evaluation if done methodically and with honesty.
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Interacting with social work fraternity and with group workers in professional forums such as workshops, seminars, conferences, training programmes etc facilitates interchange of ideas and experiences in working with groups. It is a practical knowledge bank and feeds the group worker with skills largely demanded in the field. Gain hands on training through observing a group or by becoming a member of an existing group. Lastly, by lending a hand to others to acquire group work skills, one can constantly check and reinvent oneself about the skills needed in working with groups.
Conclusion
Thus group work skills described above are vital for successfully working with groups. The group worker needs confidence, love for people and a belief in team work to accomplish his task. For, great people are those who make others feel that they too, can become great.
References
Benson, F. J. (1987). Working more creatively with groups. London: Tavistock Publications McConnell, T. (1974). Group leadership and self-realization. Leviathan House Milson, F. (1973). An introduction to social group work skill. London: Routledge and Kegan Philips, U.H. (1957). Essentials of social group work skill. New York: Association Press Trecker, H.B. (1955). Social group work: Principles and practices. New York: Whiteside
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Wilson, G., & Ryland G. (1949). Social group work practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin http://www.hci.com.au/hcisite2/toolkit/smallgro.htm http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYZ/is_4_28/ ai_83530630/pg_11?tag=artBody;co11 http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~ge rard/Manage me nt/ art0.html http://www.indiana.edu/~teaching/ourservices/assess/ groupskills.shtml http://www.indiana.edu/~teaching/ourservices/assess/ groupassess.shtml http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter/resources/acl/ b2.html http://www.portables1.ngfl.gov.uk/ssoames/ gworkskills.html http://www.casw-acts.ca/practice/mayhew_e.html http://ww w.addedval ue le arn ing .c o.u k/train in g_ facilitationskills.asp http://www.iml.uts.edu.au/learnteach/groupwork/
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11
Relevance of Life Skills Education in Social Group Work

*R. Nalini
Introduction
Life Skills Education was evolved to equip individuals, especially the adolescents, with the aptitude to face life with its challenges and opportunities, successfully. In the recent years enthusiasm for education about health and social issues has been growing in communities around the world. Though recognized by different names life skills, life skills based education, skills based health education or health and family life education the central idea is shared: young people, especially girls and young women, regularly face risks that threaten their health and limit their learning opportunities. Life skills based education can endow girls with skills to manage challenging situations, particularly in the context of supportive communities and environments. Around the world, life skills based education is being adopted as a means to empower young people in challenging situations. It refers to an interactive process of teaching and learning which enables learners to acquire knowledge and to develop attitudes and skills that support the adoption of healthy behaviours. It is also a critical element in UNICEFs definition of quality education.http://www.unicef.org/ lifeskills/index_7308.html
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Understanding Life Skills Education

Life skills are problem solving ways fittingly and conscientiously employed in the regulation of our daily dealings. Found in the principles of experiential adult learning, life skills could be split into trainable, workable, components and taught to group members. Life Skills could be utilized in all of the 5 areas of our lives (self, family, job/school, leisure and community) lessons and programmes can be designed to meet the specific needs of a wide range of client groups. Thus, Life Skills Education can be employed to take up a broad range of subjects that concern youngsters and its coverage is not restricted to a specific milieu. According to UNICEF, life skills based education is behaviour change or behaviour development approach designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge, attitude and skills. The term life skills refers to a large group of psycho-social and interpersonal skills which can help people make informed decisions, communicate effectively, and develop coping and self-management skills that may help them lead a healthy and productive life. Life skills may be directed toward personal actions and actions toward others, as well as actions to change the surrounding environment to make it conducive to health. It includes items intended not only to deal with young peoples personal identity but also to encourage them to reject, where they feel this is appropriate, comments on their behaviour which they believe is untrue. http:// www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_7308.html Life Skills Education Groups A Life Skills Education programme is conducted with a group of participants led by a trained group worker.
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Whatever the type of group (occupation, youngsters, health, professional development) members begin with various skills and with varying capacities to utilize those skills. Gradually, by self-awareness and assessment of their skill levels, the members learn to assess their needs and focus on aspirations. Group members of Life Skills Education programme are expected (i) to cultivate the aptitude to draw from a gamut of problem-solving behaviours (ii) to face the tribulations of daily life with self-confidence and (iii) to grow to be well-adjusted, self-determined citizens. Group Workers Role in Life Skills Education A group worker is a trained professional, (mostly in social work) equipped with the knowledge, skill and experience in handling Life Skills Education programmes and also in working effectively with groups. He/She should be confident in dealing with a wide range of clients, not necessarily with problems but also those who seek to develop their personalities. A group worker facilitates group members of a Life Skills Education programme to: Periodically self-introspect, with honesty Think more productively Understand that they are not alone in their challenges and struggles Perceive and comprehend their ways of thinking Equip themselves with and utilize problem solving skills Balance their intellectual, physical and emotional requirements Build on apposite ambitions
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The Life Skills Education Programme

Across the globe, Life Skills Education programmes are gaining grounds. However, keeping in mind the varying cultures and the equally varying demands of life skills accordingly, the components of the Life Skills Education have been deliberately kept broad and generic. There is no definitive list of life skills. The list below includes the psychosocial and interpersonal skills generally considered important. The choice of and emphasis on different skills will vary according to the topic and local conditions (example decision making may feature strongly in HIV/ AIDS prevention whereas conflict management may be more prominent in a peace education programme). Many skills are used simultaneously in practice. Ultimately, the interplay between the skills is what produces powerful behavioural outcomes, especially where this approach is supported by other strategies such as media, policies and health services. http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/ index_7308.html However, the World Health Organization has specified life skills for the youth in order to enable broad guidelines for life skills educators and professionals. The World Health Organization (WHO) laid emphasis on LIFE SKILLS, which are necessary to all youth alike across the globe. In 1997 the WHO addressed this issue and a well-researched package of Life Skill Development was produced. Life Skills are living skills or abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with demands and challenges of everyday life (WHO 1997). The following are the ten generic skills the Life Skills Education hopes to transfer. They are five pairs of related skills. Critical Thinking: It is the ability to analyse information and experience in an objective manner.
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Creative Thinking: It is an ability that helps us look beyond our direct experience and address issues in a perspective which is different from the obvious or the norm. It adds novelty and flexibility to the situation of our daily life. It contributes to problem solving and decision making by enabling us to explore available alternatives and various consequences of our actions or non-actions. Decision-Making: The process of making assessment of an issue by considering all possible/available options and the effects different decision might have on them. Problem Solving: Having the options, choosing the following it through the outcome of the problem is made decisions about each of one which is the best suited, process again till a positive achieved.
Interpersonal Relationship: It is a skill that helps us to understand our relations with others and relate in a positive/reciprocal manner with them. It helps us to maintain relationship with friends and family members and also be able to end relationships constructively. Effective Communication: It is an ability to express ourselves both verbally and non-verbally in an appropriate manner. This means being able to express desires, opinions, and fears and seek assistance and advice in times of need. Coping with Emotions: It is an ability, which involves recognizing emotions in others, and ourselves, being aware of how emotions influence behaviours and being able to respond to emotions appropriately. Coping with Stress: It is an ability to recognize the source of stress in our lives, its effect on us and acting in ways that help to control our levels of stress. This may involve
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taking action to reduce some stress for example changes in physical environment, life styles, learning to relax etc. Self-Awareness: Includes our recognition of ourselves, our character, strengths and weaknesses, desires and dislikes. It is a pre-requisite for effective communication, interpersonal relationship and developing empathy. Empathy: Is an ability to imagine what life is like for another person even in a situation that we may not be familiar with. It helps us to understand and accept others and their behaviour that may be very different from ourselves. It is evident that the Life Skills are comprehensive including various areas like Thinking, Behaviour, and Emotions. The final target being self-awareness, self-esteem and accepting of others. In an individual, Life Skills develop over the years continuously in an active manner. There are many skills, which are needed to successfully negotiate each and every interaction. http://www.leadership. fau.edu/ICSE12006/ Papers/Pai.doc
The Indian Scenario

In the Indian-Scenario considering the heterogeneity of the levels of childcare givers ranging from school teachers to grass root level NGO workers, the need of training are varied. The Indian Youth is currently at crossroads. India being a vast and diverse country, The Indian Youth is slowly undergoing a cultural transition in their outlook due to globalization, communication and media. 40 per cent of the one billion population of India are below the age of 16. Adolescents form about 10 per cent to 15 per cent of the population. In absolute numbers the Indian youth are a significant population of the worlds youth population. On an average 40 per cent of the Indian adolescents are not
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in school, those in school are under severe stress due to a very competitive system of evaluation, heavy syllabus, and a low teacher student ratio. Due to the above reasons motivation to stay in the schools system is very low especially in the rural areas. http://www.leadership. fau.edu/ICSE12006/Papers/Pai.doc However, after the Central Board of Secondary Education asked schools to ensure social well-being of children, teaching life skills now forms an integral part of the curriculum of almost all schools. Several life skills trainers, comprising of social workers, psychologists, school teachers, Human Resource (HR) specialists, and like minded professionals are engaging actively in Life Skills Education of varied clientele in India. Schools across the country and NGOs working with non school goers are the prime providers of Life Skills Education programmes, mainly catering to adolescents. The contents of a Life Skills Education programme organized for school children in a rural Indian school are listed below: Learning about society Focusing on the family Reproductive health and related information Environment Current trends changing social and economic realities Relating to others Self development The sessions were put together in such a way that gender figured as the centre spread in all the themes that were taken up for discussion. The programme
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was designed to enable the school students to think critically about the world they find themselves in. The programme wanted to create an awakening in the minds of the students that they are the makers of their lives. They wanted to inculcate in them the habit of introspection so that they have an insight about themselves. At the end of the programme, the trainers found themselves responding to a deep need for information, counseling and understanding in the student population.
Need for Life Skills Education

Acquiring Life Skills is a process that happens during an individuals developmental years. As we all know, physical growth and development of mental faculties are two vital aspects to be fulfilled by any human being. Physical growth is visible to the naked eye in the form of height and weight, hair growth, and other noticeable changes in the child. Development is however, rather complicated involving multifaceted aspects. Life skills calls for comprehending and equipping oneself in a different spheres of personality development such as (i) social skills (ii) interpersonal skills (iii) communication skills (iv) emotional stability (v) scholarly abilities and (vi) empathy/sensitivity to others. A childs development in all these areas is largely shaped by the environment and the adults (parents, teachers, relatives) with whom he or she interacts on a daily basis. This process continues in adulthood also and friends and peer group have an important role in an individual mastering the life skills. The ultimate aim of life skills is to enable the all-round development of an individual who will be able to face challenges and troubles with the right attitude and through appropriate problem solving techniques, cope with lifes pressures and traumas. It is very important that the
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foundation for acquiring these life skills is laid at the right age and time. Life Skills Education is thus needed for equipping adolescents and young adults with the abilities, knowledge and aptitude to take on life with self-esteem, confidence and self-determination.
Techniques of Learning Life Skills Education

As evident from our discussion above, Life Skills are applied to various aspects of life. This includes (i) Interpersonal Relationships (ii) Understanding ones rights and responsibilities (iii) Promoting Good Health (iv) Mental Health (v) Prevention of HIV/AIDS, STD (vi) Prevention of Substance Abuse (vii) Self Development (viii) Preventing suicides and (ix) Promoting Peace To achieve this goal of imparting Life Skills Education, various methods and techniques are used by the trainers. This includes (i) Vigorous training (ii) Functioning in small groups (iii) Brainstorming (iv) Play-acting (v) Empirical education (vi) Games and deliberations and (vii) Homework The aim of Life Skills Education is to enable the group members to develop their aptitudes in exploring alternatives when faced with challenges. A group member on attending Life Skills Education programme should be able to communicate effectively; be assertive (the capacity to stay balanced between aggression and submission); assess pros and cons and arrive at logical decisions. It also provides environment education, consumer education, education in socio-cultural issues and peace education. Finally, the significance of Life Skills Education is that it empowers group members in taking positive actions, promoting healthy social relationships and in building confidence in self.
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Social Group Work and Education

Social group work is a primary method of social work that utilizes the group as a conduit of goal accomplishment. Group work enables its members to bring about desired changes in their life, through collective efforts. Groups, comprising of people from varied backgrounds are social workers key channels for enabling individuals to face life with all its problems, successfully. Social workers use group work in all fields of social work practice such as workplace, hospitals, schools, correctional settings, etc. Group workers work with children, women, disabled, substance abusers, elderly, adolescents and any other individuals wanting help to help themselves. Social group work tries to find remedies for social illness and strives towards social growth and integration. Generally, microscopic groups are thought of as constructive mechanisms of social transformation and progress. Social group work had its origins in progressive, informal, and adult education, in recreation, in camping, in settlement houses and in youth serving organizations. Much of the support, research, programming and education in group work have taken place outside the boundaries of social work and much continues to do so, particularly in the field of education. Partly for these reasons, group work and educational objectives have always been compatible. Whether these objectives are defined, as they used to be, as citizenship training or character building, or as they now often are as creative problem solving or family life education, there is a fundamental fit between group work and learning objectives. Perhaps this is because group work, more than other social work methods, views group members as learners, whose behavioural repertories need to be enhanced and enlarged. Individual group members are viewed as creating and, in a sense, owning their group Ephross, J. (1985).
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According to Douglas the following are the assumptions on which the practice of social group work rests: Group experience is universal and an essential part of human existence Group can be used to effect changes in the attitudes and behaviour of individuals Group provides experiences which can be monitored or selected in some way for beneficial ends. Life outside the group is in no way neglected, it tends to be put out of focus. Group offers experience shared with others so that all can come to have something common with the sense of belonging and of growing together Groups produce change which is more permanent than can be achieved by other methods and the change is obtained more quickly also Groups assist in the removal or diminution of difficulties created by previous exposure to the process of learning Groups as instruments of helping others may be economical in the use of scarce resources, e.g. skilled workers, time etc. Group can examine its own behaviour and in so doing learn about the general patterns of group behaviour. Thus, a careful analysis of these assumptions reveals that working with groups enables change amongst its members at an individual and collective level. The main feature of functioning with groups in societal milieu is that of reciprocal benefits. It is assumed that individuals progress and transform as they associate with others. Group work emphasizes that its members are not restricted to only
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take away but also put in their contributions to the group, directly or indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly.

Having discussed about Life Skills Education and social group work, let us try and understand the relevance of Life Skills Education in social group work. It is clear that both group work and life skills have the common goal of enhanced social functioning of its members. From its beginnings, group work practice and theory has been rooted in social reform, social responsibility, democratic ideals, and social action as well as social relatedness and human attachment (Lee, 1991: 3). The work done in groups was seen as purposeful activity that involved a process that considered both the individual in the group as well as the group as a whole as well as the larger community. A description of American Association of Group Workers (AAGW) nature and functions written in 1947 clarifies group works philosophy: Group work is method of group leadership used in organizing and conducting various types of group activities. While group work developed first in connection with recreation and voluntary informal education its use is not confined to those fields. It is increasingly being used in various types of institutions, in hospitals and clinics, in the extra-curricular activities of schools in similar situations. The guiding purpose behind such leadership rests upon the common assumptions of a democratic society, namely, the opportunity for each individual to fulfill his capacities in freedom, to respect and appreciate others and to assume social responsibility in maintaining and constantly improving our democratic society. (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYZ/is_4_28/ ai_83530630/pg_11?tag=artBody;co11)
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Life Skills Education is thus an important aspect of group work. To apply group work premises to Life Skills Education is to try to incorporate role flexibility, responsiveness to stage of group development, and an ability to be comfortable with the shared human condition between worker and members. One needs to treat group members with respect for their group, not as an artificial stance but as a genuine component of the groups life. As for the participants, the group members need to be viewed as motivated and competent people who are choosing to take part in learning experiences. They learn from each other through informal group interaction, as well as from a process of motivated inquiry. The primary task of the group leader is to motivate, to facilitate, to promote and to orchestrate teaching and learning resources. The subject of learning the course topic is important for two reasons, both for its own values and as a vehicle around which interpersonal learning, role elaboration and behavioural modeling can take place. http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/ a v a i l a b l e / e t d - 0 4 2 2 2 0 0 4 - 1 0 0 0 0 6 / r e s t r i c t e d / chapter1MAThesis.pdf Radin (1975: 605-613) states that school social workers must be concerned about all children in a school and not only with those with apparent problems and that all children should be prepared for their future roles in society. To enable the social worker to reach more than just the individual pupil, working in groups enables the worker to attend to not only the individual with the group, but the group collectively. The advantage of attending to pupils in a group context is that there are times for individual reflection and discovery but these are usually the outcomes of some group interaction. Personal learning is shared with at least one another person. Pupils have experience of being in a group in some form or other. Thus, to use group work is to use
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something to which most pupils can relate. (Rooth, 1995; Kruger, 1998). Group work provides a context in which members help each other and learn from and with each other. Very importantly, group work teaches members to function in a democratic life style. Group work is also a method of participatory teaching (Rooth, 1999), which is based on democratic practices. It promotes the empowerment of the member in the group. The methods of group work are empirical and the group worker plays a facilitators role. Working in groups is in itself an important life skill (Nelson- Jones 1991: 89). According to Konapka, a healthy group life has the following ingredients: 1) 2) Provision for identification with equals Provision for warmth and belonging to more than one person. Fear of the threatened loss of the one and only beloved person is always present and becomes overwhelming if a wider relationship is not established in the course of life. Freedom to be and to express ones self and to be different in the presence of others. Freedom to choose the friends one prefers combined with a responsibility to accept others if they need to be accepted, even though no close friendly relationship can be established. Opportunity to try out ones own individuality while at the same time permitting the enjoyment of the uniqueness of others Opportunity to exercise independence and be allowed to be dependent when this is necessary and indicated, as in childhood or in distressing situations in adulthood.
3) 4)
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7) 8)
Opportunity to give to others as well as receive from them Opportunity to feel that as an individual or as a group, one has the strength to influence ones own fate (Konapka; 1972: 31)
Much of the education is based on the individual, competitive learning and teaching styles. This means that members get the opportunity to learn how to co-operate, compromise and work in a group and community context (Rooth 1999; Kruger 1998). Group work has many advantages besides being the method for empirical learning. Increasingly teachers use group work and find that it is an excellent way of teaching and learning (Nelson- Jones, 1991). Social group work facilitates members in appreciating and treasuring their colleagues and peers. They understand that the transformation in their personality is also largely due to the contributions of the other members. This leads to increase in self-confidence, self-belief and eventually enhancement of social skills and the role of group work cannot be undermined in this process. Simultaneously, group work causes increased coverage of themes, thereby resulting in increased member involvement and interaction. Responsibility and sense of empowerment can result from involvement in group work. Pupils need to be empowered and group work is one way that aids empowerment (Rogers, 1983; Rooth 1999; Kruger 1998). The aim of Life Skills Education in group work is to get the members work in groups rather than as individuals or as a large gathering. Within the framework of the group, members may assume diverse functions and stimulate immense amount of learning. The collective endeavor of every group member is vital. Another objective is to present life skills in the group context as component of outcome-
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based education. Social group work with classroom groups is a preventative field of social work and since prevention is an ultimate aim of social work in any setting, it is believed that research in a preventative area would serve as a worthwhile contribution to school social work (Konapka, 1972: 113).
Conclusion
Thus we understand the relevance of Life Skills Education in social group work. Group experiences are indispensable requirements of individuals. The mutual and vigorous communications involving people and environment are intrinsic in social group work. Group work aids human beings in eliminating drawbacks and strengthening self to face life effectively. Finally, practicing life skills leads to qualities such as self- esteem, sociability and tolerance, to action competencies to take action and generate change, and to capabilities to have the freedom to decide what to do and who to be. Life skills are thus distinctly different from physical or perceptual motor skills, such as practical or health skills, as well as from livelihood skills, such as crafts, money management and entrepreneurial skills. (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Skills_Based_Education)
References
1) 2) Douglas, T. (1976). Group work practice. New York: International University Press Ephross, J. (1985). Jewish family life education: Its group work roots and group process implications. Journal of Jewish Communal Service, pp. 65-72 Falck, H. (1998). Social Work: The membership perspective. New York: Springer.
3)
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4) 5) 6)
Garvin, C. (1997). Contemporary group work. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Konapka, G. (1963). Social group work: A helping process. Englewood Cliffs, New York: Prentice Hall. Lewis, E. (1988). Social group work: A central component of social work education and practice. In Leiderman, M., et al. Roots and new frontiers in social group work. New York: The Haworth Press, 217-231. Pai, N.P. (2006). Life Skills Education for school effectiveness and improvement. Paper presented in Round Table Presentation at International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, Florida, USA. Trecker, H.B. (1955). Social group work: Principles and practices. New York: Whiteside
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Websites 1) http://www.infed.org/archives/bernard_davies/ davies_in_whose_interests.htm 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) http://www.education.nairobi-unesco.org/PDFs/ Lifeskills%20facilitators %20manual.pdf http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/available/etd-04222004- 100006/restricted/chapter1MAThesis.pdf h tt p: / /w w w . bl a ck d o g i n s ti t u t e . o rg . au /d o cs / LifeskillsProfile.pdf http://www.lifeskillstraining.com/training_overview. php http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYZ/ is_4_28/ai_83530630/pg_11?tag=artBody;co11 http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_7308.html http://www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_whichskills. html
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9)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Skills_Based_ Education
10) http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/life-skills- now-part-of-school-curriculum/394750 11) http://www.leadership.fau.edu/ICSE12006/Papers/ Pai.doc 12) http://www.iapindia.org/iapfiles/AFSI_MODULE/ life_skills.ppt
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12
Programme Planning in Social Group Work

