Kenneth Chamberlain - Police Analysis

An Analysis of the White Plains Police Department
2012
Analysis Conducted by: Dr. Maria (Maki) Haberfeld Dr. John DeCarlo Dr. Robert Vodde Prof. Michael Walker
White Plains Police Department Analysis
Table of Contents
I. II. A. B. III. A. 1. 2. 3. IV. A. 1. 2. 3. 4. V. A. B. C. D. E. F. VI. A. B. C. D. E. F. Executive Summary Background Mission Statement Accreditation Recruitment, Selection, Conceptual Background Training, Supervision, and 4 5 6 6 Discipline: 8 8 8 9 10
The Triangle of Police Integrity Recruitment Selection Training
Recruitment, Selection, Training, Supervision, and Discipline from Theory to Practice: The White Plains Police Department 12 Consent Decree of 1981 Recruitment Selection Compliance with Consent Decree Training Operational Analysis Written Policy Directive System Recruit Training In-Service Training Emotionally Disturbed Persons Policy and Training Training Records Equipment and Resources Administration of the White Plains Police Department Staffing Supervision Discipline Technology Homeless Persons Emotionally Disturbed Individuals 2 12 14 17 20 21 23 23 26 27 28 29 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 34

G. H. I. J. 1. 2. K. M. N. VII. VIII. IX. Policing Housing Developments Addressing the Needs of the College Student Community Use of Force: Handling of the Kenneth Chamberlain Case Selection Process for Specialized Assignments Prof. Michael Walker: Dr. John DeCarlo: Community Policing Organizational Transformation Problem Solving Recommendations Summary and Conclusions Bibliography 34 34 35 37 37 38 40 44 46 48 52 53
Appendix I. Learning to Deal with Potentially Dangerous Situations: A Situation Oriented Approach. 56 Appendix II. Stress Management Training the F.I.T.: Feelings, Inputs, Strategies 72
I.
Executive Summary
This report was prepared by a team of four academics and former law enforcement practitioners who were contacted by the Mayor of White Plains, the Honorable Thomas Roach. The team was led by Dr. Maria Haberfeld, Chair of the Department of Law and Police Science at the City University of New York, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, and was composed of Dr. Robert Vodde, Director of School of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies, Graduate and Undergraduate Programs of Farleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck , New Jersey and a former Chief of Police of Leonia, New Jersey, Dr. John DeCarlo from University of New Haven, and a former Chief of Branford Connecticut Police Department, and Professor Michael Walker, an Associate Professor at the Passaic County Community College in New Jersey, and the former Police Director for the City of Paterson Police Department and Adjunct Instructor at John Jay College. The report contains the overview and analysis of the White Plains Police Department based on 4 months of research that included site visits, interviews of police personnel, including the Commissioner of Police, Mr. David Chong as well as the Chief of Police, Mr. James Bradley, examination of the departmental policies and procedures, a host of documents related to the organizational and operational structure of the department and a variety of open sources that added a comparative angle to the knowledge gathered by the researchers themselves. The way police departments operate in any given environment needs to be always analyzed and assessed based on the contextual comparison, be it local, state or international, as the search for best practices for any police department hinges on many variables within the police profession, some of them are the morale of its employees the other the perception the public holds of its police force which, by default, impacts greatly the level of cooperation and respect the population renders to its force. Hence the importance of the adequate correlation between what is available through the media and other open sources and the field reality. No report on a state of policing in any environment will be fully valuable without this comparison. The account of what the members of the panel has seen and the recommendations of the individual members are presented based on each of the researchers perception and observations as each one of the groups members represents a different area of expertise that sheds different light on the specific areas of analysis. The specific recommendations appear at the end of each of the sections in order to match the analysis of the given part of the report with the relevant impressions of the team members. The all-inclusive list of recommendations is presented in the final part of this report, which provides a number of suggestions and ideas that can be customized, based on the availability of resources and the priorities of the White Plains Police Department. These
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White Plains Police Department Analysis recommendations include very specific comments that can be addressed with minimal resource allocation, in addition to more broader and generic templates that can to be taken into consideration in the future to further enhance the performance of the department. These recommendations include the attention that needs to be given to the recruitment, selection, training, supervision and discipline, as well as purchase of additional equipment for emergency response. In addition, the team recommended, for future consideration, the possibility of implementation by the White Plains Police Department of innovative training ideas addressing Stress Management Training modules developed by Dr. Haberfeld in her book titled, Critical Issues in Police Training, and a training module developed by Dr. Otto Adang, a Dutch academic and a world renowned expert on handling dangerous situations by police departments, including handling of the emotionally disturbed persons. This training module was published in co-edited book by Dr. Haberfeld with C. Clarke and D. Sheehan (2011), titled Police Organization and Training: Innovations in Theory and Practice. Overall, the panel of researchers found that the White Plain Police Department is an extremely professional and well run police organization, a credit to its leadership and the leadership of the City of White Plains.
II.