*R. Nalini
Introduction
Careful planning is necessary for any successful group and it is a very important, ongoing group process. A well planned programme gives direction to the group and enables each member to know and prepare his/her responsibility. The group worker should possess abilities and skills to guide the members through an effective programme planning process. The programme planning process includes (i) setting goals (ii) brainstorming with members (iii) planning the programme in line with the goals (iv) obtaining the approval of the group (v) assigning individual and sub group responsibilities (vi) implementation of the programme (vi) periodic evaluation and feedback (vii) Follow-up
Concept of Programme Planning

Groups achieve their objectives through programmes that are split into achievable targets, tasks and activities. Therefore, deciding on appropriate programmes becomes very important for the progress and development of group and its members.
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Programme as a concept and working tool is not prominent in the group work literature. This may be because it tends to be equated with a structured, goal-oriented approach. In reality, every group has a programme if we define it as what the group does as a means of trying to achieve its aims. With this definition, a decision to run a group on an existential creative spontaneity basis is as much a programme decision as is an elaborate timetable of visits, talks and structured activities. There is distinction to be made between potential or planned programme and actual programme. The former is what is planned in advance, the latter is what the group actually does, and the two do not always coincide. Some basic considerations affect decisions about programme. The first two are philosophical as well as technical: a) Structure and Spontaneity: Every group has to reach some balance between prearranged structure and spontaneous development. Some groups are so preplanned and rigid that there is no scope for response to the needs of individual members and their unique group. Others are so vague and unstructured that they drift along aimlessly, without anyone really knowing what they are there for, or what they are supposed to be doing. Groups need both the security of some known structure and the flexibility necessary for learning and change. Person and Task: Every group is concerned with its members as people, and with the tasks for which it is met. A group with person-centered aims, as in group psychotherapy, is likely to devise a person-centered programme. A group which is highly task-oriented, whether the task is located at the individual, group or community level is likely to devise a programme
b)
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emphasising procedures, decisions and the monitoring of task achievement. Most social work groups require a sensitive balance between focus on persons and focus on task. This is one reason why programming is a highly skilled aspect of group work. c) Individual Factors: Programme depends on what the members are capable of, and this varies according to age, verbal ability, motivation and self-control. In groups with a wide ability range, programme needs to include activities adaptable to individual differences. Group Factors: Programme takes into account fixed factors such as group composition and size, and variable factors associated with the stage of development the group has reached, and its current state. This includes group morale, cohesion, conflict and the level of commitment to task. The Individual and the Group: Programme should be consistent with what has been agreed with individuals and the group in the initial contract, although as the group develops, needs and interests change, and opportunities for renegotiating programme should be available. Programme involves a blending of activities which include the whole group with those which individuals undertake on their own, or in pairs, or sub groups. As a guideline, individual and pairs activities may be more needed in the early stages when group experience is rather daunting for some members. Resources: many activities need resources, both cash and in kind. This may be a real limitation on programme and it is unethical to raise members expectations about exciting activities unless necessary resources will be available.
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Given these basic considerations, the groupworker then faces a number of questions. The choice within this range is dependent not only on the task, resources and member capabilities, but also on the skills and capability of the groupworker. Group members are quick to sense whether the worker feels comfortable with the methods she is using, and if she reveals excessive anxiety and uncertainty it will be transmitted rapidly to others. It may make them reluctant to engage in the activity, and more vulnerable to failure. Groupworkers wishing to extend their repertoire of activities and skills by trying out a new approach for the first time, can usually do so with more confidence if they have rehearsed it beforehand in the relatively safe setting of the team or a training session, perhaps using video play-back (Brown, A; 1994: 97-98). For people to be served effectively in a group, sound preparation for the initiation and subsequent development of that group is essential. Thorough and thoughtful planning contributes mightily to the success of social group work. Planning comprises the thinking, preparation, decision-making, and actions of the group with facilitation by the social worker. Max Siporin notes, the planning process is deliberate and rational, designed to assure the achievement of specific objectives. The programme decisions are based on knowledge of social contexts, group processes, agency policies and procedures, and assessments of clients in their networks of interacting social systems.
Principles of Programme Planning

Providing a programme of activities is one of the main tasks of a group. Planning the groups activities in advance helps a group run smoothly because:
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Members understand and accept their responsibilities Optimum utilization of resources Better coordination between group members, agency and the worker in accomplishment of objectives Programmes in group work have to be effective since the groups effectiveness is largely dependent on its programmes. Programme planning is an instrument in the hands of the group and the worker and its efficient use results in feasible, well thought out programmes. Programme planning in social group work has to follow certain principles, termed by Trecker (1955) as the criteria of effectiveness: Programme should grow out of the needs and interests of the individuals who compose the group Programme should take into account such factors as age of group members, cultural background, and economic differences Programme should provide individuals with experiences and opportunities which they voluntarily choose to pursue because of their inherent values Programme should be flexible and varied to satisfy a variety of needs and interests and to afford a maximum number of opportunities for participation Programme should evolve from the simple to the more complex with movement coming as a result of group growth in ability and readiness. Movement from initially personal to social or community concerns should be an ultimate objective if our programmes are to have a greater social significance.
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A Set of Guidelines to Programme Planning Stage 1 What is the objective of the programme? What is the group members wants/welfare What are the resources accessible? What is the relevance of the programme to the groups objective? Stage 2 Splitting the programme into smaller realizable goals and tasks Actual implementation commences Stage 3 Periodic evaluation of the programme and progressing to the next phase of the programme based on the evaluation and inputs of members themselves Stage 4 Reflection giving members a chance to look back on their experiences of the programme and see how they have progressed, in the process.
Factors Influencing Programme Planning

All initiatives and efforts of the group in pursuit of fulfilling its goal is considered to be a programme in the social group work context. Though one tends to equate programme with activity, let us be clear that programme is a concept that comprises of not only activities but also emotional aspects such as group bonding, communications, experiences etc. One important aspect is that all these should result out of conscious planning by the group under the guidance of the worker. Programme is thus a process rather than the
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periodic culmination of a process. In the light of the above, let us discuss the factors influencing programme planning: The primary responsibility for programmes in groups lies with its group members the group worker is only a facilitator in the entire process. The programmes have to be person-centered, catering to the requirements of its members. The group members, therefore, have to engage themselves to their best possible extent in programme planning, fully understanding that its successful implementation calls for their cooperation and contribution. If a programme has to be person-centered, it has to respond to the wants and welfare of the group members. The group worker has to make the group understand that (i) there is a vast distinction between the wants of the group members and their welfare (ii) This can be gathered when group members put across their views during programme planning sessions. However, when group starts spelling out ideas for the programme, the worker needs to carefully evaluate them on the basis of collective interests, fine foundation, feasibility in terms of resources and agencys objectives, feasibility of personal partaking of members and also of groups cooperation. It is of equal importance that the worker consistently taps the wants and welfare of the group from its members. Gathering this vital information is not a one time affair to be done in the initial stages of the programme, but has to flow at periodic intervals to ensure that the programme is on the right path. The worker has to understand and also convey to the group members that programme planning is an ongoing process that as the programme evolves in sequence, one could comprehend the groups progress as well. Any discussion of programme in social group work must take into account such items as content and area, media
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of expression, and methods of conducting it. Programme area or content refers to a segment of life experience that has general meaning for the individuals at their specific point of development. The programme process is not segmental; in actual work all these are interrelated and almost indistinguishable (Trecker; 1955). In order to grow and execute its programmes, the group has to have systems for: Decision-making and its support from group members Delegation of responsibilities and its accountability Develop whole-hearted involvement of all the group members, in all the phases of a programme such as planning, execution, evaluation etc. Direct day-to-day affairs of the agency and its members The group worker enables the group to understand their role in programme planning and implementation that programmes are successful largely due to the members willingness to share responsibilities. During the planning stages, the group members should clearly assign and accept duties and responsibilities individually, in pairs or through forming smaller committees within the group. The group worker assists the members in functioning in unity towards executing the programme. Healthy, purposeful and friendly communication among group members is the essence of programme planning and development. The group workers role here is imperative. He steers the group members to meaningful communication which in turn leads to the group working towards aims that reciprocate with the agencys functioning. Thus communication is a fundamental mode on the road to the groups goals. Thus, the programme planning process is influenced by various factors such as: (i) consistent unearthing of the
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wants and welfare of members (ii) identification of the point wherein the programme shall commence (iii) studying and scrutinizing work responsibilities involved in programme execution (iv) delegating duties and responsibilities to various members (v) synchronization of individual efforts and striving for harmony among the group members and programme evaluation A Sample Programme The following is a very brief outline of a programme to help a group learn listening skills. The Indicators are how the leader identified the need of the group and what skill to develop The Activities are how the group learned and practiced the skills The Skills Practiced breaks the skill down into small achievable steps and each activity is matched to the step it helps the group to take The Learning is the aim of the programme/activity
Identify The Need Activities Skills Practiced The Learning Listening is important for having fun and achieving What skills make me a better listener The group works better when we listen to each other A group has Group games asking and trouble listening to waiting for a reply each other listening for Indicators another persons voice Members have trouble taking Listening turns to make a games & point group disagreements discussion caused by not Problem taking time to solving game understand in which the others group has to difficult to listen to each facilitate group other discussions Awareness of listening skills
Practice of the skills learnt so far Practicing the skills Recognition for being good at the skills
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The above outline shows how very different activities can help the group learn listening skills. Lots of different skills can be developed in this way from practical skills like swimming to complex skills like team work. http://www.cdysb.ie/publications/PDF/Programme%20 Planning.pdf
Recording in Social Group Work

Writing and maintaining group work records is an essential element of professional social work. A recording well done saves the group worker the trouble of having to emphasize to the agency about the groups progress in various aspects. But how seriously does the social work fraternity take up recording or written communication? Let us read what experts have to say on this: We believe that it is important that social work educators, students and professionals focus on developing their written communication skills for a range of reasons. These include: Writing is a core mode of communication in many fields of social work practice. The capacity to communicate effectively in writing can enhance practice in many ways, from promoting inter disciplinary team communication to advancing the capacity to attract funds and influence policy Writing skills, like all professional skills, can be learnt. Just as social work professionals can develop effective spoken communication skills, so too their professional writing skills can improve through sustained attention and effort Written communication can represent complex matters better than speech can. So it is a vital tool for social workers, who are often involved in complex
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situations with individuals, families and communities and need to be able to convey the intricacies to others who may have limited first-hand experience of the specific situations. In addition, some professional writing tasks, such as completing tender documents, can require the integration of detailed and complex information in a succinct and cohesive format. Social workers approach to writing should reflect the distinctive character of their professional purpose. This is shaped by the institutional context and audience, and must always be driven, at least in part, by professional knowledge and an ethical value base (Healy & Mulholland; 2007: 2-3).
Principles of Recording in Social Group Work

Recording in social group work aims to make better the quality of service to the members. The agency could assess the quality of its service, thereby understanding its efficiency. Group records are imperative in study, research and experimentation. Principle of Flexibility: the record must be adapted to the agencys purpose because group work practice and agency purpose are inseparably interwoven Principle of Selection: worker does not include everything in his record but selects significant material in the light of individual and group development The Principle of Readability: form and style are important and that clarity of expression is essential for all written material The Principle of Confidentiality: the record is a professional document and that as such its contents are guarded by as sense of professional ethics.
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The Principle of Worker Acceptance: the worker must accept his responsibility to write records because of his conviction that records have value in rendering high quality professional service. (Trecker; 1955: 208)
Types of Recording in Social Group Work

Group work recording is more difficult than recording one- to-one interviews because of the complex nature of a small group. In groups with a task oriented focus, recording will be concerned with tangible tasks, plans, actions and decisions. In a person-oriented group, where feelings, relationships, and non-verbal communication receive high priority, recording is dealing with intangibles, perhaps the most difficult of all to write about. Most group records attempt to communicate both content and process. Group work recording has several different purposes as follows: Agency requirements Training and skill development Planning, evaluation and research For direct use in work with members (Brown, A; 1994: 99-100). Thus recording in group work is based on (i) Contents and (ii) Process. Content Recording: Numerical information on registration, enrolment and attendance of individuals and groups Programme reports, depending on the types of activities the group is involved in. Process Recording: Another kind of record kept by group workers is the chronological narrative write up of the group-work process
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as it develops. In this kind of record each meeting of the group is described in full detail. It is a process record in the sense that primary attention is given to the participation and interaction of the members, with a view of determining the role of each individual in the affairs of the group. The major value of the narrative process record from the standpoint of the worker is that such records help the worker to do a more effective job with his groups. Every other purpose is in a sense a sub purpose of this major one: to improve the quality of experience provided for the group. The record is thus a tool in the process of understanding the group and learning how to help it. The process records help the worker to (i) become more aware of the members of the group (ii) see emerging and changing interests of the individuals (iii) see evolving needs and how these needs are being met (iv) see the development of skills and social attitudes (v) becomes sensitive to special problems which may interfere with the individuals full use of the group (vi) it shows the variety of patterns of interpersonal relationship which take place within the group (vii) The development of the workers relationship and role can be ascertained from careful recording of what he does while helping the group. (Trecker; 1955).
Contents in a Group Work Record

A group record is expected to hold the following information. This is especially important in the case of a worker leaving the group and when a new group worker takes over. By referring to the group records, (assuming it is done professionally), the new worker can be relatively at ease since group records consist of information that enables him to take hold of the appropriate strings. Given below is a gist of the contents a group work record shall consist of: Individual behaviour of the group members
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Nature and degree of members involvement in the groups affairs Source and progress of suggestions, initiatives and innovations The workers role with minute details of what he exactly does in executing his responsibilities The workers thoughts and feelings about the group situation The development, transformation and evolution observed in members and in the group as a whole Affiliation among the group and the agency community relationships inclusive
Tips on Recording
Thus, recording skills calls for the workers keen observation, understanding of dynamics of relationships within individual members and among the group as a whole and understanding the importance of how group cohesiveness is built. The worker also consciously puts in writing his contribution to the groups functioning. Recording is not difficult, but thinking and analysis that precede the actual writing is difficult. Here are some tips for recording in social group work: Organize a concise, thematic sketch prior to putting things in writing as it facilitates in arranging the information/facts and in the choice of the main issues Clear-cut language, concise sentences, frequent paragraphing along with appropriate titles all through the document assists in subsequent assessment All the records should be accompanied with the dates, place and time to ensure
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The dating of all entries is important because it shows continuity Regular summations of individual and group progress are important means for appraisal of the groups development
Conclusion
Thus, programme planning is a significant part of social group work and the group worker is expected to navigate the group with its individual members in this process. All groups have natural processes or group dynamics and the skill of the group worker lies in developing a programme of activities which phase in with the stages and condition of the group, to provide the best possible opportunities for task achievement. Group workers need to be flexible and pragmatic in their use of programme, drawing on different sources and ideas (Brown, A; 1994). A proper record of all his initiatives will be a knowledge bank from which academicians and practitioners alike can draw from and build upon.
References
1) 2) 3) 4) Brown, A. (1994). Group work. Burlington, USA: Ashgate Publishing Company. Healy, K., & Mulholland, J. (2007). Writing skills for social workers. London: Sage Publications. Konapka, G. (1963). Social group work: A helping process. Englewood Cliffs, New York: Prentice Hall. Northen, H., & Kurland, R. (2001). Social work with groups. New York: Columbia University Press.
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5)
Trecker, H.B. (1955). Social group work: Principles and practices. New York: Whiteside.
Websites 1) 2) 3) 4) http://www.cdysb.ie/publications/PDF/Programme %20Planning.pdf http://www.scoutbase.org.uk/library/hqdocs/facts/ pdfs/fs315007.pdf http://ohioline.osu.edu/4h-fact/0007.html http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid= hstat5.section.44417
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13
Concepts and Dynamics of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in Indian Context

*Joseph Varghese
Introduction
Self help and mutual aid are the foundational principles of social work. Professional social work evolved in the West where self help groups were mainly used for addressing psycho-social issues. It was used to mainly to provide emotional support and train people through groups. However in developing countries SHGs began to be used for empowerment and economic development. Here we focus on those SHGs, which are used for these purposes. SHGs are being increasingly used developmental programmes of government and NGOs. A number of strategies were used to alleviate the problem of poverty by both governmental and non-governmental organizations. Some of them were partially successful and others were failures. Community based approaches, family based approaches and individual based approaches were used. However each of these strategies had its limitations. For example, in the community development programmes the elite and already well off gained at the expense of the poor thereby reducing the effectiveness of the programmes. Similarly individual based programmes imposed conditions
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on the beneficiaries that could not be regulated by the department and banks. Institutional constraints like the corruption and red tape in the government also remained which prevented the effective implementation of the programmes. Group based approaches like Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) were also used occasionally, but they did not have the wide spread recognition that they have today. SHGs have now become an integral part of development strategy of governmental as well as non-governmental organizations. SHGs grew out of the developmental experiences of the various stakeholders concerned in the process- the beneficiaries, banks (creditors) and the government. We will see in the sections below the advantages of using SHGs for all these stakeholders. The wide spread use of SHGs for empowering people especially women, has upto a large extent proved its worth. But there are also criticisms of SHGs as a tool for development and we will look at them too.
Concept of SHGs
According to the Reserve Bank of India Self-Help Group (SHG) is a registered or unregistered group of micro entrepreneurs having homogeneous social and economic background voluntarily, coming together to save small amounts regularly, to mutually agree to contribute to a common fund and to meet their emergency needs on mutual help basis. The group members use collective wisdom and peer pressure to ensure proper end-use of credit and timely repayment thereof. In fact, peer pressure has been recognized as an effective substitute for collateral. (Reserve Bank of India, FAQs). Malcolm Harper has defined SHGs as groups of women whose primary purpose is to save and then to take loans, initially from their own funds but eventually from a bank.
Concepts and Dynamics of Self Help Groups
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Its main advantages are An economically poor individual gain strength as part of a group. Besides, financing through SHGs reduces transaction costs for both lenders and borrowers. While lenders have to handle only a single SHG account instead of a large number of small-sized individual accounts, borrowers as part of a SHG cut down expenses on travel (to and from the branch and other places) for completing paper work and on the loss of workdays in canvassing for loans (RBI, FAQ) But this definition is rather limited in as it views SHGs merely as an instrument of providing credit to the poor. SHGs are now viewed as having a role in empowering the whole community through the efforts of the members. SHGs members are credited with organizing successfully the community to ban arrack in AP, fighting against child marriage and protecting forests. Supporters of SHGs attribute the success of many community initiatives to the leadership provided by conscious members of the SHGs. Therefore the definition though useful does not fully satisfy our purpose.
Characteristics of SHGs
SHGs consist of group members, male or female who come together and form a group. Often it is an outside agency, a government agency or a NGO that encourage the individuals to form this group. The group has to be formed carefully as an unplanned group will face problem and in all probability will terminate leading to frustration in the members. Ideal characteristics of SHGs 1) Number of group members is between 8-15. Ideally the number is upto 12.
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2)
Homogeneity or similarity in social background Group members are mostly women though there exist mens groups also. Same sub caste or caste group. Members existing solidarity helps increase group unity and prevent factions in the group Economically they belonging to the same class and do not have major difference in income levels Living close by; preferably within walking distance The group has an advantage if all members belong to Below Poverty Line (BPL) Category. The government gives subsidy to the groups, which increases the amount of revolving capital of the group and the morale of the group.
3) 4) 5)
Members get along in a group and are ready to take instructions from group leaders. Members are able to contribute the fixed amount of money to the SHGs. Decisions regarding the group are made through democratic and participatory methods by the members. After a period of time the SHG can be registered (many SHGs remain unregistered) and a bank account started which will formalize the functioning of the SHGs. Bye laws and rules are framed which regulates the functioning of the SHGs The group also elects a group president, secretary and treasurer with prescribed roles for each post.
6)
7)
Process of Forming SHGs