Background
White Plains is the third largest city in Westchester County (after Yonkers and New Rochelle) with a population in 2010 of 56,853 (U.S. Census Bureau) and its police department is one of 17 of the 39 municipal police departments in Westchester County1 to have achieved accreditation by the State of New York Division of Criminal Justice Services (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, b) and is one of approximately 150 law enforcement agencies to be state accredited.2 The police department had an annual operating budget in 2011 of $32.2 million of which $31.49 were personnel expenses (Meegan, 2011).
The Ossining Town Police Department was disbanded in January 2011 (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, d). 2 The New York State Law Enforce Accreditation Program requires agencies to meet 133 standards (broken down into the categories of Administration, Training, and Operations) which were established to ensure the professionalism, efficiency, and effectiveness of every law enforcement agency seeking to become or remain accredited (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services). The program has set four major goals: To increase the effectiveness and efficiency of law enforcement agencies using existing personnel, equipment and facilities to the extent possible; To promote increased cooperation and coordination among law enforcement agencies and other agencies of the criminal justice system; To ensure the appropriate training of law enforcement personnel; and, To promote public confidence in law enforcement (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, a).
White Plains Police Department Analysis The police department, with 195 sworn personnel as of October 2011 (down from 215 sworn in 2008 (Federal Bureau of Investigation), is the third largest by manpower of the 39 municipal agencies in Westchester County (with only Yonkers and Mount Vernon having more officers) and the eighth largest in the county as measured by sworn officers per 1,000 population (White Plains had 3.41 officers per thousand population and that ratio was exceeded by Pelham Manor Village (4.92 per thousand), Ardsley Village, Larchmont Village, Elmsford Village, Tuckahoe Village, Pelham Village, and Irvington Village police departments) (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, d). In 2011 White Plains ranked 4th highest in the county in violent crime incidents (after Yonkers, Mount Vernon, and New Rochelle) with 87 violent crimes reported in 2011 and 8th highest in violent crime per 1,000 population (1.53 incidents per thousand which was exceeded by Mount Vernon, Yonkers, Mount Kisco, New Rochelle, Port Chester, Elmsford, and Ossining). The city ranked fourth in the county in property crime incidents (after Yonkers, Mount Vernon, and New Rochelle) with 1,265 property crimes reported and ranked second in property crime per thousand (22.25 incidents per thousand exceeded only by Port Chester) (New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, c). Since January 2009 members of the White Plains Police Department worked 12 hour tours but, as a result of a lawsuit, a judge ordered the Department to return to deployment in eight hour tours (Sciortino, 2012). This change was being implemented at the time of this writing.
A.
Mission Statement
An organizations philosophy, often reflected in its mission statement, characteristically represents its core values, beliefs, ideologies, and the principles by which it operates and carries out its mission. The mission statement of the White Plains Department of Public Safety states that it is to provide unbiased comprehensive protection and service to the residents and visitors of the City of White Plains. The publics safety and the enrichment of quality of life are paramount, and will be provided by the Police and Fire Bureaus with professionalism, integrity, and respect. Toward this mission, the training of its police personnel serves as an essential and integral component of its operations.
B.
Accreditation
To the extent that the one of the foci of this report sets out to review and assess the departments in-service training, it is noteworthy to point out that the White Plains Police
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Department is an accredited agency pursuant to the criteria set forth by the New York Division of Criminal Justice Services. Its Certificate of Accreditation indicates that the department was originally accredited in 1990, and was reaccredited on March 4, 2010. Its current accreditation continues through to March 3, 2015. The New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services describes accreditation as a progressive and contemporary way of helping police agencies evaluate and improve their overall performance. Not only does it provide for formal recognition that an organization meets or exceeds general expectations of quality in the field, but it acknowledges the implementation of policies that are conceptually sound and operationally effective (http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/ops/accred/). The agencys website explains that the accreditation program became operational in 1989 and maintains four principle goals: 1. To increase the effectiveness and efficiency of law enforcement agencies utilizing existing personnel, equipment and facilities to the extent possible; 2. To promote increased cooperation and coordination among law enforcement agencies and other agencies of the criminal justice services; 3. To ensure the appropriate training of law enforcement personnel; and 4. To promote public confidence. Comprised of 133 standards, the accreditation program is divided into three categories: (1) administration, (2) training, and (3) operations. Standards in the Administrative section have provisions for such topics as agency organization, fiscal management, personnel practices, and records. Training standards encompass basic and in-service instruction, as well as training for supervisors and specialized or technical assignments. Operations standards deal with such critical and litigious topics as high-speed pursuits, roadblocks, patrol, and unusual occurrences. (New York State Division of Criminal Services, 2012, http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/ops/accred/). It is noteworthy to point out that accredited agencies must ensure that it fulfills the requirements for program maintenance by developing: specific mechanisms to monitor and enforce internal compliance with all applicable standards. This is a critical step in the accreditation process because it ensures continuous compliance with agency policies and facilitates the reaccreditation assessment. State rules and regulations require chief executive officers of accredited agencies to file annual reports attesting to their ongoing compliance and identifying any instances of significant noncompliance. The Council reviews these reports very carefully and will provide additional guidance to agencies where appropriate. New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, 2012
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III.