Any group goes through certain stages of development from the beginning to the end. According to the widely applied
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theory of group development advocated by Tucker the stages that group are (1) Forming (2) Storming (3) Norming (4) Performing and (5) Adjourning. The pace at which the group moves from one stage to another is based on number of factors that exist in the group. Hence homogeneous groups are preferred over heterogeneous groups; member who is previously known to each other is preferred over persons who are unknown; difficult persons are avoided. The length and effectiveness of the group will depend largely on qualities of the members. Often government and NGOs have set targets for their staff to initiate SHGs which results in poor quality of groups which either break into smaller groups or simply close. First Stage Government, NGOs or Banks, forms SHGs. Often employees or volunteers from any one organization go to the rural community or to urban slum community. They interact with the community women and explain to them the advantages of forming SHGs. It is pointed out to the women they often have to borrow money for emergencies or for investing in their economic activities. They usually approach the local moneylenders for their requirements who charge exorbitant rates for their loans. A 10 percent per month interest rate , which works out to 120 percent per year, is common. Further, the first month interest is deducted from the principle itself. In course of time the principle and the interest become a large amount, which the debtor is unable to repay. Consequently she has to part a precious asset like land or jewelry or take another loan to settle the previous loan. Either way he has been pushed further into debt and poverty. People are very familiar with the pattern and understand the situation very easily. A skilled communicator will often ask questions regarding their
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financial situation to the community members who would then tell her of their problems regarding money. Then the group worker will present the formation of SHGs as a solution to the problems. She will list the advantages of forming SHGs which are to promote savings, access cheaper credit and ensure better returns on the investment. The group worker will also tell how the SHGs can be linked to the bank and if all members are BPL can get subsidy (need not be returned). People will generally have their doubts. Doubts can be related to the functioning of SHGs- Who will keep the money collected from the members? Who will prepare the accounts? Who will deposit the money in the bank? Who will decide who should be given the loan? Who will settle disputes between the members? Is there is a danger of losing money? What if the person who has taken loan does not return the amount? What options will the SHGs have to recover the amount? Can the members perform the functions needed for SHGs. Will all members cooperate? Will they attend the meetings and deposit the contributions regularly? What if due to genuine reasons members are unable to attend or deposit the amount? The animator will answer the questions by saying that the group members can perform the required tasks by themselves. If needed they will be trained to conduct meetings, maintain accounts and deposit money in the bank. Attendance and depositing money is compulsory and fines will be imposed on members who are absent for the meetings or do not deposit their contributions on time. The animator will explain that these rules and regulations are needed for the proper functioning of the groups and they are applicable for all. Instances of successful functioning of SHGs and their benefits to the members are cited to boost the confidence of the members.
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If the communitys members are convinced and agree, one or more, groups are formed in the village. Usually it will take one to two months with regular weekly visits to the community to form the SHGs. If the animator is known to the community or is introduced by an influential person, the formation of SHGs may be quicker and easier. In some communities people might have had a bitter experience with savings and credit programme in which many of them losing their money to unscrupulous persons. The animator would have to work harder to persuade people to trust her. Selection of members is based on the criteria, which has been mentioned before. Homogeneity in caste, class and social background; proximity; financial conditions are some of the criteria used. Close relatives cannot be members of the same group- mothers and daughters and mother in laws and daughters and sister-in laws are not allowed to be part of the same group. Usually once groups are formed, members are encouraged to name it. The name can be of a flower like rose or name of the place or even a name of the member. Members are then shown how to perform these tasks- begin the meetings, take attendance, conduct the proceedings, maintain accounts, write the minutes of the meetings, get signatures/thumb impressions of the members, take decisions regarding the group functioning and close the meetings. Thereafter the members are ready to take responsibility of the groups meetings. Meetings are held every week or at least every month. The following documents are needed (1) Minutes book in which the proceedings of the meeting are recorded. (2) Savings and loan register where the amount is recorded. (3) Weekly registers (4) Members passbook where the individuals saving and loans are recorded.
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Some of rules and regulations that will have to be agreed upon are the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Venue and time of meeting are fixed which is convenient to all members Penalties for non-attendance and late coming Agreement on amount of saving for each member Procedure for giving small loans to each other, interest rates and repayment schedule Methods to take decisions regarding loans from banks and repayment Procedure for taking other decisions regarding the group
A typical group meeting will start at the appointed time of the week. The place of the meeting can be the house of the members, the school building or the office of the e NGO or any other place, which is convenient to the members. At the appointed time the meeting begins. Members are expected to come themselves not send their children or anybody else. Any one coming late is usually fined a nominal fee, which is added to the common pool. However individuals with valid reasons are exempted- sickness to self, children or close relatives and being out of station are examples. But the group members decide whether the reason is genuine or not. Once the members are all present, a song may be sung especially if a guest is present. Attendance is taken in the attendance register and then the contributions are taken from all members. The amounts are recorded in their personal passbook and in the accounts register. The secretary writes down the minutes and treasurer updates the accounts register. Then matters of common interest may be discussed. A member may want a loan for personal
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reason or for making investments in a new enterprise. She may request for a loan of Rs.1000 from the common fund. Members have to decide whether the loan can be given or be refused. They will have to be taken into consideration the genuineness of the reason for requesting the loan, the capacity of the member to return the loan, past performance of the member in repaying loans, amount available with group and other factors. At times there may be more than one member demanding loan and the group has to decide to whom the loan will be given. Group members are also encouraged to discuss common problems facing the community and steps needed to address the problem. For example, the anganwadi needs a new worker and group may decide to present a petition to the panchayat. Different responsibilities may be distributed to the group members. All these discussions are recorded in the minutes book. If no group member can write then an outsider is requested to write the minutes of the meetings. There are number of sources for conflict at this stage- members dont understand why they have to pay fine when they break the group rules especially when it is said that it their group; members are offended by the actions and comments of others; members are offended when their demand for loans are rejected by the group; factions; members feel that they are investing too much time for too little. There have been also instances where conflicts outside the group have adversely affected the functioning of the group. The group worker usually settles these conflicts by speaking to the members and convincing them of the importance of the following the rules and staying in the group. The degree of the success of these efforts depends on the nature of rapport between the group worker and the members.
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Second Stage If the group survives the earlier phase then it goes to the next phase. Meetings are held regularly and members would accept the rules and regulations and agree that it is in advantageous for them. Loans should be taken and repayments done on time. The account books and passbooks are updated regularly. Conflicts are settled without outside help. After two to three meetings the group can start a saving bank account with the bank. But usually it takes more time than that as the members must get used to the functioning of the SHG and build their confidence. Starting the account in the bank, which forms the first step towards accessing loans, is called SHG- Bank Linkage. The group members have to collectively pass a resolution to link their SHG with the Bank and apply for opening of the account. Three members should be authorized to operate the account and two of them can operate the account. A copy of the rules and regulations of the SHGs has to be submitted to the bank. Usually the secretary and treasure operate the group account and from then on the periodical collections of the group are deposited with bank within two days of the meeting. The updated passbook is presented to the group members in the next meeting. The amount deposited with the Bank grows with the increase in group deposits and also the interests on the loans that the members have taken. Once the SHG has been in existence for a period of time banks decide whether they are ready to get loans. The time period differ from bank to bank. For example Andhra Bank stipulates that the group should have been in active existence for at least a period of six months.
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The bank will provide loans to the group as a whole not to individuals. The SHG is taken as entity and members serve as guarantors. The amount of the first loan can be upto four times the amount of saving done by the group. The loan amount becomes part of the revolving fund from which members can take loan on an individual basis. Alternatively the group can collectively start an income generation programme. After the loan is returned by the members they can take another loan which is six times the saving of the SHG and the after its repayment the loan amount can be upto eight times the savings. But first the heath of the SHG is assessed and seen whether it meets the criteria set by the bank to avail loan facilities. Fulfilling the criteria mean that the SHGs enjoys good heath and will repay the loans - the main concern of the lender. The suggested criteria is given below-
Sr. Factors to be No. checked 1 2 3 Group Size Very good 15 to 20 Good 10 to 15 Unsatisfactory Less than 10
Type of members Only very poor members Number of meeting Timings of meeting Attendance of members Participation of members Four meetings a month Night or after 6 pm
2 or 3 poor Many not poor members members Two Less than two meetings in meetings in a a month month Morning between 7 to 9 am Other timings
5 6 7
More than 90% 70 to 90% Very high level Medium level
Less than 70% Low level
Savings collection Four times withing the group every month
Three times Less than three times
244 8 9. Amount to be saved Interest on internal loan
Social Group Work: Working with Groups Fixed amount Depending upon purpose Fully used for Loaning to members All books are regularly Varying amount 24 to 36% More than 36%
10 Utilisation of Savings 11. Loan recoveries 12 Maintenance of books
Partly used Poor utilisation for Loaning to members Less than 70% Irregular in maintaining and recording Most important registers maintained minutes, savings, loans, etc.) are maintained Rs.3000- 5000/-
More than 90% 70 to 90%
13 Accumulated savings 14. Knowledge of the Rules of the SHGs 15 Education level
More than Rs. 5000/- Known to all
Less than Rs.3000/- Not known to all Less than 20 per cent know to read and write
More than 20% of members can read and write All are aware of Govt.
16 Knowledge of Govt.
Most of the No one knows members programs know
(Source: A Handbook on forming self-help groups, NABARD
Another facility for groups who meet the criteria and are formed by BPL members is subsidy. Subsidy by the government, which need not be repaid, ranges from Rs. 20,000 to Rs.100,000. The savings of the members, subsidies if any received from the government, the interest on loans and bank loan are the financial assets of the SHG. The growth of the deposit
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and growth of lending is the growth of the Self Help Group. As the amount grows so will the loans which can be given to the members. The objective would reach if the process continues.... Third stage Once the group has stabilized itself then it should ideally become a peoples institution. However even though activities other than collection and giving loans to members are encouraged many SHG limit themselves to doing only that. There are example of NGOs initiated SHGs encourage training programmes for the members like literacy classes, hygiene classes etc. There have been instances when SHGs members have come together and demanded action from the authorities and succeeded in persuading them to do so. Example SHG members led a movement demanding the implementation of prohibition in the state which was accepted by the government Creating federation of SHGs is a strategy to strengthen SHGs that has been tried out in some places. SHGs are grouped into clusters and cluster level association for the SHGs are started and many CLAs form a federation. Thus it enables the SHG members of a small group to become a part of the larger group and function as a pressure group.
Advantages of SHGs
The evolution of SHGs in India can be traced to the efforts of NGOs and governmental organizations to provide credit to the poor. SHGs proved to be very useful for all stakeholders.
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Advantages for the people 1) SHGs provide cheap credit to the poor Credit - plays an important role in the lives of the poor as it does in the lives of others. Credit is accessed for investing in any enterprise however large or small it may be. Rarely does even the biggest entrepreneur have enough money to start her business. Credit can be accessesed in different ways. She usually has to access credit from any of the following sources- identify partners to invest, borrow money from banks and other lending institutions, borrow from non institutional lenders like money lenders, raise money from the public directly in form of shares and debentures. Each of them has weakness and strengths. However the sources for the credit for the poor is limited. The poor hesitate to go to the institutional lenders. They prefer to go to the moneylenders and pawn brokers who charge them very high interest rate. But they are preferred as the credit they provide is quick and transaction costs low. Studies show that the poor often pay higher interest rates than the rich. Unfortunately they do not have many options and are forced to pay higher costs. SHGs are promoted as sources for timely, cheap and viable credit. SHGs encourage regular savings as every member has to contribute an agreed upon amount of money every week. SHGs encourage disciplined borrowing and repayments. Group makes decisions as to whom to lend money and how it will be repaid. Defaulters are pressurized by group members to return the loans with interests. Group pressure is the key to the success of SHGs. Thus repayment rates in SHGs are comparatively better than in banks.
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The transaction costs are low as the cost traveling; filling forms, producing necessary documents needed to apply for the loan in bank is not needed. The group members will assess the need of the member and provide the loan with minimal formalities. SHGs charge interest, which are below that of the money lenders thus increasing the access to the poor to credit. The interest paid is also returned to the group common fund which ensures that no outside agency benefits. Bank-SHGs linkage enables the group to take loans from the bank with group as collateral which means increased volume of credit available to the members. SHGs also start new group business ventures that can increase their incomes. Participation in SHGs with regular meetings, maintaining accounts interacting with bank officials and others improves the confidence of the members leading to womens empowerment. Often participation in the SHG related activities provides the only opportunity for many rural women to work without male interference and domination. Increased income and participation leads to improved status in the family and the community. It is observed that awareness levels of the SHGs members are found to be higher than non-SHGs members. Advantages to the Institutional Lenders Lending to the poor has been part of government policy for many years. In fact this was an important reason for bank nationalisation in 1969 and again in 1980. However banks are reluctant to advance credit to the poor. Some of the important reasons are given below-
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The poor have minimal assets which often cannot be used as security or a guarantee against a loan from the lending institutions. Hence they are not considered credit worthy and there is great reluctance to extend credit to the poor. Poor people including hawkers and micro entrepreneurs need credit but numerous problems making it difficult for them to access credit. The non-availability of credit is major barrier in the development of the poor in India. Secondly bankers and institutional lenders are not trained to deal with small and marginal depositors. Many of them are illiterate or semi literate and require a lot of assistance for successful interaction. Thirdly, transactions costs are high for the bank if it has to deal individually with small and marginal depositors and borrowers. These depositors deposit small amounts which involves a lot of paper work. Fourthly recovery rates are poor as many borrowers default on their payments and it is too costly for the bank to take efforts to recover small loans through the legal and other options available All these conditions lead to a number of problems for the lenders leading to- Reduction of profitability; reduced viability; administered interests and lending costs leading to reduced margins; Poor monitoring and poor loan recovery (Karmakar,1999) SHGs resolve many of the problems of the creditor- 1) 2) Repayment rates are high and cheaper as group pressure ensures most loans are repaid. Many small deposits are accumulated so the numbers of depositors grow without increased burden on the services of the bank. The social function of the Bank is fulfilled.
3)
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Advantages to the Government Decades of government sponsored poverty alleviation programmes have not been very successful. The credit- based programmes of the government have not been very successful. These programme have had major problems- identification of beneficiaries and subsequent recovery of loans. Beneficiaries default on their repayment and misuse the credit for non-productive purposes. The use of SHGs has become a part of the government strategy for women s empowerment and poverty alleviation. States governments promote SHGs. They are known by different names-
Impacts of SHGs
Bank-SHG Linkage From the point of view the lenders the performance of the Bank SHGs Linkage has been successful. The figure given below indicate this Performance as on 31 march 2006 Sl.No. 1) 2) 3) Particulars No.of SHGs linked 2,238,565 Percentage of women groups in total groups 90% No.of participating banks : 545 i) Commercial Banks 47 ii) Regional Rural Banks 158 iii) Co-operative Banks 340 4) 5) Bank Branches participating 44,362 No. of States/UTs 31
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6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12)
No. of districts covered 583 No.of Partners 4896 Bank Loan Rs. in billion 113.98 Refinance Rs. in billion 41.60 No.of poor households assisted (in million) 32.98 Average Loan/SHG Rs. 50,917 Model Wise Linkage ( Cumulative) (%) i) SHGs formed and financed by Banks 20 ii) SHGs formed by other agencies but directly financed by banks 74 iii) SHGs financed by banks using financial intermediaries 6
(Source . NABARD) Impact of SHG on the women A number of studies have been done on the different aspects of SHGs. studies showed that most of women who are members of SHG belong to the Below Poverty Line (BPL). 1) SHGs and targeting the poor The aim of SHGs is to assist the poorest of the poor. However there is always opposition in the community and in the family towards efforts to improve their status. Often, since the poorest sections of the society are difficult to organize SHGs are started for the well off.. However studies have shown that upto 51 percent of the members are from poor families(BPL), Many are women belonging to the Schedule Caste community.(EDA Rural system Pvt limited. 2006). Harper (2003) found 77 percent of women in the SHGs he studied are from the SC community.
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2) Impact of membership on income Many studies have shown that income of the members have increased significantly. However some studies also point out that the increase has not been sufficient to bring them above the poverty line.( Swain, Ranjula Bali and Fan Yang Wallentin Eda Rural system Pvt limited; 2006 Tankha, Ajay, ). Further it is widely accepted that SHGs have helped to reduce the dependence on the moneylender by making available credit during emergencies and for creation of productive assets. Harper in his study found an increase of 37.5 percent in the assets of families who were members for seven years over those who were members only for three years. He points out that one reason could be the loans obtained from the SHGs. NABARDs evaluation study of 560 members of 223 SHGs linked to banks in 11 states showed that SHG members realized major increases in assets, income and employment. ASSEFA s study showed 95% of members covered by the study reported increases in annual income and 52% have reported an increase in net worth over Rs. 10,000. These studies confirm that income and assets of families of SHG members have increased. 3) Impact of membership on social status NABARD evaluation study showed that women members were found to have become more assertive in confronting social evils and problem situations. Nearly half the poor member households had crossed the poverty line. The social status of women has increased in the family and in the community. (Ajay Tankha). Studies conducted so far have shown that the SHGs membership had a positive impact on the women and society. A major study of 72 SHGs undertaken earlier covering over 1,000 SHG members in Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka (.Harper et al.1998) observed improvement in
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members diet, assets and education. Similarly the EDA study showed thirty percent of the SHGs were active members in community. 4) Impact of SHGs on disaster related activities Kim Wilson (2002) found that involving SHGs in pre- disaster and post disaster activities reduced the cost of relief and rehabilitation. The reason for this is the close cooperation that the SHGs could work with the community, Panchayat and relief agencies. 5) SHGs promote social capital in society Social capital has been defined by Robert Putnam (2000) as network of trusts in the society. It has a public face and the private face. The private face means that having more social contacts will benefit the individual. The public face relates to the benefit the society has because of network of trusts existing in society. Putnam (1992) finds a positive correlation between the social capital and good governance. SHGs by their savings and credit activity promote increases social capital in the society.
Criticism of SHGs
SHGs have been criticized as being one more fad in the field of development which while not addressing the core issue of oppression and discrimination tries to solve the problem by providing credit to the poor. One commentator calls the strategy of using the SHGs for development as the last resort of the development planner. All other reformist strategies having failed the success of the Grameen Bank and other NGOs enabled the government and the funding agencies to grasp on to the concept of SHGs. At the first look, SHGs are ideal as it follows the participatory approach and emphasizes on self and mutual aid. But the strategy is meant again to avoid radical
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measures that will hurt the interests of the powerful and the rich. Secondly, SHGs suit well in the strategy of the international institutions like the World bank and other western based aid agencies to make people part of the market as consumers and producers. Critics who are suspicious of the motives of these institutions attribute the growth of SHGs to the furthering of this strategy by these institutions. Thirdly, the entry of private micro finance institutions (MFIs) into the rural areas has created a confusion in the minds of the people. The aim of MFIs is to create profit for them by providing micro -credit without any security. Unscrupulous characters intending to cheat people run some of these MFIs. To increase the volume of credit they encourage poor women to form groups and assess easy credit. Many of them are do not assess the financial health of the group before the providing credit nor do they prepare the members for handling money. Sometimes they provide more than one loan to the same group without first one being repaid. People fall easy prey to these schemes as getting loans from them is easier and faster. They soon fall into the debt trap. People often mistakenly associate all types of SHGs with MFIs which brings bad name to the latter.
Conclusion
SHGs have become a key component in the developmental programme of the government and the NGOs. It has become the instrument through which the credit; a important prerequisite for development is being reached to the poor. But an important aspect is that SHGs if handled properly is a peoples institution, which can play a role in the transformation of the society. Evidence from the field may
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not give entire picture as research in same areas may be lacking or is not available in the public domain. However there is no doubt that the SHGs are playing an important role in developing disadvantaged women in urban and rural areas.
References
Harper, Malcolm (1998), Profit for the Poor - Cases in Micro- Finance, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Putnam, Robert (1992). Making democracy Work; Civic traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Putnam, Robert (2000), Bowling alone; The collapse and revival of American Community, Simon & Schuster, New York. ASSEFA, Mid Term Assessment of Womens Development Programme (mimeo), Chennai Karmakar, K.G.,(1999), Rural Credit and self Help Groups, Micro finance Needs and Concepts in India, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Swain, Ranjula Bali and Fan Yang Wallentin, does micro finance empower women? Evidence from self help groups in india, Working Paper 2007:24 Department of Economics, Department of Economics Working paper 2007:24, Uppsala University Uppsala. Downloaded from htt p:// www.nek.uu.se on 10th January 2009 Siddiqui, H.Y.(2008), Group work; Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Wilson, Kim (2002), The Role of Self Help Group Bank in Linkage Programme in Preventing Rural Emergencies in India, NABARD, Mumbai.
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MYRADA, (2002) Impact of Self Help Groups (Group Processes) on The Social/Empowerment Status of Women Members In Southern India, NABARD, Mumbai A handbook on forming Self Help Groups (SHGS)(not dated), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, Mumbai www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQDisplay/aspx
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14
Group Work in Community Settings