Recruitment, Selection, Training, Supervision, and Discipline: Conceptual Background

The Triangle of Police Integrity
A.
In the policing environment, three general topicsrecruitment, selection, and training are viewed in the context of integrity and corruption. The very essence of this section has to do with and is predicated on the assumption that whatever does not lead to integrity will, by default, actually or potentially lead to corruption. The word corruption connotes numerous interpretations, some of which include noble cause corruption, abuse of power, excessive use of force, and corruption for gain (Crank and Caldero, 2000; Klockars et al., 2002; Punch, 1999). For the purpose of this section, however, corruption will be viewed as any misconduct or inaction exhibited by a police officer that can be directly tied to poor and/or inadequate mechanisms of recruitment, selection, and training. There are three crucial topics in which the theoretical models of ethics in leadership apply to policing. These are recruitment, selection, and trainingthree of the five prongs of the pentagon of police leadership (discipline and supervision are the other two). Each has a relationship to integrity.
1.
Recruitment
The relationship between recruitment and integrity can be approached from a number of theoretical angles. First, the overall endeavor devoted to the recruitment process indicates whether a given agency views the outreach effort as an important component of its internal infrastructure. An agency that invests significant resources, from qualified manpower to adequate facilities, in its recruitment process sends a powerful message about its professional standards to potential applicants. The intensity and variety of outreach efforts are closely related to integrity. An agency that attempts to recruit in narrowly defined environments, such as military facilities or community colleges, or that narrows its recruitment effort to a recruitment office within that agency can be considered to have a much skewed interest in the quality of potential applicants. On the other hand, an agency that is highly engaged in proactive recruitment, attempting to reach out to applicants of diverse socioeconomic, educational, ethnic, racial, and other backgrounds, sends a signal about its ethical orientation and motivation (orientation and motivation which
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White Plains Police Department Analysis might originate from political pressures but which, nevertheless, are omnipresent). A recruitment staff composed of selectively chosen career-oriented officers, as opposed to a small number of unmotivated employees, projects an image of professionalism and high standards. Recruitment offices located in temporary or poorly maintained facilities, equipped with old or broken furniture, cast an image of neglect on the force they represent. On the other hand, well-equipped, modern, and permanently located offices project a sense of importance and seriousness about the activities taking place inside. In sum, a combination of resource allocation, marketing techniques, and careful planning, exemplified by the intensity, diversity, and quality of effort devoted to recruitment, bears an important correlation to the integrity of a department. 2. Selection
The actual and potential relationship between the selection process and integrity is the second theme. A number of theoretical questions need to be addressed in order to clarify the importance of the selection process. To begin with, if it is a fundamental premise that there are certain characteristics that applicants must possess to be attractive to a police agency, this premise invites two questions: a. b. If such characteristics indeed exist, which of them, individually and in combination, are indicative of future ethical behavior? If individuals do exhibit such characteristics, is it because of their moral character, prior life and work experience, education, physical agility, medical history, or age?
Reviewing the selection efforts of police departments in the United States, one might ask these questions: a. b. Are there any generalizable evidence-based characteristics that could be looked on as profiling the ideal prototype of an ethical police professional? Is the entire selection enterprise highly influenced by a number of themes unrelated to integrity?
Some of these themes stem from political pressure, some from budget constraints, and yet others from a complete ignorance of the posited desired skills and qualities. Profiling is important to consider because frequently individuals who engage in corrupt behavior are associated with various characteristics or lifestyles.
White Plains Police Department Analysis The second theoretical theme is based on the premise that a direct but complex and dynamic relationship between the selection process and integrity can be observed by looking at the planned efforts dedicated by the agency to the selection process. This begins with the allocation of resources and manpower (devoted to the verification of those minimum standards), followed by a closer look at the rationale behind the minimum standards required of the potential applicant. These allocations of resources and manpower relate directly both to the role the police play in a given society and/or community and to the culture of policing within the organization on a micro level and within the governmental and societal structures on a macro level. Various types of transformationseconomic, societal, political, and culturalcontribute to observable changes in the distribution of resources to the organizations that serve the government and the community. 3. Training
The component of police training is somewhat more problematic. Police training is defined as a process of socializing a less than homogeneous group of people into police work, during which necessary rules and values of a given organization, system, and culture are communicated to the recruits. Police training, on a basic academy level, is delivered through an in-house police academy, a regional academy, or a state academy. Only departments with their own in-house programs have the ability to invest and maintain real input into the curriculum, number of hours allocated to a given topic, selection of instructors, and instructional materials, facilities, etc. Any police academy, regardless of its size, length of existence, or location, serves a certain role in creating and maintaining police integrity. Training, in general, can be defined as a three-step process in which necessary rules and values of police organization are explained, demonstrated, and practiced. In the course of this process, certain situations and behaviors are addressed, and the instructors are responsible for showing the police recruits how to behave and/or respond under a range of challenging and oftentimes complex circumstances and how to do this without sacrificing personal and/or police organizational integrity. This happens almost irrespectively of the quality of the instruction and the instructors. Police recruits are socialized and acculturated to the life of a policemangetting to work on time, listening to and following instructions, and learning other discipline-related issues as well as being subject to vulnerability reinforcing or promoting pressures. These explanations, demonstrations, and practices establish a certain type of an integrity character. It is reasonable to assume that there is a general relationship between the number of hours allocated to a given training topic and the issue of police integrity. The longer the period dedicated to the topic, the better is the socialization to the discussed values. Having noted this, the reality is that for any educational and/or training process, it is rare that generalizable evidence-based data exist that form the basis for making staffing and materials choices and
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White Plains Police Department Analysis decisions as well as making possible the necessary conditions for achieving the selected goals or targets. It is no different for police training. When looking at the three components of the training processexplanation, demonstration, and practicewe can assess the quality of experience for a given applicant. In the case of integrity/ethics training, the following four steps help to identify the importance of such topics to a given police academy:3 a. Examining whether a particular topic is part of the curriculum makes it possible to deduce something about the overall importance of that topic to the given organization at a given point in time or with regard to its future planning. Given the fact that each state mandates the number of hours and the mandatory topics each academy must include in its training, the choice of additional topics is basically an arbitrary decision made by the training director and/or police chief. By reviewing and analyzing how this topic is demonstrated (or not demonstrated) to police recruits, we can begin to see what the academy (or the organization during the onthe-job training) actually trains its screened-in recruits to do. We may further engage in investigating the police training process to find out and to better understand what is necessary for a person to know about ethical policing in a democratic society and how to do it before (or after) recruits become police officers. By following the process involved in practicing the policing gospel, we might arrive at a final conclusion as to whether or not a given topic is actually treated with the ultimate necessary seriousness by the police organization. Looking at the materials used to instruct a given topic, further conclusions might be reached.
b.
c.
d.
No matter how positive the overall conclusion about the triangle of integrity of recruitment, selection, and training, an environment of integrity relies on the two additional prongs of the pentagon: supervision and discipline. Without proper supervision and discipline, it will be impossible to maintain environments of integrity in a world filled with opportunities and temptations to abuse the rights of the position of police officer. In the ideal world of police profession the Pentagon of Police Leadership would be composed of equal length prongs, where each prong represents a substantial, and equally resource loaded, approach to maintaining a professional organization. However, in the case of political pressure to staff the academy class or to provide more officers on the street to give the public an impression that officers are present on the streets, the first two prongs are frequently shorthanded and the need to extend the prongs of supervision and discipline (turning the supervision to more oppressive and the discipline to more severe) only a proper allocation to the prong representing training can mitigate the decline of a model democratic police organization.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Turning the regular pentagon, in which all the prongs are even, to an irregular one where one or more prongs require more attention and, in police organizations, this could translate into a more oppressive work environment is not something that law enforcement organization should strive for. However, given the traditional approach to training within police organizations, where under a financial duress the first cuts are almost always directed at the training resources, it is imperative to find another way to maintain the level of training that is a necessary component of an effective and democratic policing.
IV.
A.
Recruitment, Selection, Training, Supervision, and Discipline from Theory to Practice: The White Plains Police Department
Consent Decree of 1981