*Joseph Varghese
Introduction
Group work is very useful in the community. We have discussed in detail the most widely used type of groups in the community- the SHGs. In this chapter the other types of groups will be discussed. Any number of natural groups is found in the community. Most of them are spontaneous efforts by the people themselves to control their lives by helping others and getting help from others. Most of them receive no or minimum help from professionals. However they are effective in assisting those who are part of it. The members do no think of their membership in the group as something outside their normal course of life. It is part and parcel of their life. For the poor the groups are crucial part of their livelihood strategies and survival strategies. They borrow money when needed, help building each other homes, take part in joys and sorrows of each others lives and assist each other in emergency. Community based groups are based on neighborhood, caste and extended kinship ties. Groups can also be formed on the basis of many different criteria- members may be suffering from the same illness; members may be recovering from alcoholism or drug addiction; etc. One important type of group that is increasingly being important
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are the social action groups that aim at achieving social justice for the disadvantaged. We will discuss the relevance and functions of these groups for the society and for their members. We will also study community-based groups, which serve people with different problems.
Social Action Groups

Social work is not only associated with treatment and delivery of services, it is also involved in challenging discriminating practices and advocating the rights of the marginalized. Right from the days of the settlement movement social work pioneers have aimed at system transformation and social reform. It has been realized that treating individual clients alone will not solve social problems. Social institutions have to be transformed and exploitative structures destroyed. These methods are usually considered part of the domain of the Social work method of Community Organization. According to Rothman (1968) three models of community organization are- Social Planning Model, Locality Development and Social Action. Though community organization aims at mobilizing the community it is the groups that actually that does much of the work. According to (Staples in Gravin et al, 2004; 346) the group setting is an ideal access point for most community members to engage in social action. Small groups maximize opportunities for participation in process of discussion, analysis, consciousness raising, decision making and planning. He further says that before every event held in the community, smaller meetings are held for variety of purposes including action research, leadership training, executive decision making, strategic analysis, community education, recruitment, action planning, negotiating, lobbying and evaluation. These tasks done largely in groups determine to large extent the success or failure of the community organization process.
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As you know group work groups are divided into two types (1) Treatment group that consists of personality development groups, educational groups, recreational groups, support groups and therapeutic group (2) Tasks groups includes committees and councils. The main purpose of the task groups are to accomplish that tasks or programmes that has been entrusted to it. Social actions groups belong to category of Task groups. It usually consists of a small number of members who may belong to the community or are outsiders to the community or both. They take up an issue that they identify as having an adverse effect on the well being of the members of the community. They identify the causative factors that lead to the problem. Institutions, practices and values that cause the problems are identified. The agent can be the government itself or a government department, police, industries, social groups, organizations whose actions or inactions has lead to the problem. Many times it is the combination of factors that lead to the problems. Government inaction invariably contributes to the problem. The action group believes that the problem can be alleviated if people unite and challenge the powerful and force them to act in public interests. When people participate in the process of decision-making and thereby gain mastery over their lives it is called empowerment. Empowerment is long process in which people first understand the reality of power structure around. They understand the interconnections between the social structures and how it controls their lives. Pablo Friere calls this process conscientization. They have to get rework on their images. They must stop seeing themselves as passive and powerless. They must begin see themselves as agents of social transformation. Groups are ideal for this kind of activity. Cox (1991) gives the following reasons (1) Groups facilitate sharing of
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experiences which will help describe the reality as they view it themselves (2) Successful cases of overcoming the powerlessness can motivate and inspire others (3) Members discussion can confront each other with their fears and hopes facilitating the consciousness raising (4) Learning with each other increases knowledge of the political dimension. Social action groups are formed on the basis on the following (1) Geographical area like neighbourhood, community, and people living in close proximity. Since they live close by they are likely to have the same problems and more importantly share a common identity. Common concerns like housing, public utilities environmental issues are then taken up by the action groups. Sometimes the community members are part of formal organizations like resident welfare associations and community based organizations. Again often committees are formed within these organizations to deal with the authorities. (2) Another type of groups is based on the particular issue such as women rights, dalit rights and tribal rights, consumer awareness and rights and land rights. (3) The third type of groups is based on identity like ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and mental or physical disability. According to Rothman the goal of social action is to bring about a shift in how resources and power is distributed in the society. It is their belief that there is asymmetrical division of power and resources, which leads to the dominant sections using power to attain their goals at the costs of the community. Consequently the disadvantaged sections experience injustice and deprivation. Conflict, confrontations, agitation, protests, PILs, negotiations and strikes would be some of the techniques to be used For example, an industry lets untreated affluent to the river, which causes pollution, contamination of water
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bodies and land degradation. If industry is unwilling to listen to the pleas of the people the only strategy that would yield results would be challenge the factory using the legal means, holding protests and publicizing the problem using the media. Social Action Groups in India In India social action groups began to make its presence know during the 1970s. That decade was turbulent times in the life of the nation. The declaration of emergency; the war with Pakistan; rise in prices; the frequent strikes and protests; the controversial family planning programme and demolition of slums; numerous arrests of social activists; rise of naxal movements; student protests are some of the important events that shook the nation. . The political system especially the political parties to a large extent lost their creditability. The police and the bureaucracy also lost its credibility. Many people felt that there is a need for alternatives from outside the prevailing system. Social action groups emerged out of this situation. Most of activists were from middle class families. (Kothari, 1987; 441, Sheth, D.L.,1984; 258, Sharma, S.L.255, Sethi 1984;305). They were disillusioned with the mainstream parties who advocated change but in practice maintained status quo. Their bitter experience during the emergency made them ideologically anti state and anti bureaucracy (Kothari, 1984; 220). They rejected the idea that the state could ever be an instrument of justice and liberation. They rejected the developmental paradigms set by the state (Kothari, 1984,220, Sheth D.L.,1984, 259). They saw the problems of India not only in economic terms but also in cultural and social dimensions. Consequently their strategies for development were different. They believed in living among them and taking part in their struggles rather than dictating instructions
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to them for development. Peoples knowledge and experience was respected and integrated with the group strategy for development. Conscientization and building people movements were the main instruments. Marxian and Gandhian ideologies influenced most of social action groups. However over the course of time many of these groups turned in formal organizations- some of them even became as bureaucratic and corrupt as the government institutions that they challenged. It is also observed that some of them built alliances with the government and co-opted into the system. Another controversy with these groups is the foreign funding and its role in the emergence of these groups. Prakash Karat (1984) accused action groups of building micro social movements with the intention of breaking the larger workers and peasants movement, which had a greater chance for social transformation-workers movement, peasant movements and women movements. According to him foreign agencies promote this role of the action groups in mind when they fund the action groups. So he concludes that social action groups organize people into micro movements, which aim at small changes while neglecting the macro level problems of capitalism and imperialism. However as mentioned above these groups emerged when large formal organizations like political parties and the bureaucracy failed in attaining their objectives. Political leadership of even revolutionary parties lost their radical agenda when they attained state power. (Michel, Robert, 1915). Therefore social activists were more comfortable while working in small groups in which the members knew each other personally and ideologically similar rather than large organizations that could be
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manipulated by the leadership for serving selfish motives. Moreover small groups can give importance to every member opinion, thereby reducing alienation of it members. Social action groups have been helped by the Supreme Court and High Courts accepting Public Interest Litigation (PILs) to deal with problems. Public Interest Litigation allows the activists to take up issues of public concern and ask for judicial action. Similarly, the Right to Information Act has enabled the activists to ask information from the government departments and use it to compare the reality on the ground. Both these developments opened new avenues of action for the groups. But it cannot be denied that there are number of shortcomings of action groups. Some of them are as follows- 1) 2) Factionist and frequent splits in the groups Personal factors often interfered with professional conduct leading to blurring of line between professional and private. Empire building and monopolizing of issues Working for publicity and fame and thereby neglecting the real causes Often outside leaders of these groups have overshadowed community leaders because of their knowledge and social network. Corruption and mismanagement. Leadership is authoritarian and dictatorial Foreign fund based activity and priorities
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Some of the areas, which action groups have contributed, are as follows- 1) Promotion of human rights issues including protection of the under trials; police atrocities including custodial deaths rights of the arrested; encounter deaths; juvenile justice; rights of sexual minorities. The Peoples Union for Civil Liberties and Human Rights Law network is just two examples of action groups. Rights of people are displaced due to Development Project. Examples -the Narmada Bachao Andolan and Protest Movements against Tehri Dam in Uttrakhand. Women rights issues like domestic violence, dowry, and sexual harassment. Many of legislations have been passed and existing laws modified due to the pressure from action groups. For example, the Visaka judgment, which deals with sexual harassment at work places, is result of the action groups case against atrocity in Rajasthan on a community worker. Tribal issues like land alienation, displacement and exploitation Environment issues pollution of rivers, lowering of water table because of over exploitation by corporate, damage to monuments has been taken up by the action groups. The Centre for Science and Environment, Delhi and Cost Ford are examples of action groups that have intervened in environmental issues. Protest against forcible Land acquisition Protection of the rights of informal labour like workers working in house (domestic workers), brick kilns, glass-manufacturing units. Child labour
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10) Right to housing and rights of people living in slums. Steps for social action group According to Carr (2008) the following steps can be implemented to create and sustain a social action group 1) Engaging The process in which the group worker engages the target group- a community (a village where the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is not implemented properly); a section of society whose rights are denied (sexual minorities); collection of people whose rights are violated (workers whose factory have terminated their services illegally). The engagement phase will include familiarizing herself with the various dimensions of the problem. The laws related to the problem, government policies, the response of the local authority, research available and news articles could be studied. Another step in the process is build rapport with the existing leadership in the community and knowing their limitations and strengths. Initial reflections- the group worker must understand the situation and identify the principles that will guide her action and her relationship with the target group. Assessing system barriers- the group assess the various barriers that stand in between the target group and its objectives. Some of the barriers can be related to the situation (like government indifference to the issue) or to the target group themselves (lack of awareness) or be related to the other issues (leadership of the group, past events).
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Finding allies and making contacts Networking with like-minded groups, developing contacts in the media and academic world and obtaining the support of other communities are important function of the group leader. In India personal contacts with the police, bureaucracy and professionals (lawyers, doctors) are also very useful. These allies and contacts can be useful in many ways- increasing the knowledge base, for providing professional guidance, recruiting new members, contributing resources, arranging publicity and giving encouragement. 2) Initiating the Group Identifying members, seeking ways to motivate them to join the group, finding resources and venue meetings are the important tasks that have to be done. This phase can be stressful one as convincing people to join is tedious job. The group worker must be able to withstand the problems of forming the group before she moves ahead Recruiting participants Individuals may initially agree and then refuse or refuse many times before agreeing to join. There maybe occasions in which personal and professional disagreements can threaten to split the group or even end it. It is found that recruiting members from the disadvantaged section is difficult. Finding a venue and obtaining needed materials An accessible place for meeting and materials needed have to be organized. It is better if available resources are used. Building trust Any group has to have a certain level of trust and goodwill among its members. This is crucial maintenance function.
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The level of trust can be increased if opportunities and a climate exist in the group to express ones opinions and views. Similarly others should be able to respond to these views freely without worrying about hurting the other members or retribution. Establishing collegiality Perfect equality may not be possible in the group as the group worker often is a person with more knowledge and skills. However he should take care that he works with the group rather than for the group. His example will help set norms for the group regarding the rules of participating and engaging. Further as mentioned earlier the various processes in the group is itself an empowering experience for the participants. 3) Facilitating the group Establishing ground rules Rules and regulations agreed upon by every members help in maintaining the group. These rules and regulation can be to govern a whole gambit of activity of the group. Group discussions and interaction, decision making and other process of the group should be subject to rules. Facilitating consciousness raising The discussions that take in the group has to raise the level of consciousness in the group members. The group workers should encourage group members to draw connections between the problems that identify as personal and the collective manifestation of these problems as political issues (Carr, 2005). For example, the discussion on poverty of families in a community is linked to the lack of accessibility to economic resources and education resources, which in turn is a political problem. The process of raising consciousness will include challenging and
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removing many of the existing perceptions of the members on their situation. Supporting action Group action should follow the raising of consciousness. Action requires the utilization of all available resources - personal and community based. The support network built by the group including personal contacts and community members, concerned students, activists is used. Action should identify the target - the institution or person against whom the action is taken. This target should be carefully chosen as the success of the action depends on the how much change is achieved in the institution. Encourage praxis Paulo Friere described praxis as reflection and action directed at the structures to be transformed. Thus any action should follow by reflection about its consequences, successes and failures. A certain amount of learning takes place in every action even if it fails in achieving its objectives. The learning can be about the group itself, or the community as a whole or about the power structures. These learning can be analyzed by getting the members to talk about it. The sharing of the views will increase the level of consciousness. Based on these learning, future action is planned and taken and the process goes on... 4) Transferring power The ultimate aim of the empowering process is to make the members independent, not make them depend on the group worker. After a period the group members should be able to function with limited or no support from the group leaders. The group workers should be able to transfer his skills and information to the group members. Some of the methods used to build the capacity of the members
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are training; handholding (members, performs under close supervision) and delegation of authority. 5) Wraping up The group worker must be able to leave the group at the right time. The group members should be prepared for this. Leadership should be created and trained and resources identified for future use. Groups, whose members are from highly disadvantaged sections, require more time before they can function independently. Social action groups will remain relevant for a long time to come. Their effectiveness in countering social injustice make them ideal vehicles for social transformation.
Group Work with Disaster Victims

Disasters are sudden events that cause large-scale damage to human being and their property. The victims of a disaster are not only those who die and are injured but also those who survive. Both the category of survivors; injured and the unharmed need psychological support. Another important category of people who are in need of support is the caregivers. Caregivers are those who give the survivors emotional and social support. But the experience can be stressful for the caregivers themselves. Victims of the disaster are classified into six categories by Taylor and Frazer (1) The primary victims are those who are directly affected by the disaster (2) Secondary victims includes the friends and relatives of the primary victims (3) The tertiary victims are those involved in the rescue and recovery (4) The fourth category are those in the community that are involved in the disaster work (5) The fifth category are those
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who have not experienced by the disaster but experience grief and pain (6) The sixth category of victims are those who could have been victims, but by chance escaped. The care that the victims need are the following (1) Shelter temporary and later on permanent if house destroyed (2) food and medicines (3) Medical facility if injured (4) Livelihood (5) legal aid filing for compensation, filing case against perpetuators (6) Compensation (7) Psycho social care and (8)Self help leading to self reliance. Social worker is involved in every action But the most important aspect of his work is psycho-social care. The aim of psychosocial care is to treat the victims who have undergone a traumatic experience. According to Newburn (1993) the common reactions to traumatic events are the following 1) Reliving the experience through dreams, flash backs etc which may last for a period of time. For a proportion of the survivors these reaction may develop into Posttraumatic Stress disorder. (PTSD). Bereavement Intense grief and feeling of loss. Relatives and friends of the deceased may feel a sense of unreality and numbness. Secondly, the feelings of guilt of having survived when relatives and friend have not. Some these feelings are mixed with that of elation at having survived. Thirdly, there maybe a need to know how the disaster happened. The experience of the disaster affects the relations in the family. Some families became stronger as a unit while other families disintegrated. Phobic reactions to sounds, smells and sights
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Lives of the disaster victims disrupted due to various tasks like filing for compensation, inquests requests Intrusions by the media and others who want to obtain information The experience also affects the behaviour in the workplace in the future.
Seven basic principles of psychosocial care are given below. (Sekar et al, 2005). 1) Ventilation. The most important work with the victims of disaster is listening to the accounts of the relative and the survivors (Newburn, ibid). The ventilation process can be done individually and in groups. Groups have a number of advantages, which will be elaborated, in the next section. Empathy Active listening which includes the following (1) Maintaining eye contact (2) responding occasionally while listening (3) Avoid interruptions (4) Accept and (5) empathize Externalization of interests of the survivor which means that the survivor is encouraged to engage in productive purposes which will increase their self worth and self esteem. Social support; encouraging people receive and give emotional support. Relaxation and recreation yoga, games and physical exercises help recovery of the victims Facilitating reconciliation and rehabilitation.
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You can see that all these principles can be effective if it is done in the group. The advantages of group-based treatment of victims are as follows.
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Sharing the victims painful experiences in a group where other victims are present. Universalization of experiences and identification with every other problem take place in the group sessions. Knowing that others also have gone through the experiences and knowing how they are coping with the situation is helpful for the victims. Recreational and relaxation activities are more enjoyable if they are done in groups. Engaging in productive work (for example gardening, basket making building houses)in team motivates the members to engage in these activities on regular basis Efforts like starting SHGs for women can be a start for the rehabilitation of the victims.
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A large number of victims can be treated using group work. Secondly, special groups for the vulnerable Groups for women and children can take care of their special needs as these sections are more vulnerable than others and need special care. Thirdly, these groups survive even after the social workers and the administration go and is a source for support for disaster victims after a long time.
Groups Work Among the Substance Abusers

Group work among the substance abusers can be done in institutions as well in the community. Usually the group members meet in a common place- religious places, school or community centres. There are a number of approaches available to solve the problem of substance abuse and alcohol. According to Fisher (in Gravin(2004)), group work is an appropriate method to deal with the problem of addiction-
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Group reduce the sense of isolation often experienced by persons with the substance use disorders, who may experience a sense of relief to discover that other people are struggling with similar problems. Groups can instill hope in the persons that they can recover when they observe others deal successfully with similar problems. Groups provide opportunity for the members to learn to cope with problems of substance abuse when they observe others coping with similar problems. Groups can give new information to the members given by the group worker, guest lecturer, instructors and other members. Positive feedback about their worth, skills and abilities from other members will improve their self concept (self worth and self image) Groups provide reparative(alternate ) family experiences as the group members give the support and assurance that they sometimes do not receive from their own families. They may try out new behaviours which can be used in the their own families. Groups provide emotional support to the members when they experience stressful and difficult situations outside the group. Encouragement, reinforcement and coaching can happen in the group. Groups help the members acquire social skills that are needed to cope with anxiety situations instead of depending on substances for dealing with difficult situations in life. Members can coach and guide the members who need such skills. Group members can confront each other in very powerful ways regarding the substance abuse. Confrontation in substance abuse is important as most
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of the abusers are in the state of denial. Confrontation by other who had similar problems is particularly powerful. 10) Groups are cost effective as many members can be treated simultaneously. 11) The benefits of group work may exceed beyond the group and benefit others who are in some way related to the members- family members, employers. Important principles and techniques as suggested by Corey and Corey (1987)to increase effectiveness of Groups 1) 2) Emphasize on abstinence from the substance/ alcohol is important. A minimum degree of motivation is needed in the group members to make the group experience work for their benefit. This requirement is important as many of the patients in the groups are forced by their family members to join the group. Thus group members lack interest in the group process and therefore neither contributes nor gains from the experience. Many of them are not confident about the role of groups in their treatment process. Another important requirement is that the members should have the capacity to perform as a group member. Often his physical and mental condition is such that he is not able to participate in the group. Substance abuse has destroyed or retarded his capacity to act normally; if the person is undergoing treatment drugs are administered to him to detoxify his body, which has sedative effects on the body. It is observed that many members are not even able to sit in upright position and listen to the group worker. Members suffering from mental illnesses is to be excluded as these group often refer to a higher power,
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which will increase their tendency to hallucinate. (Fisher, ibid) 5) The first phase of the group work should have sessions that are highly structured- well planned with clear objectives . After a few sessions an interactive approach can be used and greater freedom allowed to the members. Most of the activities are focused on here and now activities, activity-based programme like those needing movement of the body are recommended. Role plays; problem solving, feedback, self-disclosure, confrontation, creating social support network and providing information are important techniques.
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Alcoholic Anonymous Alcoholic Anonymous(AA) is a global organization, which uses the group approach to stop alcoholics, abstain from alcohol. AA was found in 1936 by Bill Wilson who himself was a recovered alcoholic and through his experiences concluded that the best persons to help an alcoholic are other alcoholics. Based on the principles of self-help and mutual aid AA has developed a model for helping alcoholics. The AA has been estimated to be more than 2 million around the global. Local chapters (called fellowships) of AA can be found in major cities and towns in India. Usually newspapers list the AA meetings taking place in the city. AA follows a well-defined program structure of steps and traditions that have been codified in the books, pamphlets and brochures. AA follows in the twelve traditions their experience has taught them to be useful.
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Each member of Alcoholics Anonymous is a small part of a great whole. A.A. must continue to live or most of us will surely die. Hence our common welfare comes first. But individual welfare follows close afterward. For our group purpose there is one ultimate authoritya loving God as He may express Himself in our group conscience. Our membership ought to include all who suffer from alcoholism. Hence we may refuse none who wish to recover. Nor ought A.A. membership ever depend upon money or conformity. Any two or three alcoholics gathered together for sobriety may call themselves an A.A. group, provided that, as a group, they have no other affiliation. With respect to its own affairs, each A.A. group should be responsible to no other authority than its own conscience. But when its plans concern the welfare of neighboring groups also, those groups ought to be consulted. And no group, regional committee, or individual should ever take any action that might greatly affect A.A. as a whole without conferring with the trustees of the General Service Board. On such issues our common welfare is paramount. Each Alcoholics Anonymous group ought to be a spiritual entity having but one primary purposethat of carrying its message to the alcoholic who still suffers. Problems of money, property, and authority may easily divert us from our primary spiritual aim. We think, therefore, that any considerable property of genuine use to A.A. should be separately incorporated and managed, thus dividing the material from the spiritual. An A.A. group, as such, should never go into business. Secondary aids to A.A., such as clubs or hospitals,
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which require much property or administration, ought to be incorporated and so set apart that, if necessary, they can be freely discarded by the groups. Hence such facilities ought not to use the A.A. name. Their management should be the sole responsibility of those people who financially support them. For clubs, A.A. managers are usually preferred. But hospitals, as well as other places of recuperation, ought to be well outside A.A.and medically supervised. While an A.A. group may cooperate with anyone, such cooperation ought never go so far as affiliation or endorsement, actual or implied. An A.A. group can bind itself to no one. 7) The A.A. groups themselves ought to be fully supported by the voluntary contributions of their own members. We think that each group should soon achieve this ideal; that any public solicitation of funds using the name of Alcoholics Anonymous is highly dangerous, whether by groups, clubs, hospitals, or other outside agencies; that acceptance of large gifts from any source, or of contributions carrying any obligation whatever, is unwise. Then too, we view with much concern those A.A. treasuries, which continue, beyond prudent reserves, to accumulate funds for no stated A.A. purpose. Experience has often warned us that nothing can so surely destroy our spiritual heritage as futile disputes over property, money, and authority. Alcoholics Anonymous should remain forever nonprofessional. We define professionalism as the occupation of counselling alcoholics for fees or hire. But we may employ alcoholics where they are going to perform those services for which we might otherwise have to engage nonalcoholic. Such special services may be well recompensed. But our usual A.A. 12 Step work is never to be paid for.
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Each A.A. group needs the least possible organization. Rotating leadership is the best. The small group may elect its secretary, the large group its rotating committee, and the groups of a large metropolitan area, their central or intergroup committee, which often employs a full-time secretary. The trustees of the General Service Board are, in effect, our A.A. General Service Committee. They are the custodians of our A.A. Tradition and the receivers of voluntary A.A. contributions by which we maintain our A.A. General Service Office at New York. They are authorized by the groups to handle our over-all public relations and they guarantee the integrity of our principal ne wspaper, the A.A. Grape vine . All such representatives are to be guided in the spirit of service, for true leaders in A.A. are but trusted and experienced servants of the whole. They derive no real authority from their titles; they do not govern. Universal respect is the key to their usefulness.
10) No A.A. group or member should ever, in such a way as to implicate A.A., express any opinion on outside controversial issuesparticularly those of politics, alcohol reform, or sectarian religion. The Alcoholics Anonymous groups oppose no one. Concerning such matters they can express no views whatever. 11) Our relations with the general public should be characterized by personal anonymity. We think A.A. ought to avoid sensational advertising. Our names and pictures as A.A. members ought not be broadcast, filmed, or publicly printed. Our public relations should be guided by the principle of attraction rather than promotion. There is never need to praise ourselves. We feel it better to let our friends recommend us. 12) And finally, we of Alcoholics Anonymous believe that the principle of anonymity has an immense spiritual
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significance. It reminds us that we are to place principles before personalities; that we are actually to practice a genuine humility. The success of AA is seen in the millions of people who have benefited from the programme. It is acceptance can been seen in the groups being formed on the similar principles for other problems- schizophrenia, parents, child abused adults, overeaters etc. Some of these groups uses approaches which are slightly different from the AA but the AA remains a popular model for handling problems through life changing peer led self groups. (Kurtz in Gravin, 2004) One aspect that is interesting to social group workers is in the emphasis on the nonprofessional approach, which means that for the core activity of conducting group meetings, strictly no outside professional assistance is allowed. Professional assistance is used for the other services needed. Group work among the caregivers Caregivers are individual who take primary responsibility of attending to the needs of the patient and the victim(in a disaster). Care giving can be a stressful activity due to the following reason.(1) The needs of the person has to be taken care of which can takes a lot of time which will reduce the time available to the caregiver for his/her personal and professional issues. (2) behaviour of the person can lead to frustration to the caregiver. (3) The grief and frustration of the patient affects the mental well-being of the caregiver (4) Care giving is physically demanding and can lead to fatigue and physical strain (5) In some diseases like AIDS caregiver may be stigmatized by his/her association with the patient (6) Caregivers suffer from the knowledge that there is no hope of a cure for the ailments affecting the patient and that the condition is life long. (7) Caregivers
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often have to sacrifice many of their own hopes and aspirations because of their primary duty as a caregiver.(8) Care giving can have financial loses in terms of loss of income for the caregiver and because of medical costs of the patient. Care giving is defined as Due to someone whose life is in some way restricted by the need to be responsible for the care of someone who is mentally ill, mentally handicapped, physically disabled or whose health is impaired by sickness or old age.(Baroness Pitkeathley Its my Duty Isnt it? 1989). The physical and psychosocial affect on care giving has been subject of numerous studies. The caregiver often experiences conflicting emotions. On the one hand, she is aware that the person is in need of care and on other hand she may begin to dislike the patient for being a burden on her. These issues have to be dealt with if caregivers have to be effective and at the same time maintain their own psychosocial health. Caregiver groups has thus become a major research issue (Campbell in Gravin, 2004) The groups are categorized as (1) Psycho educational groups, which focus on information about the problems and improving emotional health, mainly coping with frustration. (2) Psychotherapy groups dealing with the problems of loneliness, hopelessness and loss of companionship.(3) Support groups which involves mainly sharing of experiences and problems
Group Work Among Young People in the Community

Group work among children, teenagers, adolescents and youth are important in India. Each of these categories will have a different set of problems depending on the situation that they are in. The major factors that will have an influence on their behaviour are
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1) Type of family 2) Neighbourhood 3) Whether studying or no 3) Educational qualifications 4) Type of school 5) Income level of family 6) Personal History The type of groups which can be organized for them are (1) Educational groups which will teach them social skills, help them cope with difficult life situations and develop attitudes (2) Recreational groups which give the members enjoyable experiences which will keep them away from risk behaviour and develop healthy lifestyles.(3) personality development groups which will enable them to improve their self image and improve confidence levels. Some of the themes, which can be taken up by Corey and Corey are- 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Dealing with alcohol abuse and drug abuse Learning to cope with feelings of depression, guilt, anxiety, anger, rejection, hostility and loneliness. Exploring conflicts at home Post school plans and careers Discuss matters related to love and intimacy if culturally appropriate Defining sex roles Exploring identity issues Considering issues related to autonomy and dependence Conflicts with parents and how to appreciate them
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In Indian situation the following themes can also be tried out 1) 2) 3) 4) Academic performance Influence of media and how to deal with it Rights of the children Concerns of environment.
Dealing with young people 1) Young people may resist the group workers efforts to deal with relevant topics and express preference for games and sports. While group self determination is an important principle of group work. The group worker must find ways and means to reach the objectives without alienating the members. These efforts would include relating the activities to the objectives. The group worker must in his actions earn the trust of the members without which the group will not function. Therefore he should be open and honest with the group members. He can also reveal information about his own experiences as a child and youth to the degree that he is comfortable. It need not be strictly a professional relationship. The group member must remind himself often that it is for the benefit of the group members that the group work is being conducted not for his persona; benefit. In the hierarchical society like ours often the group worker thinks that he knows better than the members. Most often, he does not nor must assume to know better. Individual meetings should be held with members who are not cooperative or are disrupting the group functioning
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Group worker should delegate tasks to the members whenever possible trusting in their capacities. Mistakes done by the members in the tasks should be seen as a learning process. Most importantly groups should be formed of same sex and the same age group. Heterogeneous groups rarely work in India.
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Conclusion
The chapter has shown the different settings in the community where group work can be practiced. We have seen the role of the social action group, which fights for justice. The contribution of these groups in securing justice for the disadvantaged is significant. When formal organizations are increasingly seen as ineffective groups are seen as better options. Funding agencies are increasingly looking at these groups to bring about change in the society. They provide funds for capacity building and leadership training in these groups. The courts in India have also in its various judgments appreciated the role of these groups in bringing to issues to the public domain. In India, where opportunities for group work in institutional settings are limited, group work in community becomes important.
References
Bhat, Anil (1989). Development and Social Justice; Micro action by weaker sections, Sage Publications, New Delhi. Gravin, Charles, D. et al (ed), 2004, Handbook of Social Work with groups, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Newburn , Tim(1993), Disaster and After, Social work in the aftermath of disaster, Jessica Kingsley Publications, London.
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Phillips Julie (2001)., Group work in Social Care; Planning and setting up groups, Jessica Kinsley Publications, London. Karat, Prakash(1984), Action Groups, voluntary organizations: A Factor in Imperialist Strategy, Marxist Vol2. April-June, Kothari, Rajni (1984), The Non Party Process, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XIX, No.5. Sharma, S.L.(1992). Social Action Groups as Harbinger of Silent Revolution, Economic and Political Weekly, XXVII, No.47 Sheth, D.L.(1984). Grassroots Institutions in India Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XIX NO.8. Trecker, Harleigh (1972), Social Group Work, Principles and Practices, Follet Publishing Company, Chicago
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15
Group Work in Institutional Settings

*Joseph Varghese
Introduction
Group work is used in numerous institutions- hospitals, child welfare institutions, alcoholic and drug rehabilitation agencies, old age agencies, family counselling agencies and industries. Group work, if effectively used can alleviate the problems and reduce its psychosocial effects. Every institution has its own ideology, implicit or explicit. It influences the way the organization leadership and other employees view group work. It will determine to a large degree, the support, the group worker will get from institution for doing group work. The institution will also expect the group work sessions to further those goals that are set by the organization. Thus the group worker will be expected to work within the framework. Group work in formal institutions has its own advantages and limitations. The group worker will have to understand the organizational context in which group is being done. Every organization is unique and has to be understood in its own way. This chapter will introduce the different institutional settings; their unique characteristics and the use of group work in these settings.
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According to Kirby (quoted in Trecker, 1972) the major areas in which the group worker performs in an institutional setting are as follows 1) 2) 3) The direct practice of social group work with small groups of clients and patients. Working with other staff members toward helping them understand the group process in the institution. Sharing with other staff members the group workers observation and recommendations with reference to individual and group behaviour in the agency. Sharing with other staff members the group workers observation and recommendations with regard to social climate and group living factors in the institution. Analyzing the need for and recommending the formation of various kinds of groups to meet the needs of the individual clients of the agency. Assuming the responsibility for coordinating and enriching the recreational program along with supervising and training recreational staff and students. Assuming the responsibility as a professional group worker for helping in maintaining the limits and standards of the agency. Interpreting the agency programme to the community through contacts with volunteer groups, community agencies, service clubs and similar organizations.
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Group Work and Child Welfare

The function of child welfare is to ensure that workers evaluate incidents of potential maltreatment, supervise children deemed at risk for ongoing abuse and neglect,
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develop effective services to reduce re-occurrence of maltreatment, and discharge those children believed to be safe (Rittner, 2002 quoted in Rittner in Handbook of Social Work with Groups, 2004; 245).Child welfare programmes in India are reflected in the constitution and five year plans. The National Policy for children 1974 provide the much needed guidance. The constitution advocates that the State shall provide adequate services towards children, both before and after birth and during the growing stages for their full physical, mental and social development. A comprehensive health programme, supplementary nutrition for mothers and children, free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years, promotion of physical education and recreational activities, special consideration for children of weaker sections like SCs and STs and prevention of exploitation of children are some of the major benefits enlisted. The legislations related to the child welfare are The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000, The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Technique(Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994, The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, The Guardian and Wards Act, 1890, The Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1956. Various governmental ministries and departments look after child welfare in India. In the Union government the Ministry of Women and Child Welfare, Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Ministry of Labour along with other ministries are involved in child welfare policies and programmes. State governments run observation homes,
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children home for boys and girls, sishu bhavans etc. The state governments also run the juvenile justice board and child welfare committee. The civil society is also engaged in a large scale in child related issues. Many NGOs have taken up the cause of child rights, prevention of child labour, adoption services and, the care and rehabilitation of juveniles. Orphanages and homes for children are also run by NGOs and religious organizations. It is but natural that a variety of organizations at different levels work for the welfare of the children-they being future citizens of the country. Child welfare and child rights are important areas of social policy. From social work profession point of view child welfare is important for one more significant reason. Many problems of adults are directly related to their experiences as a child. The Adverse Childhood Experience Study on about 17,000 adult participants show significant correlation between childhood trauma and negative sequences in later life. Thus to prevent social problems later on, it is important that problems of children are handled effectively and sensitively. Group work has been used effectively to deal with many of childrens problems in different institutions. We will see how it is used in different settings. It would be not be possible to cover all settings. Before we see how group work principles and knowledge is useful for practice with children its usefulness to the professional themselves has to be highlighted. Different professionals work in these organizations and often have to work together- a group activity in itself. Social workers often work with lawyers, doctors, child psychologist, policemen and public officials to solve children problems. Group work objectives in child welfare agencies are: 1) Training them in alternate behaviour patterns. Many children are from dysfunctional families and lack
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appropriate role models in the family. Handling frustration, anger, and disappointment becomes difficult for these children leading to harmful reactions. 2) 3) Training in survival skills-maintaining relationships, seeking assistance, keeping jobs etc. Treatment for symptoms related to anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse and poor interpersonal relations. Many children in the street are addicted to fluids (mainly whiteners) and drugs, which need cure. Incidence of Psychiatric problems is also high. Training in personality development especially building self-confidence and self-esteem, public speaking and ability to face personal interviews. Recreational activities in their free time- play groups etc.
4)
5)
Group work in juvenile homes According to the Juvenile Justice Act 2000, two types of children need intervention (i) children in need of care and protection and (ii) Children in conflict with law. The first category are children who have been child labourers, found begging on the street and the second category are children who have committed crimes but cannot be tried in normal courts as the law does not allow children (below the age of eighteen) to be tried here. The first category children are produced before the Child Welfare Committee(CWC) which then determines what is the best course of action for securing the childs future. The CWC may order the child to be placed in a government run Children home for Boys/ Girls if they find that the family does not exist or is incapable of looking after the child. Alternatively it may hand over the child to NGO run fit institution. Either way these institution will then look after the child till he is an adult and fend for himself or herself. Meanwhile if any parent wants him back arrangements are made.
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An effective child rehabilitation programme will be sensitive to the child s psychological condition and his social environment. Unfortunately, the organizations are bureaucratic in nature and the special needs of children are ignored. Problems of the child due to ill treatment and abuse are not addressed adequately. Current research demonstrates that if earlier maltreatment occurs, most likely the child is to develop associated behavioural and emotional problems. (Heffernan & Cloitre 2000, Zanarini et al., 2002) To make matters worse often the condition of children deteriorates after they experience neglect and abuse in these organizations. The group worker should be able to take into consideration these factors when he plans his group work programme. The purposes of doing group work in juvenile delinquents centers are - 1) It seeks to facilitate adjustment in the center Group can be used to develop a positive attitude in the inmates about the agency. The inmate will learn to accept the unavoidable strains of life there and make use of the opportunities available. 2) It seeks to further diagnostic understanding Individuals behaviour in a group situation helps the social worker in getting data about the inmate. This data is useful to understand his present situation and to plan his future. 3) It sought to contribute to the beginning of the treatment process Again it is in the group situation that the nature of the inmate relationship with others can be assessed. The value systems that the inmates have are understood and its consequences are known. Through
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the group process the inmates receives feedback about his behaviour and gains insight into his behaviour. Greater self-awareness could be the beginning of the treatment for the inmates. 4) It sought to meet normal growth needs The inmates are experiencing a crucial developmental phase in their lives and confinement to the agency can be frustrating. Opportunities for making choices, self-expression, exhibiting leadership and participating in activities could help them develop healthier personalities. 5) It seeks to influence the institutional milieu Obtaining opinions. feedback and views of the inmates improves the agency climate.(quoted in Trecker, 1972) Example of group work in juvenile delinquent Group approach to intervene in client problem is used in an agency for juvenile delinquents. The agency is a fit institution under the Juvenile Justice Act, 2000. It is allowed to reside delinquents who have been ordered by the juvenile justice board to be placed in institutions for reform and observation. Most inmates are from economically backward and dysfunctional families. Often families are unwilling to accept them after the police charge them with a crime. Arrested for crimes and public humiliation as a result of it, and bitter experience in the police station and with the police causes trauma to the juvenile. His self esteem and confidence is negatively affected. There is a need therefore to reconstruct his personality. The agencies training programmes and activities are done in groups. They are open-ended groups which do not go beyond the use of groups in a very general way. But group work is used in the weekly meeting this agency has with
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the inmates. It is held every Sunday with the director and the inmates only. Other staff members are not allowed so that free communication takes place in the group. The aim of the group sessions is to empower the inmates by giving them opportunities to participate in the functioning of the agency. Secondly, there are often problems between inmates as they live together in the agency. There are quarrels and fights between inmates. Thirdly, many issues related to division of responsibilities and common problems faced by inmates are addressed through group work. Often, there are complaints about the staff members actions which the inmates find offensive. The aim of group sessions is to address these issues. There is no restriction on the members raising any issues if they are done so in a proper way. But the issues are to be resolved in democratic and participatory way. The director who is also the group worker discusses the matters raised by the members. The aim is to train the inmates in democratic ways of behaviour and control of frustration and anger. Further the self esteem and self confidence of the inmates is improved as they are treated with this respect. The group feedback improves the agencys functioning as bureaucratic and insensitive practice are identified and set right. This group can be termed as a training group which trains new behaviour to the inmates. Group work with street children An international NGO conducts a week end camp for street children. Street children many of whom come to their open shelter- shelter for street children are without any compulsions or rules and regulations. Children are free to come and leave the shelter whenever they please. The shelter provides them facilities to sleep, to take bath and watch television. Many children become attached to the agency and to the staff members. Once a rapport is established the staff members attempts to influence the
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childs behaviour through various life skills and survival skills are common. A variety of means are used to do this- activities mainly group based, games and sports, film shows etc. An important element in the education of street children is organising an annual camp. The annual camp is held for three days in a location away from the city. The location has an informal situation again with minimum restrictions- only time for various activities are fixed and children are not allowed to hurt each other. Otherwise the campers are allowed to move freely and act without restrictions. Learning sessions are organised where information about various issues are given. Issues are directly related to the life of a street child. Issues like HIV/AIDS, substance abuse and vocational trainings are discussed. Animators who can communicate skillfully with the target group conduct these sessions. Subjects are presented in very simple and informal way. Question regarding the subject is thrown open to the audience and they are encouraged to try answer them. Clarifications are given when necessary. The sessions prove to be beneficial to the campers. In between the sessions camper spend their time watching movies and playing games. Some climb the coconut trees and pluck coconuts. Others even indulge in habit of inhaling whiteners and smoke. The agency has adopted this strategy to reach to the most vulnerable and at the same time the most unreachable section of children. Street children for all the trauma they experience in the street still prefer to be free and away from the fetters of the institution. Thus the agency has modified its institutional approach to the open approach. Group work has been also modified in line with this approach. No longer does the group worker insist on the group meeting on the predetermined place and time
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regularly. However, most of the principles of group work can be observed in the approach. Principles of acceptance, group self determination, functional flexible organization are used with suitable modifications. Self-help and mutual aid are stressed. Members are encouraged to help and learn from each other. Networks among the children are encouraged to substitute for families as a support system. mentoring by senior street children of the younger children is done purposefully. The approach of the agency can be seen as a innovation in group work in institutional settings. Its adaptation of the group work is creative and can be used in other agencies. Group work with parents of mentally challenged children An NGO work with Spastics children organizes support group for the parents of the children of mentally challenged. A staff member of the agency says that the parents of these children need treatment as much as the children do. Newly enrolled parents are encouraged to join existing groups. These groups are meant for sharing and learning session. Parents are often in the state of denial about the condition of their children. They cannot see why this should happen to them and their children. Parents are depressed and anxious about the future of the children. They do not know how to react when their children are unable perform the actions that other children are able to do. Answers to most of the problems are found in the group-shared knowledge and from the experiences of other parents. The group facilitates the process of universalization of experience and the installation of hope.
Group Work and Geriatric Care