Any analysis of the topics covered by this section must first discuss the constraints imposed upon the City of White Plains in general, and the White Plains Police Department specifically. A complaint was filed in the United States District Court, Southern District of New York by the United States of America charging that the administration of the City of White Plains (namely the then-Mayor, Alfred Del Vecchio, John Gleason the then-Commissioner of Police, and John Dolce then-Commissioner of Public Safety) that the defendants were engaged and are engaging in acts and practices which discriminate on the basis of race, ethnic origin, and sex in violation of the provisions of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 1). The complaint further charged that certain specified and unspecified acts of the White Plains Defendants operated to discriminate against blacks, Hispanics, and women in hiring and tended to deprive them of equal employment opportunities by the use of tests and other selection standards and devices which have a disparate impact on blacks, Hispanics, and women (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981). The Consent Decree that was agreed to by the parties involved set long-term hiring goals and interim procedures for the City to follow until the long-term goals are met. The long-term objectives set by the decree are: 1. Minorities: The City of White Plains shall undertake a good faith effort to hire police officers so as to achieve the goal of an entry level police force which reflects no less than the proportion of Blacks and Hispanics between the ages of eighteen (18) and forty-four (44) in the civilian labor force of White Plains as reported by the U.S. Census Bureau in the most recently published decennial census then available (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 7). According to the 2000 Census, White Plains had a
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White Plains Police Department Analysis population within the above metric of 11.71% Black and 23.48% Hispanic; in the 2010 Census the city had 13.19% Black and 29.6% Hispanic within the metric. 2. Women: hire female officers so as to achieve the goal of an entry level police force which reflects the interests and availability of women in White Plains for police officer jobs (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 7). While the metrics for achieving the long-term minority hiring goals are clear, this goal is somewhat subjective and may be dependent upon both the interest of females in careers in law enforcement and competing employment opportunities facing that population during varying economic times. Interim hiring goals were devised in order to allow White Plains to make progress toward their long term objectives. These goals are as follows: 1. Minorities: The decree set an initial goal that White Plains shall use their best efforts to fill at least one-fourth (25%) of all police officer vacancies with qualified minority applicants (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 8) and this increases to 27% in subsequent hiring years (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 9). The decree also proposed procedures to follow if these goals cannot be met. 2. Women: The decree sets goals for hiring females based on the percentage of women among the total number of White Plains residents who applied to take the entry-level police officer written tests exams (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 8) during three hiring cycles at the time of the decision. The mean of the percentages will be used to establish the interim hiring goal for women. The decree also proposed procedures to follow if these goals cannot be met. 3. The decree finally stated that the appointment of Black or Hispanic women may be counted toward achievement og both the goal for women and for minorities (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 11). Finally, the decree covers the topics or recruitment and training: 1. Recruitment: The decree mandates that White Plains develop and implement an active and continuing recruitment program to attract and increase Black, Hispanic and women applicants with maximum efforts undertaken prior to each written test administered by [White Plains] until such time as the hiring goals are met (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 11). The recruitment process will include a 60 period for the filing of applications; a notice printed on application forms explaining the consent decree; availability of applications in government buildings and in locations in Black and
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Hispanic communities; a contact number to call for assistance in filling out the application; and a media campaign designed to attract Black, Hispanic and female applicants. In order to further its goal of attracting minority applicants, the decree advises that White Plains include, where available, minority and female police officers and sergeants in the recruitment program and that recruitment literature refer positively to minority and female police officers. 2. Training: The decree states that White Plains shall conduct training sessions between the application deadline and the date of administration of all written tests . Training sessions shall be of three (3) hours duration, and shall be held for six (6) consecutive weeks (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, pp. 1415). The decree also mandates that the training sessions be given for free and without any registration or other requirements. The decree also mandates that training sessions be held prior to the administration of the physical agility test. The sessions shall consist of demonstration and/or familiarization sessions of at least three hours in duration and must include the opportunity to simulate the test events using the same or similar equipment and physical facilities (United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 1981, p. 16).
1.
Recruitment
According to the Consent Decree issued to the White Plains Police Department, the Department is required to hire its entry-level police officers in proportion to the number of minorities between the ages of 18 and 44 in the Citys Civilian Labor Force as reflected in the most current decennial census. One way to achieve this result would be to encourage more minority youth to want (or aspire) to be a White Plains Police Officer; in many cases minority citizens residing in cities policed by a mainly white police department would consider the police force to be an occupying army and to refuse to be part of it. This process needs to take place many years before the prospective recruit is actually old enough to apply for the position and can be accomplished through the work of school resource officers, D.A.R.E.4 and G.R.E.A.T.5 instructors, by going into middle- or high-school classrooms to encourage students to look into a career in law enforcement, and most importantly, to explain how they must behave in the ensuing years in order to make that dream a reality. 6 The second way to achieve this goal would be to actively recruit adults to apply for and take the police examination, explaining the benefits
Drug Abuse Resistance Education. Gang Resistance Education and Training. 6 Many students are unaware of the fact that a conviction as a juvenile, especially for a drug or gun crime, can derail their plans to become a member of law enforcement as an adult.
5 4
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White Plains Police Department Analysis of a police career and stressing the importance for a police force to reflect the community it polices. The Departments Table of Organization reflects that one officer is assigned as a School Resource Officer but a city of the size of White Plains with a Department of almost 200 sworn officers should be able to detail more than one officer into youth services/school resources/recruitment in order to undertake a full-time recruitment in the middle- and high schools. Another initiative that could be undertaken should funding be available would be to institute a Police Cadet Corps which would allow college students to work in the department and become familiar with its operations. There have been many successful iterations of this concept throughout the country and, based on this writers experience with the New York City Police Department, many sworn officers in that Department began their careers as Police Cadets. A final recommendation would be to start a Police Explorers Program, a Police Athletic League, and/or a Youth Police Academy to stimulate interest in the White Plains Police department by the youth of White Plains. It appears that, by studying the materials made available by the police department, that the department has invested considerable resources into the second option: community outreach and recruitment. In