Geriatric care is becoming important in the present world as people are healthier and live longer. The problem is
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more in Western countries than in India and other developing countries. In India the breakdown of joint families, rise of the nuclear families, individualism and lack of living space in urban areas have made the care of old age a challenge to society. The government of India has list of about 1000 old age homes in India which provide free care while others do so on a paying basis. The number of old age homes are likely to increase in the future. Old aged persons suffer from a number of mental and physical ailments. More importantly, their social situation and their somatic condition affect their physical condition. They need special care and attention. According to Corey and Corey(1982;348) some of the major characteristics of the old aged are- 1) Intense loneliness and social isolation; loss; poverty; feeling of rejection; struggle to find meaning in life; dependency; feeling of uselessness, hopelessness and despair; fear of death and dying; grief over other peoples death Difficulty in reaching the old aged and greater resistance to counselling and other intervention. Short attention span Medication induced problems of concentration. Poor reality orientation Poor attendance at group sessions Need for support and encouragement is greater than that of confrontation Greater need for being listened to and understood.
2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
The types of group that can be organized for the aged are the following.
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1)
Support group These groups can give psychosocial support to the members which will address the problems of social isolation and loneliness. Very often the elderly live together but have minimal interaction because of some of the problems mentioned above. Groups bring the members together and promote interaction. Often the focus of discussion is the feelings of hopelessness, uselessness, despair and regret over past events.(Susan Rice in Greif and Ephross,2005; 152) Many group activities have been suggested - going on an imaginary trip with the other members, picking up a new name and discovering what it means to them, drawing picture of yourself and your family and describing pleasant experiences of the past( Corey and Corey, 1982;343). Reminiscencing in an important process for the elderly and is proved beneficial for them. It can be in the oral or written form. Butler called reminiscences as a naturally occurring, universal mental process characterized by the progressive return to consciousness of past experiences and particularly the resurgence of unsolved conflict, simultaneously and normally these reviewed experiences and conflicts can be surveyed and reintegrated. (Quoted in Campbell in Gravin et. al.2004; 281). However Campbell also mentions that not all want to review past experiences and the technique should be used based on the need and willingness of the elderly themselves. Another technique used is to list down the various items related to the life of the members- Most stressful situation, aspect in the personality one want to change and something one wants to self disclose (Corey, ibid; 354)
2)
Recreational group These groups can be used to enable the elderly spend time in an enjoyable manner. Activities can include
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group games which will involve all the members of the group either as direct participants or as a team. Depending on the physical and mental condition games can be chosen. 3) Therapeutic groups
Therapeutic groups include standardized and non- standardized group therapies. The standardized group therapies are Dialectical behavior therapy and Cognitive behavioural therapy while the non-standardized therapies use non structured means focusing on emotional condition of the members and life review. Studies have found these therapies to be useful. (Campbell in Gravin et.al.; 2004;278-280). Members have been empowered by these group experiences, reducing isolation and achieve greater control and meaning in their lives. Group workers who have worked with elderly found that much of the information about the elderly are wrong and based on false assumptions. Some of the false assumptions include (1) The inability of the elderly to change for the better (2) Ability to contribute positively to the betterment of others (3) Willingness of the elderly to take part in group activities. On the contrary group have been found to be generally beneficial to the elderly.
Groups Work in Psychiatric Setting

Group work is an important component in the treatment and care of mentally ill people. It is being increasingly used in mental health setting in India and abroad. The incidence of mental illness is high in India.A trend in the care of mentally ill which is influencing the practice of group work is de-institutionalization- increasing numbers of mentally ill people were being taken care in the families and in their homes rather than being confined to the hospital. (Gravin in Greif et al.; 2005)
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Some of the characteristics of the seriously mentally ill are- 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Many suffer from multiple problems- Mental illness with substance abuse or alcoholism. Severe mental illness limits the ability to cope with stress and function adequately in stressful situations. They are unable to perform daily tasks. Their behaviour is unpredictable leading to difficulties to the family members and others Incidence of homelessness and destitution is high Many of them having exposed to drugs and alcohol exhibit aggressive and rebellious behaviour which makes managing them a big challenge to the social workers and other professionals. Gerhart, 1990, quoted in Garvin in Greif, 2005; 32)
According to Rostov the goals of group work in psychiatric settings are: 1) to socialize including forming satisfying social relations, establishing an awareness of others, learning and relearning social skills to offer ego supports and develop ego strengths as well as broadening interest and scope of activities, building self confidence, self esteem, self worth, achieving tangible things, acceptance.. to test and see cause-and-effect relationship to increase responsibility, develop good judgments and self control and handle group living problems to influence one another in a positive way, develop better morale , and challenge group hostility to feel and exert some control over ones future
2)
3) 4) 5) 6)
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7)
to adjust to a new mode of living and interrupt the deterioration process and counteract the regression of institutional living to prepare and test for discharge and return to community life to promote insights, develop the proper perspective on problems and feelings, release and drain off tensions
8) 9)
10) to accept ones illness and prepare for and use the individual and other therapies more positively 11) to increase the opportunities for observation and diagnosis by the staff. (quoted in Trecker,1972; 178) Research available has indicated that group work has been useful for the members. George Getzel surveyed the available research and summary of his findings are presented here. Some of the research he surveyed -Moore and Starkes observed that the use of group work with mentally ill individual in short stay homes increased their capacity to avail its services. In other words the organizational milieu improved when group work was used. Somewhat similarly, Robert and Smith found that group work created a sense of community in the psychiatric ward and improve their capacity to adjust to the external environment. Armstrong who observed that groups do prepare the mentally ill for the future did increase their capacity has supported these conclusions. Group work has also been found to be useful in the treatment of mental illness. Garvin suggests principles, which has been found useful in the process are: 1) Groups sessions with the mentally ill should be highly structured, meaning that the group worker should take control of sessions by planning the activity well.
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Patients condition does not generally allow them to take initiative and contribute to the session beyond a certain level. Hence, it will be upto the group worker who has to plan how he is going to give his presentation to share information, identify problems and resolve the various issues. 2) Training the members in new skills is an important component in the treatment process which while increasing their capacity to become self reliant to the extent possible also increases their confidence. Each group session should be a rewarding one in the sense that the members should derive some pleasure and enjoyment from it. Patients may be undergoing significant stress to attend the session and unless they feel good they may not want to attend the sessions. A game, a play, a music or a craft may be ideal activity. The group worker must be able to create a sense of accomplishment and achievement in the members which can be done by teaching a social skill or improving on the existing skill. The group worker should also be careful that anxiety producing events and actions should be avoided and be prepared to deal with them. For example, the abnormal behaviour of one of the members like hallucinations, will create fear in others. The behaviour should be explained to the members, if possible or else avoided altogether.
3)
4)
5)
Example of group work in mental heath setting Group sessions were conducted for patients in a mental health setting for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). As you know OCD is a neurotic disorder that compels individuals to repeat specific behaviour though he or she has no desire to do so. It may affect 2 to 3 percent of the population. The main activities were role-plays, counselling
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and skill training. At the end of the group sessions the researcher finds that adherence to treatment and social skills are improved. (George, Tony Sam, 2002)
Group Work in Hospitals

Hospitals are important settings for social work practice. Psychological factors and physical health are related. Adverse psychological negative factors can worsen the health conditions of the patients. The recognition that the healing process is more than what the medical model advocated is wide spread in India and more so in the developed countries. Getzel notes an increase in the interest in group work practice and corresponding increase in the health system s efforts to make group work more responsive to the clients need.(Getzel in Garvin ;2004;196). Another important factor is the growing importance of multidisciplinary teams which will address the various dimensions of the illnesses and its effect of the patient. Teamwork, therefore is an important method of work in health care settings. Thirdly, group work is seen as humanizing the bureaucratic system and giving holistic care for the clients. Lastly group work is cheap and effective in disseminating information to the clients. Type of groups that are used in the hospital are: 1) Educational Groups- Educational groups disseminate information about the disease and its effects on the patients. They educate the person about the causes of diseases, its effects on the body, its pattern of progression and its debilitating effects. They are trained to avoid those behaviour patterns that will worsen the conditions. Adherence to the treatment process like taking medicines and taking the necessary tests are taught. For example, cancer affected individuals are told about the cancer and its treatment.
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In the sessions the group members are educated about the various aspects of cancers- its causes and its effects. Fears about early death, pain and disfigurement are discussed. Patients fear about the effects of chemotherapy on the body and hair are discussed. Clarifications and doubts are removed. Often it is the members themselves rather than the group worker who provides knowledge to the group members. Experiences are shared in the group to help others. The free sharing of experiences and information is more an effective tool for educating the patients rather than through other methods 2) Support groups- These groups provide the necessary social and emotional support to the patients. Often the experience of knowing that a potentially life threatening illness is shocking to the patient.
Weissman defines 15 coping strategies in cancer patients but the same coping patterns have been applied to other types of patients(Lillington, Barbara: !985)- rationalization; seeking of additional information; sharing concerns with others; Displacement; confrontation; Fatalism Acting out ; repeating previous behaviour; Tension reducing behaviour like taking alcohol ; social isolation; blaming others; compliance to authority and masochistic surrender. Many of these coping strategies have a negative impact on the psychosocial health of the patients. Group work can enable the patients to have an appropriate coping mechanisms keeping in mind the individuals needs and her environment. It will result in better quality of life and better adherence to treatment programme. Universalization of the experience and identification with others are important processes which take place in the group. Newcomers whose have been recently diagnosed
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with cancer are relieved to see the cancer survivors who have successfully battled with the disease. Cwikel and Behar(1999) study of intervention in cancer patients found that group interventions helped in the treatment phase. 3) Training groups- Training groups focus on teaching new social skills to the patients which would help them after they are discharged from the hospitals.
Practice principles health settings Daste and Ross (in Grief and Ross;2005 ) make following suggestions: Firstly, Group work in health setting needs to understand that patients suffer from pain and fatigue due to illness and often due to their treatment. She should therefore encourage patients to attend the meetings but not use excessive pressure. Secondly, the group worker should be flexible in her approach to group. The treatment cycle may vary with person to person and therefore the time period of attending the group sessions cannot be specified. Thirdly, individualization of clients is another important aspect, as clients characteristics will differ in terms of stages of disease, social support available in family, community and workplace and the psychological condition. Fear of death, fear of disease recurrence, problems related to treatment (pain, changes in appearances, fatigue), changes in relationship and economic issues (income, future job prospects, costs of treatment,) are important concerns that group worker must address.
Conclusion
The practice of social work in different settings has been described briefly and important practice principles have
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been highlighted. The list is not comprehensive and as group work in its generic form can be practiced almost anywhere. Also institutions differ in many ways even when they are dealing with the similar problems. This will no doubt influence the practice of social work. The group worker would therefore be flexible in his approach. Group work practice has to adapt to the institutional requirement and clients need. These are some of the important institutions that group work is practiced. The practice of social work in different settings has been described briefly and important practice principles have been highlighted. The list is not comprehensive and as group work in its generic form can be practiced almost anywhere. Also institutions differ in many ways even when they are dealing with the similar problems. this will no doubt influence the practice of social work. The group worker would therefore be flexible in his approach. Group work practice has to adapt to the institutional requirement and clients need. Group work is certainly being practiced in many institutions in India. But as mentioned earlier mostly non- professionals are practicing it in a generic form and in majority of the cases no particular theory seems to guide the practice. More importantly, no efforts are made to evaluate the process. Records maintained convey bare minimum from which nothing very significant can be learnt. The benefits of group work are evident. But there is need for evidence to show the importance of group work in these settings. Professional social workers have to work towards that goal.
References
Lillington, Barbara(1985), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 10(4), Summer.
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Breman-Rossi, Toby(1994), Social Work: The Collected Writings of William Schwartz, F.E. Peacock Publishers Inc. Itasca. Brown, Allan(1994), Group Work, 3rd edition, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire. Dwivedi, K.,N., and Robin Skynner(1993), Group Work with Children and Adolescents: A Handbook, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London. Corey and Corey (1987), Groups Process and Practice, Third edition, Brook/Cole Publishing Company, California. Cwikel J.G.& Behar L.C. (1999), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 29(4), Summer Greif, Geoffrey Land Paul Ephross(2005), Group work with Population at risk, Second edition, Oxford University Press, New York. Gravin et al. (2004), Handbook of Social work with groups, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008), Group Work, Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Trecker, Harleigh (1972), Social Group Work, Principles and Practices, Follet Publishing Company, Chicago. George, Tony Sam (2002), Unpublished PHD dissertation, NIMHANS, Bangalore.
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16
Group Work in Educational Settings

*Joseph Varghese
Introduction
Educational institutions offer diverse opportunities to practice group work. The group members are readily available and no special efforts are required to collect them and form groups. The students learn in groups and are therefore comfortable to be in groups. A variety of activities can be done with the group. Most importantly, the young enjoy the sessions and simultaneously be benefited. The chapter will give an account of the practice of group work in different educational settings. Present day educators seek to provide holistic education to the student, not just improve his memory and his retention powers. Holistic development aims at producing a balanced and well integrated human being with sensitiveness to fellow human beings and his environment. While teachers are required to teach the syllabus it is being recognized that other professionals are needed to take care of other dimensions of the students personality. Group work seen in this context is an apt method to bring about this transformation in the student.
Group Work in Educational Setting

Modern life imposes significant stress on everybody including the students. Sometimes it is wrongly assumed
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that just because there has been an increase in the technology and comforts available to present students they are better off than the earlier generations of students. But they face pressures from many quarters- parents who expect them to be excellent in academics, friend and peers who expect them to conform to their norms. The media creates expectations which when unfulfilled creates frustration. According to Coppock and Dwivedi (Dwivedi, 2005, 265) upto 20 percent of children experience behavioural and emotional problems that require professional help. US schools have seen incidents like shooting by students of their classmates and teachers due to emotional problems. Schools in India have not witnessed similar incidents but there are indicators that school related problems will increase. Media has often reported cases of students hurting and murdering their classmates for money or avenging past insults. Educational institutions have begun to respond to the situation and employed counselors and social workers to deal with student problems. However schools need group work not only to address behavioural problems but also to enhance the capacity of normal students to deal with their life situations. These issues can be related to education beyond the curriculum; personality development; life skills education, health and recreation. The practice of group work in school will be influenced by the dynamics of the larger social systems- the school and the society. The various use groups will be put to and its goals will be determined by the ideology and the approach of the school management. The resources and administrative support the group worker receives will depend on the priorities of the management. The least available resource in the school is time and the place to conduct group work. Syllabus centric teaching practiced in most of our schools leave little or no time for other
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activities. Teacher need to finish the syllabus find time spend for other activities a waste of time. Management should be convinced that student would benefit from the group work in tangible terms. Further, parents should be convinced of the benefits of group work. Last, but not the least students should be convinced that group work will be beneficial for them. Convincing the various stakeholders about the usefulness of group work is an important task for the group worker. The advantages of using group work in the school are (1) Students spend a lot of time in groups and are comfortable working in it (2) students are familiar with the school environment and no special efforts are needed to make them participate in group. (3) Group work can be expected to improve the relationship between students and teachers, and between students, which will improve the quality of learning. However, there are a number of factors/ disadvantages that can restrict the use of group work in schools. Some of them are the following (1) The lack of time does allow the practice of group work (2) Place for doing group is lacking (3) The paucity of staff who are equipped with the necessary skills and attitudes. (4) Evaluating the effectiveness of the groups which will increase support and participation (5) if only children with problems are forced to participate there maybe resistance as they feel that they being singled out from others. (Ibid, 268). The major problems identified among school students are- Excessive fighting; Inability to get along with peers; frequent hurting of other children; violation of school children; poor attitude toward the school; stealing; violent or angry outbursts; neglected; neglected appearance; hunger symptoms; chronic tiredness; lack of supervision
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at home and excessive truancy. (Corey and Corey, 1982; 255) The type of groups that can be used in the schools are- 1) Educational groups Educational groups will enable the students in learning about subjects that are not part of the curriculum. The areas of education can be life skill education, HIV/AIDS, public speaking etc. Value education can be taught through stories and parables. Songs that motivate the members can be sung. Competitions like essay writing, handwriting and spelling can be organized. 2) Recreational groups Recreational groups will provide the activities like games and sports. It is advisable not to limit the activity to the game and have a discussion on the group dynamics observed in the group. The contributions of members, the presence of subgroups and isolates can be observed and discussed. Group experiences if carefully chosen will help growth in their personality. Personality development groups seek to develop self- confidence and self esteem. Skills to face interviews, public speaking and grooming habits can be improved in groups. Treatment groups These groups can identify the causes of psychosocial problems found in the children. Students may need social skills training. Verduyn, Lord and Forrest studied the outcome of one such training on children in the age group of 10- 13years and found significant changes and specific changes. (Dwivedi, 2005; 274)
3)
4)
But given the nature of the setting it would be difficult to conduct formal group work at fixed time and place.
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Trecker suggests using the adaptations based on Wyers contributions. Wyer suggests five kinds of groups can be formed 1) Cluster groups- These groups were used when one or two isolate or scapegoat were referred to the group worker. Since the number of such students referred at a time was small it was not possible to conduct group only for them nor was it possible for students from different schools to come together. One solution tried out was the cluster approach wherein the referred student was placed in a group in which other members were students functioning normally. The group sessions are so designed that the dysfunctional students needs are addressed- his/her problem is described, the students view point is brought to the open and perception of the other members are discussed. Support from the other members for the dysfunctional student is encouraged. The interaction between the members and the dysfunctional student is expected to bring about change in the behaviour of the student. Classroom groups- Classroom groups are used when it is found that it is not individuals or group of students that are dysfunctional but the entire class is dysfunctional. Therefore the whole class should be taken as a group and needs to be treated. The causes for these problems can uneasiness with teachers, guilt over scapegoating, over identification with the students who are victimized, conflicts between groups within class and inability to perform as per expectations. The cause of the problem may lie in a few students or the whole class. The group worker uses the whole class as group and address the problem by using group discussions and role plays.
2)
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3)
Splinter groups These groups consist of problematic children who cannot be separated and treated. The difference between the cluster group and this group is the different approach used. In this group the dysfunctional members are identified and his identity revealed. He chooses from the class a smaller group consisting of a few members. The group worker then describes the problem to the group and its affects on the affected student. Certain activities are chosen which will attract the larger student body to the smaller group and interact with it. If successful the smaller group status improves and so does the status of the dysfunctional student. Telescopic groups are groups which meet five or six times in a short period of time. A current problem is taken up as a major issue. For example absenteeism, and group formed by members who are found to be excessively absent. The members are made aware of the reason for being part of the group. A plan is made for a group which includes activities which are gratifying and ego supportive. Socio educational groups These group involve the other stakeholders like the parents and staff members to improve the school functioning. For example ,suitable parents are depending on their need, aptitude and interest are taken as members of the group. They are informed that the purpose of the groups is to improve their performance as the parents. Sessions are planned which will provide them with new skills and knowledge. Films, lectures, role plays and member presentations are the best means.
4)
5)
Student Friendly Environment Group Work has to ensure that a student friendly environment is prevalent in the school. In this context the group worker has to focus on the following issues:
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1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)
Sensitizing teachers to understand the common emotional problems of students Training teachers in basic counseling skills (bare foot counseling) Training teachers to identify and refer students who need professional mental health intervention. Training students in sex and sexuality Imparting life skills education. Promoting a conducive environment and to eliminate problems like ragging, teasing and bullying. Helping students to cope with academic stress Training teachers to adopt non aggressive styles of promoting discipline. Interacting with parents as a group and to educate them on the psychosocial needs of their children.
Principles to be followed while working with children 1) Confidentiality is very important as children are not often able to keep personal information to themselves. Hence the group worker should use terms very carefully. Words that will be understood wrongly by students should be avoided. 2) Avoid using sides. Students may blame teacher or parent for some of the difficulties they face. It is important that the group works describes the problems rather than point fingers at others. Explain the purpose of the group and its goals to the members. Do not underestimate the students capacity to understand the group work. Listen to the opinion of the members even though you may disagree with it.
3)
4)
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5) 6)
Choose those activities and games which will be useful and enjoyable for the members. Prepare for termination as students may become attached to you and will suffer if you leave them suddenly. Homogeneity in terms of age, sex and class is a prerequisite for successful group work in children.
7)
Camping and Indian Youth Organizations

Camping signifies the establishment of temporary living quarters in an underdeveloped area (Schwartz). The purpose of camping is to give opportunities for people to move outdoor and use the natural environment for recreational purposes. Many organizations use camping as means to develop young minds. The experience of camping is aimed at the following goals- to improve the teamwork skills among the members; to help members develop a better understanding the behaviour of others and their own behaviour; improve communication skills; better his/ her leadership qualities. According to the American Camping Association the following are the benefits of camping- Social Skills Development Leadership Communication Participation Self-respect and Character Building Responsibility Resourcefulness Resilience
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Community Living/Service Skills Caring Fairness Citizenship Trustworthiness Camping provides group worker numerous opportunities for practice. According to Schwartz the group workers concern with both learning and play coupled with the intense preoccupation with the benefits of the small group experience, found in camping both a stimulating outlet for service and a ready-made laboratory for demonstrating the social importance of group experience under professional leadership. In India a number of organizations conducts camps for children and young people- National Social Service (NSS), National Cadet Corps (NCC), Bharat scouts and guides and Nehru Yuvak Kendra (NYK). A number of private organizations also conduct camp. We will briefly study about these organizations. NSS was started on 24th September 1969. The main Objectives of NSS are: i) ii) Understand the community in which they work. Understand themselves in relation to their community
iii) Identify the needs and problems of the community and involve them in problem solving. iv) Develop among them a sense of social civic responsibility. v) Utilize their knowledge in finding practical solution to individual and community problems.
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vi) Develop competence required for living and sharing responsibilities. vii) Gain skills in mobilising community participation. viii) Acquire leadership qualities and democratic attitudes. ix) Develop capacity to emergencies and natural disaster, and x) Practice national integration and social harmony
An important activity of the NSS is the 10 day rural camp in remote areas. Usually a theme is chosen for the camp- Literacy, development, health. Spreading awareness among the people about the issue, sharmadan, community meals and group games are the important component of the camps. National Cadet Corps National Cadet Corps is a Tri-Services Organisation , comprising Army, Navy and Air Force, engaged in grooming the youth of the country into disciplined and patriotic citizens. The aims of the National Cadet Corps (NCC) 1) To develop qualities of Character, Courage, Comradeship, Discipline, Leadership, Secular Outlook, Spirit of Adventure and the ideals of Selfless Service amongst the Youth of the Country. To Create a Human Resource of Organized, Trained and Motivated Youth, to Provide Leadership in all Walks of life and be Always Available for the Service of the Nation. To Provide a Suitable Environment to Motivate the Youth to Take Up a Career in the Armed Forces
2)
3)
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Nehru Yuvak Kendra Nehru Yuvak Kendra Sangathan was started in 1972, and has been active ever since in providing the youth of the country with opportunities to grow and develop themselves. It currently has 500 district level offices, 2.16 lakh village level youth clubs and 80 lakh rural youth affiliated to it in 13-35 age group. The NYKS today prepares over 11,000 youth leaders every year.
Possible Activities for Young People

Play Play is used as recreational and a therapeutic tool. Recreational activities of the children like games and sports are useful for the children to develop healthy physical and mental status. Play can be used in children groups for the following (1) Play is a natural activity for the child and the worker gets to observe him in this situation. These observations will be more helpful in assessing the childs behaviour than in a formal setting interviewing the child. He is likely to be intimidated by a formal interview (2) Playing helps build rapport between the child and the worker (3) Playing also contributes to creating a favorable child friendly atmosphere in the school (4) It can give opportunities to develop a persons social skills. Outdoor games like cricket, football, throw ball, kho-kho can be used, so can indoor games. The effectiveness of the experience of the game is increased if discussions follow the game. The discussion that follows should focus on the behaviour of the members during the game. The team work they exhibited, the levels of cooperation they achieved and so on. The discussion should be aimed at increasing their self-awareness and thereby contributing to their personal growth. The group worker should therefore encourage members to share their feeling and opinions on the game,
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his own performance and of others. Members are also encouraged to react to the opinions expressed by others on them. The group will be a mirror for the members which will increase their insight into their own behaviour. Play is also used therapeutically. But it is only after adequate training should group workers use these therapies. Play in children is equivalent to association in adults (Dwivedi, 2005). By using the techniques of association the adults unconscious mind is probed and understood. Association can be used in children and a suitable alternative is play. Many of the childs feelings and emotion that remained unexpressed is revealed while playing with toys and drawing. The group worker interprets these actions and assesses the childs behaviour. Songs, dances and exercises Songs, dances and exercise which is done along with children of similar ages help improve the childs mental health. Such activities require the child to coordinate with the actions of others. Also most of these activities involve numerous repetitions of the same actions. The true effects of messages and learning in ritualized context are powerful in penetrating the depths of consciousness. (Dwivedi, 2005) Drills are used to develop coordination and alertness in the students. Psychodrama Psychodrama is a more advanced means of treatment for children, adolescents and youths. Drama can be used to provide learning experiences to the participants and the viewers. Boehm and Boehm give the seven stages of community theatre: a) Establishment of a group of community members who initiate the idea;
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b) c) d) e)
Group discussion of issues, problems and conflicts in the life of the community and the actors; Collection of material in the community (for example, articles, photos, recordings); Creation and writing of the play by the group; Production and rehearsal of the play, as well as preparation for its performance (with the help of other community members, such as in preparing the stage, building the scenery and selling tickets); Performance of the play in the community and elsewhere, with an emphasis on dialogue with the audience; Development of leadership within the group and a common effort to influence the socio-political system outside the framework of the theatre.
f)
g)
Conclusion
Group work in educational setting can play an important role in moulding individual personalities beyond the curriculum. Equally important the maladjusted student can be better addressed by combining the group work with counseling. It also helps other students to understand the problems of the students who take part in the treatment process. Problems like time and support for group work can be dealt with if its results are positive and shown to the management. Existing organizations like NSS and NYK can be used to boost group work practice in educational settings.
References
Boehm, Amnon and Esther Boehm, (2003) Community Theatre as a means of Empowerment in Social Work; A
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Case Study of Womens Community Theatre, Journal of Social Work 3; 283. Lillington, Barbara (1985), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 10(4), summer. Breman-Ross., Toby (1994), Social Work: The Collected Writings of William Schwartz, F.E.Peacock Publishers Inc. Itasca Brown, Allan (1994) Group Work, 3rd edition, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Hampshire. Dwivedi, K., N., and Robin Skynner(1993), Group Work with Children and Adolescents: A Handbook, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London. Corey and Corey (1987), Groups Process and Practice, Third edition, Brook/Cole Publishing Company, California. Cwikel J.G.& Behar L.C. (1999), Psychosocial Response to Traumatic Physical Disability, Social work in Health Care, Volume 29(4), Summer Greif, Geoffrey Land Paul Ephross(2005), Group work with Population at risk, Second edition, Oxford University Press, New York. Gravin et al. (2004), Handbook of Social work with groups, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Siddiqui, H.Y. (2008), Group Work, Theories and Practices, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Trecker, Harleigh (1972), Social Group Work, Principles and Practices, Follet Publishing Company, Chicago.
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17
Role of Social Worker in Group Work

*Manju Kumar
Introduction
You may look at this chapter as a recapitulation of all that you have learnt about the method and practice of social group work, especially, in terms of what a group worker does in different kinds of groups, within the context of values and philosophy of social work profession. Social workers adopt many roles to achieve their goals of social justice, the enhancement of the quality of life of people, and the development of the full potential of each individual, family and group in society. Some social workers act as planners and developers of services. Others manage services and try to ensure that systems work smoothly. Some act as advocates and negotiators for those discriminated against or unable to act for themselves. Other social workers work as therapists with individuals, couples, families and groups as they deal with issues that arise throughout their lives. Some social workers act as information givers, providing enquirers with information about a large range of resources and services. In some areas of practice, such as corrections and child protection, social workers make assessments of situations and may write reports with recommendations that may affect the lives of those with whom they work.
*Ms. Manju Kumar, Dr.B.A.R.C, University of Delhi
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The very fact that social group work has been acknowledged as a method of social work implies that group work method shares with other social work methods the goal, basic premises, values and beliefs, generic principles and interventional strategies of social work profession. The concept of role is widely used to clarify group workers authority, responsibilities, functions, and tasks; thereby highlighting the impact of group work practice on persons who come together as members of a group. For the sake of convenience, the term group worker in the masculine, rather than social worker in group work, will be used throughout the following discussion.
Concept of Role and its Implication for a Group Worker

Role and status are two important concepts which prove to be valuable in explaining the responsibilities, obligations and power that devolve on the group worker in his capacity as a professional associated with some social agency. Role: Definitions The dictionaries define role as the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person; normal or customary activity of a person in a particular social setting; and, behavior in relation to a specific function or task that a person (the group worker) is expected to perform. The roles are concomitant to a status or a social position. A set of expectations govern the behavior of persons holding a particular role in society; a set of norms that defines how persons in a particular position should behave. As a sociological term, a role is described as a comprehensive pattern of behaviour that is socially recognized, providing a means of identifying and placing
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an individual in a society. It also serves as a strategy for coping with recurrent situations and dealing with the roles of others. The social worker is an achieved status, a position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Roles associated with this status are governed by the norms, standards and professional ethics. A role, therefore, is a series of actions which guide and determine our behaviour according to what is expected of us in a certain situation. Roles generate consistency and predictability of behaviour. All roles are functional in that they serve some purpose. Each social status, further, involves not a single associated role, but an array of roles or role-set, that is, a complement of role-relationships in which persons are involved by virtue of occupying a particular social status. While working with groups the social worker performs a variety of roles, depending on different situations, groups and persons. However, the roles remain relatively stable even though different people occupy the position of a group worker. The discussion of roles of group workers, therefore, is useful in conceptualizing their activities, evaluation of professional interventions, and training of new professionals. Roles of a social worker working with Groups Widely quoted authors Compton and Galaway (1984) focused on social workers, interventive roles whose enactment meant the translation of expectations (of the profession) into behaviour. These roles refer to the behaviours through which the client an individual, a family, a group or a community expects the worker to help accomplish goals, agreed upon mutually by the client
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and the worker. The roles conceptualized by the authors include the following: a) social broker connecting the client system with the community resources based on broad knowledge of community resources and the operating procedures of the agencies; the worker may bring the specialized resources to the group; referral is a basic part of enactment of the brokers role. enabler assisting clients to find coping strengths and resources within themselves to produce changes necessary for accomplishing the stated objectives with the supporting and enabling function for the client, whether individual or group; for example, the worker who assists a group of residents in a community in thinking through the need for and then in identifying ways of establishing a day-care centre; who helps a group to identify sources of internal conflict and influences blocking a groups goal achievement and then to discover ways of dealing with these difficulties is serving as an enabler in relation to the group. Encouraging verbalization, providing for ventilation of feelings, examining the pattern of relationships, offering encouragement and reassurance, engaging in logical discussion and rational decision-making are other avenues through which enablers role may be enacted. (Compton & Galaway, 1984, p. 430) teacher providing groups with new information necessary for coping with difficult situations, assisting group members in practicing new behaviour or skills. It is different from brokers role as it implies providing additional resources to members environment; for example, supplying information about low cost nutritional diet; informing parents regarding child development for coping with difficult problems of children; providing vocational guidance to adult
b)
c)
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patients requiring rehabilitation after loss of limbs. Teachers role helps group members make informed choices and cope better with social reality. One important dimension of this role is role-modelling - offering to group members a model of behaviour, of communication and relating. d) mediator efforts to resolve conflicts that may exist between the client system and external systems like other persons or organizations by finding a common ground on which they might reach a resolution of the conflict (utilizing techniques of constructive conflict resolution); for example, residents group wishing to secure a playground but not having adequate political clout to do so. advocate Speaking for the client (individual, family, group or community) by presenting and arguing the clients cause. It becomes essential when working with client-systems who belong to disadvantaged and marginalized groups in society, are oppressed due to structural social inequalities, or are invisible and voiceless. Advocacy is becoming increasingly popular role of social workers in the context of focus on social justice concerns and human rights. Unlike other roles, advocacy can be used without direct involvement of the client-system.
e)
Besides these roles conceptualized by Compton and Galaway, others mentioned in social work literature include the roles of Organizer (covering planning and implementing action), consultant and facilitator. The role of facilitator is relevant in the changed perception of group members as interdependent entities engaged in mutual aid based support groups and self-help groups which require minimal professional intervention. On one point all the experts agree that the roles mentioned above are neither discreet entities nor comprise an
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exhaustive list. There is often blurring of boundaries and hence overlap. The roles also get into a new constellation as and when required by the demands of the situation, purpose of the group (the client) and the dynamics emerging out of interaction among the three basic elements of group work practice, that is, group (along with its members), worker and the social environment.
Group Worker as A Leader of the Group

One of the frequently debated dimensions of the role of a group worker is that of leadership. While some authors perceive group workers in the role of group leaders others focus more on the workers helping role. A brief exposition of both the perspectives follows below. A) Leader refers to a person who is designated to exert positive influence over others. The process and the function through which he does so are defined as leadership. Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the group in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leadership is criticalfor the vision and to see the commonalities; to see the group through; and to identify and mobilise resources for the group. The group worker occupies the position of a leader on account of his employment with the social agency; the position which gives the worker authority to accomplish certain tasks and objectives, based, in turn, on professional knowledge and skills. As a leader, the worker is the central person in the group, often being the person who formed the group and to whom more communications are made than anyone else. At the initial stages of group formation, the worker decides about the membership, structure and the rules of conducting the group sessions. Even
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later, if the members are not sufficiently confident, the worker may have to play an active role in guiding members to take necessary decisions about group structure, norms and tasks to be performed by different members. Another facet of the role as a leader is that the worker acts as an influence person. Influence has been defined as the general acts of producing an effect on another person, group, or organization through exercise of a personal or organizational capacity. Influence is powerful in that it can produce change, persuade or convince, overcome obstacles, motivate and bring about attitudinal changes. As a leader and an influence person, the workers input is to create a climate favourable for the needed work (achieving the group goal), heighten the motivation of those who need to work, provide a vision for the work to be done together, and deal with the resistance involved. An important base for influence is the skill and knowledge of the worker in developing and using relationships with a variety of persons in a variety of situations. The relationship between the worker and the group members is a major source of a workers influence. Influence can be exerted by those who know about and can use the planned change process. Influence derives from understandings about human development, human diversity, the variety of social problems, and the availability of services and resources. (Johnson, p. 89) The real power of the worker arises, therefore, from his capacity to influence situations within the group - to influence, guide and direct group processes and interactions within the group. The fact that group work is described also as guided group interaction goes to validate the group workers role as a leader who guides
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as well as directs group situations and processes so as to achieve group goals. The worker is an important influence on members behaviour, interpersonal relationships, patterns of communication, on roles members are willing to perform, and on realization of groups purpose. The worker may, for supporting the groups purpose, influence persons and systems operating in the external environment of the group in the form of negotiation, mediation, referral, and advocacy. Despite the fact that the worker has authority and power to influence the group processes, the worker is bound by professional ethics or code of conduct to use this power in the service of the clients, that is, the group members and not for his own ends. Workers need to be aware of the nature of the power and influence they wield in relationship with the group members. Every effort needs to be made to guard against the potential for abuse of power with the clients (group members). These two facets of group work functions, namely, expertise and its selfless use for the benefit of group members place the worker at a distance from the members. Although the worker participates in the group processes, he is not a member of the group in the same way that the other participants are. Unlike the group members, a worker is mandated to participate in the group on account of his professional understanding of the members needs and interests. The worker, in fact cannot deny authority devolved on him. Reluctance or refusal by the group worker to provide leadership to act on his authority can be very damaging at critical stages of transition when the group rightfully looks to the worker for guidance, reassurance and structure. (Benson, p. 38)
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B)
The other view point focuses on the worker in the helping role. The worker is seen in the group as an enabler to do things with the group rather than for the group. His influence, it is claimed, is indirect rather than direct. A great deal of facilitation may be done nonverbally, with eye contact and a nod to someone who is trying to participate or a smile when a member has made a valuable contribution. He works through the members of the group, helps members to determine groups objectives and purpose; helps them to develop group-feeling; acquire an understanding of their capacities and limitations; recognize internal conflicts and problems and to resolve the same with the workers help. The worker helps the group to identify indigenous leaders to take responsibility for groups effective functioning. (Trecker, p.26)
Another role which is preferred by those favouring a non- leadership stance is that of a facilitator. The group worker is not seen as the only expert in the group. In fact, each group member is a potential leader and helper for the other members. The primary task of the group worker is to facilitate the group process so that the group becomes a prime influence on the behaviour of the group members. Facilitating the group process involves motivating and assisting members to participate actively and collaboratively in the process because the primary means of help in the group is the support and challenge members give to each other, supplemented by the workers inputs to the members work. The group dynamics comprising of interactions, relationships, communications, and role performances within the boundaries set by the members themselves by definition, is the prime source of change, growth and satisfaction. The worker facilitates this process to run smoothly, without conflicts and road blocks so that members can benefit from positive and constructive group experience. The group worker makes it possible that the
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group becomes a mutual aid and mutual need-meeting system, a primary source of help. In the role of a teacher the worker teaches the group how to function as a group. The group members, identifying with the worker, are likely to learn roles of a leader. Leadership will shift during the course of a groups life with several members taking turns as leaders, or sharing leadership depending on the session or content. In a support group of parents of disturbed children, the worker and parents both perform the role of experts, though in different spheres. The worker has to appreciate the expertise of parents in the context of their experiences of having a disturbed child. In encouraging and guiding one parent, the worker shares his helping role with other members (parents) of the group. The aim of the facilitator is a) to establish the conditions and trust in the group whereby members can help one another and then to get out of the way to allow them to do it; b) to benefit the persons in a group through making as full use as possible of the potentials of the group as a medium for help. Although, the extent to which this is possible will depend on the type of group in question. (Whitaker, 1985) In the final analysis, however, the facilitator has ultimate responsibility for the group and can never give this over. Social group work is often best done by combining these roles. A competent worker will move from one to the other as needed by the group. It is important not to be more active, not to be a leader or a teacher, when the group can do just fine with a facilitator or enabler. The idea of many groups is to have members exercise self-determination and learn how to make more effective decisions. The achievement of these goals is threatened by a dominant group worker. It is also important to recognize when the
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group needs a leader and to act effectively if so, or to teach when the group needs to learn new ways to interact or need new information. The most important thing is to be aware that groups have different needs at different times in their development, and that different groups need different mixtures of these roles. Three main activities of the worker, described first by Benne and Sheats in 1948 (cited by Benson, p.70) whether as a leader or a facilitator/ enabler include task, maintenance and personal functions. Task functions refer to those needs and behaviours and roles that are required to help the group achieve its goals; the second, maintenance functions encompass those behaviours and roles that help the group look after its emotional and interpersonal well-being; and the third functions are concerned with personal motives, needs and interests that each individual member brings to the group.
Role Differentiation: Factors Affecting Roles of Group Worker