anticipation of conducting an entry-level test in November 2011, the Department issued a press release to notify residents that an exam will take place; the salary range and benefits of the position; that they can pick-up an application in person at three locations in the city or can obtain the application on the citys website; and that free training for both the written and physical agility portions of the exam will be provided (The City of White Plains, 2011). In addition to the press release, the department mailed out the examination announcement and recruiting brochures to a variety of community contacts including colleges, parent teacher associations, malls, local police associations, civic associations, service agencies, and local churches (Muniz, 2011). Sgt. Muniz, of the departments Community Advocacy & Strategic Initiative Division, reported that the Division distributed 2,835 police Entrance Examination Applications at 46 locations in the City of White Plains (Muniz, Memorandum of Recruitment Drive, n.d.). How successful any recruiting drive would be would be demonstrated by the demographics of these who actually applied for the position. An examination of data reflecting the number applicants that the department has attracted over the application cycles from 2001 to 2011 show that the department has achieved a steady increase of the number of applicants interested in a police career in White Plains and had a 99.4% increase in the number of applicants over the years. Although this movement to attract interest in a career with the White Plains Police worked, it was less successful in attracting an increased percentage of minority
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White Plains Police Department Analysis applicants7. Over the ten year period, minority applications grew at 78.4% but that increase did not come close to the almost 100 percent increase in applicants (applicants not responding to the question of race are scored as race unknown and account for an average of 11.2% of the applications). The number of applicants identifying themselves as African American or African American Black increased 53.1% over the period while the number of applicants identifying as having an Hispanic background increased by 99.0%. As can be seen in nearby chart, the percent of applications by racial identity in each application cycle didnt vary substantially over time with the possible exceptions being the severe decline in Black applicants in the 2011 cycle (an 18.7% decrease) and the decrease of both White and Female applicants in 2007 (White applicants dropped 10% while Females decreased by 17.3%, possibly due to the economic boom taking place at the time). Over the ten year period, applicants identifying as Black averaged 19.9% of the applicant pool (standard deviation (SD) = 2.5%); Hispanics averaged 28.9% (SD = 1.9%); Minorities averaged 49.1% (SD = 3.7%); Whites 39.7% (SD = 1.8%); and Females 18.7% (SD = 1.5). It is interesting to note that the average of Female applicants rose significantly until the 2005 cycle and then dropped off to levels lower than those seen in 2001. The relative drop-off of the percentage of Blacks submitting application should be examined since that population increased 12.6% as a percent of the White Plains population since the 2000 census.
This writer defines minority as those applicants identifying themselves as either African American; African American/Black; Hispanic; or American Indian.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Recommendations: 1. 2. Increase the number of full-time personnel assigned to youth services and youth outreach Investigate the implementation of a Police Cadet Corp program, a Police explorer Program, a Police Youth League, and/or a Police Academy during the summer for teenagers. Since the Consent Decree metric for Hispanic hiring is still the furthest from be being attained, an outreach to that community should be constantly undertaken in an effort to increase interest in a police career there; since a pay differential is available to bi-lingual officers maybe this can be stressed.
3.
2.
Selection a. Application
Applicants interested in obtaining a position as a police officer in the City of White Plains have to file a formal application with the State of New York, Division of Civil Service. The application period is 60 days long and applications are distributed throughout the area. b. Written Examination
The written examination for police officer applicants for the White Plains Police Department is known as the Entry-Level Police Officer Series written test and is designed by the New York State Department of Civil Service. The five hour, five minute exam measures candidates on four components (New York State Department of Civil Service): i. Memory of Facts and Information: Measures the candidates ability to remember facts and information presented in written form. Applicants are given a Memory Booklet containing facts about a police matter and are given five minutes to review, study and memorize the information contained in the booklet. The booklet is then taken away and replaced with a multiple choice question bank about the contents of the booklet. Preparing Written Material in a Police Setting: Measures the candidates ability to prepare the type of reports written by police officers. Candidates are presented with brief notes about a situation they then must compare four paragraphs to determine which presents the information must clearly and accurately.
ii.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis iii. Reading, Understanding, and Interpreting Written Information: Measures the candidates ability to read and interpret the types of written material that police trainees are required to read during their basic training program and as police officers through the remainder of their careers. Applicants are presented with a passage and then asked to choose which of four statements best summarizes the information. Applying Written Information (Rules, Regulations, Policies, Procedures, Directives, etc.) in Police Situations: Measures the candidates ability to apply written rules to situations similar to those experienced by police officers. The candidates and instructed to read a rule or regulation and are asked a question which requires the candidate to apply the rule to a given situation.
iv.
The latest written exams were administered in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, and 2011 (no exam was given in 2009 since very few people retired that year). These authors only had complete data for the full 2005 exam so that data will be examined in the following paragraphs. (this section includes complete data for women for the 2007 exam and the physical agility portion of the 2011 series has not been administered as of this writing). As demonstrated by the results of the Written Examination given in 2005, the percentage of whites passing the exam (34.7%) almost doubled that of the next closest category (Hispanics with 17.7%) and was nearly three times the rate of Blacks. When compared with male applicants, ten percent fewer females passed the examination. As the result of the 1981 Consent Decree, free training on both the written and physical agility exams was provided to all applicants for all test cycles since the date of that decision.
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C.
Physical Agility Testing
The physical agility component of the selection process consists of the testing and measurement of three components: Muscular Endurance (Core Body) as measured by the number of correct sit-ups performed within one minute; Muscular Endurance (Upper Body) as measured by the number of correct push-ups performed without a break (resting on one or both knees or laying in prone position); and Cardio Vascular Capacity as measured on the total time taken to run/walk 1.5 miles. Candidates must complete all three portions according to the standards outlined in the accompanying table.
As the results of the written examination also demonstrated, Whites passed (24%) the physical agility examination at more than double the pass rate of the next closest group (Hispanics at 11%) and at nearly three times the pass rate of Black candidates. Male candidates also passed the physical agility test more readily than female candidates did.
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3.
Compliance with Consent Decree
As demonstrated in the accompanying table, the City of White Plains seems to be making steady, albeit slow, progress toward meeting its long-term objectives outlined in the decree. The minority and female proportion of the department has increased incrementally and it appears that the hiring of Black officers has almost attained its target. Although the proportion of Hispanic officers on the department has shown a steady progression, this component of the consent decree will only be attained through a decade or more of increased hiring of that population. As mentioned previously, the hiring standard for women was ambiguous and based on the number of female applicants. According to an email communication to this writer from Assistant Chief Anne FitzSimmons, over the past ten years the police department doubled the number of women who were sworn officers from 4.63% of the force to 10.2% currently (FitzSimmons, 2012). That metric comes close to attaining the target set by the Consent Decree since 11% of the candidates for police officers were female during the last hiring cycle.
20
White Plains Police Department Analysis The nine officers hired from the 2007 Eligibility List and the Special Military List included five minorities (55.6%), including two Hispanic males, two Black males, and one Black female. The hiring process was dealt a severe setback in 2010 when, due to fiscal difficulties experienced throughout the City, the Department was required to layoff twelve police officers. Of those laid off, five (41.7%) choose not to be reinstated (60.0% of the five represented minorities and/or women). The results of the 2011 hiring cycle are pending and the number of openings within the department is unclear as of this writing but it seems that the City of White Plains has made an extraordinary effort to fulfill the terms of the 1981 Consent Decree.
4.
Training
As a preface to assessing the Departments training, is it important to underscore the significance that training plays in fulfilling a police departments mission, goals, and objectives. Professional practitioners and scholars readily acknowledge that the amount and quality of training and education of police personnel or lack thereof is directly related to a departments efficiency and effectiveness (Schmalleger, 2013; Bennett & Hess, 2007, p. 190; More & Miller, 2007; Holden, 1994). Addressing the importance of training, Concur and Russell (2000, p. 323) argue that it is readily apparent that the tasks and responsibilities of law enforcement officials are so complex and burdened with liability that the need for training is unquestioned. Schmalleger (2013), addressing the importance for providing professional policing services explains that the training of police personnel serves as an integral component of the police function; one that begins with basic police training and continues throughout an officers career. He posits that todays police need to possess a great deal of specialized knowledge and understanding in a wide-range of topics and disciplines. These include knowledge and understanding in criminal law, juvenile law, procedural law, Constitutional law, civil rights, applicable Supreme Court decisions, cultural diversity, and as well a working knowledge and
21
White Plains Police Department Analysis skill sets in the area of weapons, self-defense, tactical driving, vehicle operations, radio and computer literacy, report-writing, interviewing and testimonial abilities, interviewing techniques, and media and human relations skills (p. 182). Other police training and education also involve topics and disciplines that include the study of sociology, psychology, criminology, principles of human resource management and administration, forensics, geospatial crime-mapping and analysis, and public administration. These areas, along with others, apply to the White Plains Police Department. In effect, the timely and effective training of a police departments personnel not only lends itself to ensuring the safety, security, and well-being of citizens and its officers alike, but also serves to protect and safeguard citizens civil rights, as well as to mitigate potential liability and litigation. The Process of Training In assessing the current status and training practices of the White Plains Police Department, it is noteworthy to point out that the term training, especially as it relates to policing, can readily be misunderstood to the layperson as a vocational process entailing drills and exercises, or as Bennett and Hess (2007, p. 189) point out, something that is viewed as a a lower form of learning. Notwithstanding that many components of training entail developing discernible skill sets and proficiencies, it is important to understand that training entails multisensory learning and education that extend far beyond traditionally held perceptions and expectations. While numerous definitions describe the training process, it is generally accepted that it entails the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, and behaviors; thus by its very nature represents a comprehensive learning and educative process designed to enhance a police officers performance (Bennett & Hess, 2007; Conser & Russell, 2000; Roberg, Kuykendall, & Novak, 2002; Vodde, 2007). And to the earlier point, not only does it improve the employees problem-solving ability or on-the-job performance, but serves to mitigate legal liability (More & Miller, 2007, p.503). In short, its purpose is to increase an officers knowledge, understanding, and proficiency in a wide-range of legal, procedural, operational, and administrative areas. Given that the primary focus of this report addresses training, is it important to reiterate that the quality and quantity of training not only lends itself to enhancing an organizations efficiency and effectiveness, and thus fulfilling its mission, but serves to preempt claims of incompetence and lack of training, thus mitigating potential liability and ligation. Toward that end, a written policy directive system (i.e., policies and procedures, or Manual of Procedures) serves as an instrumental training and educational instrument within a police departments operations.