In the preceding discussion, there have been numerous references to changes occurring in the perception of group workers roles according to different group situations. Here we are selecting two important factors which influence the roles of a group worker, namely, the purpose and types of group. Because groups and the situations within which they operate are so different, the worker needs to first understand the group and the circumstances surrounding it before attempting to define specific aspects of his role. (Trecker, p.34)
Purpose of the Group and Roles of a Group Worker

Purpose for which a group comes into being is the most basic determinant of what the workers responsibilities are.
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The amount and nature of help that the group members expect from the worker, the amount of autonomy that the members are anxious to retain and the content of the group experience (programme) that is essential or advisable to achieve the specific purpose are some of the important determinants of the workers role. Purpose is the dynamic force that can be mobilized into different groups. Groups based on purpose provide different group experiences to its members. Accordingly, the interventive roles expected of the group worker also vary. While the basic three elements of the workers role task-achievement, group maintenance and personal need satisfaction remain constant (though with varying emphases and combinations), the purpose determines the nature of relationship between the worker and the group members through which these functions are performed. Given below are some of the categories of purposes for which the groups come into existence. Enhancement of relationships to resolve problems in social relationships, to cope with deficits, to strengthen mutual and reciprocal relationships. Whether the purpose is to correct maladaptive patterns of relationships or to help normal persons grow socially, the worker has to use his authority in a flexible manner. The specific purpose will determine whether he provides direction, support, a role-model, a comfortable and a stress-free environment in which to interact and relate; or he facilitates content of the group experience (programme) that offer opportunities for expression, mutual give and take, and growth. Dealing with problems of social functioning- One of the purposes which traditionally belong to group work practice is dealing with problems of social functioning. The worker engages the group members in problem-
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solving process and helps them to acquire coping skills in the context of problems of social functioning. Whether the worker has a more directive and active stance or relatively more non-directive depends more on the needs and capacities of the group members than on the workers orientation. Enhancing Social competence is preventive in nature. The need for group work service stems from lack of adequate knowledge, social experience, and skills for coping with anticipated event or situation out of a psycho-social development phase or transition to a new or changed role like persons about to get married, or prospective adoptive parents; and persons with physical disability to get socialized into new or changed roles expected of them. Teaching, information giving, brokering, facilitating role-rehearsing and help develop a structure to the group that provides safe and comfortable group environment for experimenting are some of the roles expected of the worker. The worker may also have to engage in referral, negotiation for procurement of needed resources and services, mediation, and advocacy. Coping with stress development of capacities to cope effectively with stress caused by situations due to life transition, life-threatening illness, divorce, physical violence, or rape. Members need support from the worker but also from their peers or members of the group. They need to disclose and manage emotions, release tension, enhance damaged self-esteem, and discover new ways of dealing with stress and realities of life. The workers role primarily is that of an enabler or even that of a therapist. The worker, though, encourages the members to draw upon the potentials of group processes as medium of help. He offers necessary information about available services and
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provisions that the members can have recourse to so as to deal with post traumatic experiences. Handling emotions, clarification and interpretation are important inputs by the worker. His role in establishing group structures and patterns of open communication, and encouraging participation in group processes go a long way in alleviating stress of the members. Empowerment Democratic, empowering and participatory approaches are inherent in the ethos, Group Work as being a part of the broader Social Work Philosophy. Helping people to help themselves implies workers intervention to empower people to take charge of their own lives. However, empowerment belonging to the category of purposes of group formation is more specific. It acquired prominence relatively recently due to social works adopting securing of social justice as its mission.
Empowerment comes through being able to understand how the problem lies outside the individual and results from oppressive policies, practices, behaviours and the ideas on which these are founded. Empowerment becomes a strategy of choice while working with minority groups, disadvantaged groups, women or populations at risk. It is meant to provide the group members with support, skills, understanding needed to allow them take control of their own lives and achieve power in situations where earlier they felt powerless. Considering that power equation is tilted in favour of the worker in worker - member relationship, it is essential that the members feel equal to the workers, engage in a dialogue rather than submit to directives of the worker. Once the necessary information for consciousness-raising has been provided, the members are expected to take their own decisions, deal with internal conflicts, and negotiate with external systems. The worker may need to be more active initially while motivating the
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members to form the group; then, perform the role of a teacher, facilitate the process of capacity building, engage in supportive roles to enhance their self-esteem and sometimes assist in negotiating with the systems which have been oppressive and discriminatory towards the group members. However, the purpose of empowering the members precludes continued or active role of the professional. The mutual-aid potential of the group, rather than the expertise and authority of the worker, is heavily drawn upon. People, who come together as a consequence of having similar problems or concerns, find themselves in a position where they can collectively confront these forces of oppression, in ways which they could not do single-handedly. Empowerment connotes that members have acquired necessary capacity, skill and confidence to deal with oppressive life experiences. The role of the professional facilitator who is successful in empowering peer leadership will gradually transfer into that of a consultant to deal with specific work-related problems. The discussion above does not include a complete list of purposes for which people come together in groups. It is only illustrative of how purposes affect the kind of roles a group worker is expected to perform in the group.
Types of Groups and Roles of a Group Worker

One of the important determinants of roles of a group worker is the type of the group with which he is engaged. The workers inputs, stance, approach and style is differentially aligned to the type of a group is it voluntary group or involuntary? Has the group been deliberately formed or has sprung up spontaneously? Is group open- ended with fluid membership or closed with specified tenure and fixed membership? Is the group comprises of
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children, adults; able-bodies or differently-abled? Is it a support group, self-help group, social action group, interest group or a treatment group? Keeping generic roles in mind, the worker offers a combination of different roles, in varying emphases and perspectives. Involuntary groups in which members participation is mandatory- like group of probationers or delinquent youth the worker has to put in considerable time and effort to clarify the purpose and win the members trust. As the worker is perceived to belong to the establishment with power to supervise their bahaviour and reactions, maintaining records and reporting to authorities, this task is very tough and requiring deep empathic understanding. The worker has to deal with internal conflicts, to facilitate establishment of safe and stress free group structures and norms, and to encourage interest-based programme content. Challenging and confrontation, interpretation and building self-esteem along with provision of support are vital interventive roles of a worker in such groups. In open-ended groups, the worker is responsible in helping existing members to accept new members, the latter to understand the group structure and rules of participation; and help members review groups purpose. Since composition of a group impacts the group dynamics in a significant way, the gate - keeping becomes an important function of the worker. Open-ended groups pose another challenge to group leadership-whether professional or indigenous -, that is, the size of the group at any given time. The kind of programme that the group wishes to engage in may present limitations either because the group has become too large or too small; the skill levels may also change. The worker has to quickly assess the situation and enable the group members to adapt to the new situation; divide the group into sub-groups or change the programme.
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We have already mentioned that workers role in support groups is of a facilitator; helping members to draw upon the helping potentials of their peers (members) in the group. The workers role in self-help groups involves more behind- the-scene activities, such as recruiting, linking group members with other groups and systems, limited role as a facilitator within the group, supporting indigenous leaders and acting as a consultant. Worker rarely has an active role in the groups activities. The worker has considerable control over who is invited to join a therapy group. Therapy groups seek to produce individual growth and change through the relationships established among members with the help of a professional therapist. Using professional methods, therapist encourages and interprets here and now events among members to produce insight and change. The worker often plays an active role in helping the members decide group structure and group norms. As far as the interpersonal relationships are concerned, the worker is more of an enabler than a leader. The worker, however, is responsible for group maintenance and personal growth tasks, encouraging the members to identify and plan positive programme content as an instrument for achieving treatment goals. Task groups clearly focus more on accomplishing a specific task. While the task-related responsibilities of the worker take precedence over the other two, namely personal growth and group maintenance, the latter are nevertheless as essential because it is through the instrumentality of the positive group experience that the goal of task accomplishment is achieved. Depending on the level of skills and capacities of the members, the group - feeling in the group, the worker has to undertake roles comprising all the three components. Recreational groups also need development of group cohesion before the content of group
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experience adds to the pleasure and satisfaction of the members.
Stages of Group Development and Roles of A Group Worker

In earlier chapters you have learnt that groups change overtime. Group process is a frame of reference which limits, focuses and directs the workers efforts in a group (Saari & Galinsky quoted by Benson, p.74) It is based on the assumption that group process can be controlled and influenced by the workers actions. Group process can be defined as change over time in the internal structure, organization and culture of the whole or part of the group or individual member. There is a movement and change in the quality of interactions, relationships and communication patterns, in the degree of trust and cohesion, and in the nature of members participation in groups programme. To observe and understand these changes occurring over time in the groups life span, comprehending the concept of group development is very useful for the group worker as it helps him to determine what needs to be done at a given point of time. Groups do not move sequentially through discreet phases; they may move backwards and forwards or sideways. Each group may spend different amount of time at any one phase of growth or may even move cyclically. Consideration of broad phases of development in terms of major tasks expected of the worker is likely to prove more useful, especially to a new professional. At the pre-group or pre-affiliation stage, the worker acts as a visionary who establishes the need and feasibility of launching a group and then a motivator to recruit potential members to the group. The role of the worker changes once the members have come together. At the initial stage, variously designated as inclusion, forming, orientation or
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affiliation stage, the members look to worker for direction, structure, approval and help at difficult times. The worker has to be more active at this time as the members are dependent on the worker. The worker welcomes all the members; allays their anxieties; helps members to communicate with each other and explore; clarifies purpose; to make connections among the members; and establish tentative group structure and norms, that is rules for conducting group sessions and for members participation. The worker assumes a nurturing and guiding stance with the members. At the beginning of the middle stage, the previously friendly members may reveal a negative streak. The members here are seeking individual roles. In what is described as storming or stage of seeking power control, conflicts develop and there is search for individual autonomy. If not handled appropriately, there may be drop outs. The worker recognizes this conflict as a natural phenomenon and helps the group to revise group structure and group norms. Development of new norms is ensured through members sharing of ideas and feelings about their expectations from the group and about how the group should function. Giving opportunity to the members to express their feelings and ideas, the worker plays a vital role in group maintenance. He encourages the members in the tasks of harmonizing, compromising, setting standards and expressing group feeling. At the same time he ensures that individual goals are not submerged in the group goals. He ensures that each member gets an opportunity for expression of ideas and feelings. The worker, while performing the roles of facilitator and enabler, does not relinquish his control over the group processes. Judicious use of challenging and confronting and clarifying issues helps the members to view their behaviour in the right perspective. His interventions enable the members
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move from less intimate to more intimate system of relationships within the group. Setting of norms (also called stage of norming or negotiation) and emergence of indigenous leadership take the group to the next level of development. The members engage in conflict resolution; goals, roles and tasks are designated and accepted. Group traditions are stronger, norms develop, personal involvement intensifies; group cohesion is stronger; and members are freer in sharing information and opinions. (Johnson, p.207) After the control issues are resolved, the group now settles down to work on its tasks and goals, whether dealing with personal problems and anxieties of the members or accomplishing tasks for which the group came into being. Variously called performing, functional, operation or cohesion stage, the role of the worker becomes less active and more facilitative or consultative. The worker provides support, or relevant information, The members work together more effectively. There is growing ability to plan and carry out projects relevant to the purpose of the goal. There is higher degree of integration and cohesion. The worker moves into a less central role. The worker monitors the groups functioning, gives appropriate feedback to the group whether there is an affinity between the purpose and the group programme. Here the workers influence is more indirect and subtle than direct. The group will expect the worker to be available and provide necessary inputs in case of crisis or some difficulty. Encouraging members to make choices and fostering creativity are other tasks that a worker performs at this mature stage of the group. Termination, disintegration, separation, mourning or ending stage requires different set of inputs from the worker. According to Benson (p.155), the worker is again more dominant in this stage and offers a mix of nurturing, guidance, and protection and support roles. The worker
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deals with physical fact of separation; feelings of anxiety and facilitates members intellectual understanding of what have they gained through the group experience. The worker helps the members to assess their group experience and to identify ways of stabilizing the gains achieved. Identifying a groups stage of development allows the worker to respond to the group with better understanding about structures and functioning of the group which is a means for enhancing the interactional process of the group. (Johnson, p. 208)
Conclusion
Depending on the needs of the individual members, purpose of the group and the stage of group development, the group worker performs a range of roles in his work with the groups- ranging from role of a leader, organizer, motivator, and planner to helper, broker, enabler, facilitator, guide, consultant, mediator, advocate and role- model. Authority and power are inherent in a group workers position on account of his professional knowledge, skills and access to certain resource. While the worker need not deny this, he is expected to make judicious use of his authority in the service of the client groups and not for his own benefit. The professional code of conduct offers a number of safeguards to make it possible. The challenge before the group worker is that even while performing the role of a leader, he shares this role with group members. Each group member is a potential helper in the group and may offer a particular kind of expertise. Even when he directs the group members, he is expected to facilitate the members capacity to get empowered to do things themselves, to take control of their own lives; in short, encourage the emergence of indigenous leadership. The
340
worker has to operate from democratic, empowering, participative perspectives maintaining strength - based orientation. He is committed to foster groups mutual-aid propensities. Besides, the worker does not perform any one role from among those mentioned above, at any given point of time. He is usually performing a mixture of different roles, the emphasis and amount of the ingredients being different in different groups and situations. As mentioned earlier, social group work is often best done by combining these roles. A competent worker will move from one to the other or combine them as needed by the group.
Reference
Compton, Beulah Roberts, Galaway, Burt, Social Work Processes, 1984, 3rd ed., he Dorsey Press, Illinois. Malekoff, Andrew, Group Work with Adolescents: Principles and Practice, The Guilford Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2004 Wilson, Gertrude, Ryland, Gladys, Social Group Work Practice: The Creative Use of the Social Process, Houghton Mifflin Co., The Riberside Press, Cambridge, USA, 1949. Brown, Allan, Groupwork, Gower Publishing Company Ltd., Aldershot 2nd ed. 1986 Johnson, Louise C., Social Work Practice: A Generalist Approach, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 6th Ed.1998 Northen, Helen & Kurland, Roselle, Social Work with Groups, Columbia University Press, New York, 3rd Ed.2001 Benson, Jarlath F., Working More Creatively with Groups, Tavistock Publications, London, 1987
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Konopka, Gisela, Social group Work: A Helping Process, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1972, 1963 Balgopal, Pallassana R. & Vassil, Thomas V., Groups in Social Work- An Ecological Perspective, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1983 Trecker, Harleigh B., Social Group Work: Principles and Practices, Association Press, New York, 1955. http://www.britannica.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role www.mtsu.edu/~jsanborn/groups/leadership.htm Australian Association of Social Workers 2002 http://www.aasw.asn.au/becomeamember/aboutsw/ sw_role.htm
Editor Gracious Thomas
School of Social Work Indira Gandhi National Open University Maidan Garhi, New Delhi 110068
July, 2010
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2010
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the Universitys office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068. Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, School of Social Work. Print Production: Mr. Kulwant Singh
Laser typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, Abufazal Enclave-II, Jamian Nagar, Okhla, New Delhi Printed at:
Preface
This volume on Social Group Work: Working with Groups will orient you to one of the important primary methods of social work, that is, Social Group Work Social Group Work is an important method of Social Work for several years now. Since people in the society live and work through various groups, the problems arising as a result of social malfunctions can be better addressed by working in group settings. There are seventeen chapters in this book which talks about group, relationship between case work and group work, how group work evolved and its advantages and disadvantages in social work practice; theories related to group work and the various models of practicing it; factors affecting group formation, the tasks of a group worker and the principles governing group work practice, leadership and skills development in social group work, the skills and styles of leadership, the techniques of group work, relevance of life skills education in social group work, programme planning in social group work, and identify the role of a social worker in a group. Social Group: Characteristics and Significance gives the learner comprehensive understanding about group, its types and how group is significant in social work practice. You will also be able to understand how group affects individuals personality development. The chapter on Historial Development of Group Work deals with how group becomes important in social work practice. By reading this chapter you will be able to differentiate between group work and case work and trace the evolution and growth of social group work. History of Social Group Work in India talks about how group work developed in India. It gives a picture of how group work evolved during pre-independent and post-independent India. It also presents some of the settings in which group work is being
practiced. Social Group Work as a Method of Social Work will enable you to have an idea about the values, methods and purpose along with advantages and disadvantages of social group work. In Theories and Models in Social Group Work various theories related to social group work are discussed. An elaborate discussion is also presented on the different models of social group work. The sixth chapter is on the Stages/Phases of Group Development which describes the various stages involved in the formation of group for achieving its goal. It also throws light on the role of the professional social worker during the various stages of group development. From the chapter on Process of Group Formation you will learn the process involved in the formation of a group. You will also learn about the factors affecting group formation, and theories of group. Values and Principles in Social Group Work describes the values underlying social group work practice and elaborates on the principles governing group work practice. The chapter Leadership and Power will enable you to learn about leadership in the context of group work. It also explains the theories of leadership, style of leadership, factors influencing group leadership and qualities of a successful leader. Skills and Techniques of Social Group Work will give you an understanding of the roles of the group worker and elaborate on the various skills required for a group worker and how one can acquire them. The chapter on Relevance of Life Skills Education in Social Group Work describes the importance of life skills education in social group work, the meaning of life skills education and programmes and its need and relevance in social group work. Programme Planning in Social Group Work will introduce you to the concept of programme planning the principles and factors influencing it, and recording in social group work.
The chapter on Concepts and Dynamics of Self Help Groups (SHG) in Indian Context introduces the you to the concepts of SHGs. The deliberations enable you to know about the characteristics of SHGs and their role in empowering people, process of forming SHGs, its advantages and shortcomings, and how SHGs have had an impact on women. The chapter on Group Work in Community Settings will help you to explore different settings of the community where one can carry out social group work. An elaborate discussion has been presented on the principles and techniques used in group work with victims of disaster, substance abusers and young people in the community. After going through this chapter you will also understand the limitations of working with groups in each setting. While Group Work in Institutional Setting will expose you to the group work carried out in institutional setting like psychiatric setting, child welfare, hospitals etc. Group Work in Institutional Setting will enable you to explore the relevance and scope of group work in educational setting. You will be familiarized with the different techniques used in group work in educational setting. You will also be able to identify different types of educational setting and specific group work needed for each of those settings. The last chapter elaborates on the Role of Social Worker in Group Work. Factors effecting roles of group Worker, role of group worker according to the type of groups, stages of groups development and the role of group worker have been described in this chapter. The seventeen chapters compiled in this book have been written in the Indian context by Indian professionals. I am deeply grateful to the authors of various chapters who include Dr. Sony Jose, Dr. Lakshmi Nair, Ms. Aishwarya Jyotiram, Ms. Sreepriya, Mr. Joseph Varghese, Dr. Udaya Mahadevan, Dr. Ranjana Sehgal, Ms. Manju Kumar and
Dr. R. Nalini for their much appreciated academic contribution to the discipline of Social Work in India. I hope this volume would be of immense help to social work teachers, practitioners and students of social work.
Prof. Gracious Thomas Director School of Social work IGNOU, New Delhi.
Contents
1. Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance
Sonny Jose, Lekshmi Nair
2. 3. 4.

Sonny Jose and Aishwarya Jyotiram
23 45 63

Sreepriya

Joseph Varghese
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Ranjana Sehgal
77 94 124 151 169 186 199

Ranjana Sehgal

Manju Kumar

Ranjana Sehgal

R. Nalini

R. Nalini

R. Nalini
12. 13.

R. Nalini
217 233
Concepts and Dynamics of Self Help Groups (SHG) in Indian Context

Joseph Varghese
14. 15. 16. 17.

Joseph Varghese
256 284 305 319

Joseph Varghese

Joseph Varghese

Manju Kumar

Social Group

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1

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Definition and Characteristics of Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Factors Influencing Group Formation

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Plausible Ex planations about Group Formation

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Groups: Characteristics and Significance

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Differentiating between Group Work and Case Work

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Evolution of Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Social Group Work in India

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Historical Development of Group Work

History of Social Group Work in India

Development of Group Work In Pre- independent India

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

History of Social Group Work in India

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

History of Social Group Work in India

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

History of Social Group Work in India

Social Group Work: Working with Groups

Development of Group Work in Independent India