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V.
A.
Operational Analysis
Written Policy Directive System
In fulfilling a departments mission and achieving its goals and objectives, written policies and procedures are promulgated that provide legal, operational, and procedural direction to guide the departments activities. Hess and Wrobleski (2006), addressing the significance of policies and procedures, explain that policies not only provide guidance, but serve to maintain organizational control and ensure accountability within an organization (pp. 15-16). While a policy represents a statement of principles that guide decisions, procedures provide instructions for carrying out departmental policies. Notwithstanding the span and depth of an agencys policies and procedures, they are only effective when personnel possess a knowledge and understanding of the same, a matter that is addressed hereafter. As so noted, the Departments Manual of Procedures encompass 133 procedures that embody approximately 577 pages. These policies and procedures range from the most critical situations and circumstances that engage police officers, such as those that address the Laws of Arrest, Search and Seizure, Use of Force, Domestic Violence, through to policies that address more mundane and routine topics such as parking enforcement, animal control, and bicycle and skateboard enforcement. The Departments Manual of Procedures are consistent with the standards promulgated by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, thus leading to its accreditation. It should be noted, however, that inherent to the nature of police work and human behavior, it is nearly impossible to anticipate and plan for every possible scenario or contingency; hence, there are limitations to the extent that agencies can promulgate policies and procedures. That being said, the policies that currently exist within the department and as identified by the New York State Division of Criminal Services represent an amalgamation of topics that were promulgated in response to ever-changing social, legal, operation, procedural, managerial, and administrative conditions. Notwithstanding the relative importance of these policies, in the aggregate, they are important to the efficient and effective operation of the department, and will in all probability over time, increase in their numbers and complexity. Given the nature and circumstances that prompted this review and assessment, it is noteworthy to point out that the Departments Manual of Procedures includes policies and procedures that address: Mentally/Emotionally Disturbed Persons (PR-87), Bias/Hate Crime Investigations (PR-68), Oleoresin Capsicum Spray (PR-81), the use of the Taser (PO-134), conducting Investigations (PR-95), Use of Force (DP-89-01), Firearms Policy (DP-82-01), and Training (PR-98).
23
White Plains Police Department Analysis Based on a review of the aforementioned documents, follow-up inquiries, and interviews, the departments Manual of Procedures is read in its entirety by new police personnel. Thereafter, new and/or updated policies and procedures are communicated through the departments Intranet (PR-111), of which Section 100 of the policy states: The Department Intranet was developed and designed to streamline resources, consolidate reference materials, reduce paperwork, facilitate inter-departmental communications, provide interactive training and disseminate real-time intelligence. In 2007, the Intranet was integrated with a developmental course management software package in order to improve the efficiency in the distribution of police information and to provide activity reports for training and administrative purposes. Section 101 of the policy provides for the dissemination of information relative to training, which states: The administrator of the Department Intranet will work closely with the Command Staff to ensure that all police related materials and resources are up-to-date and accessible via the Intranet. The administrator will also work closely with members of the Intelligence and Training Units to facilitate in the development of intelligence sharing resources and training courses. The policy further requires personnel to log into the Intranet at least once during their scheduled tour of duty in order to keep abreast of any and all new information recently posted. This includes General Orders, forum posts, intelligence, training materials and personal messages. Sections 103.1 and 103.2, respectively, provide for procedures to ensure that personnel are advised and read newly promulgated General Orders, and read updates to the departments Manual of Procedures. Summarily, the departments policies and procedures are substantive and comprehensive. Not only do they reflect the standards for accreditation by the New York Division of Criminal Justice Services, but those promulgated by the White Plains Police Department. In this regard, the New York Division of Criminal Justice Services Standards and Compliance Verification Manual states: Law enforcement agencies throughout the state identify its written directives in a variety of ways. However, be it a policy, procedure, rule, regulation, general order, standard operating procedure, temporary order, special order, administrative order, etc., effected personnel must be made aware of the directive in order to be held accountable for the information. The intent of this policy is to ensure that those individuals being held accountable for any specific information contained in the directives be briefed as to their
24
White Plains Police Department Analysis accountability and/or trained where appropriate. A record of their acknowledgment, training and/or receipt of the directive must exist. Recommendation: The Department appears to be in full compliance with this policy. As noted, the Manual of Procedures is required reading of all new personnel. When new and updated policies and procedures are promulgated, personnel are apprised of them in a timely manner utilizing the departments Intranet, which pursuant to PR-98, officers are required to access on every tour of duty, thus ensuring that they have read and understood the same. Given that some policies date back to September 1996, may not have necessitated updates, and consequently may not have been read by personnel over some time, it may behoove management to institute a process or mechanism that ensures that personnel review and familiarize themselves with the Departments Manual of Procedures on an annual basis. The Chief stated that the policies and procedures are readily available on the Intranet, yet it would be beneficial to have a mechanism in place that assures that this availability is indeed translated into a useful tool. Departmental Training Procedure 98 of the departments Manual of Procedure addresses the Departments Training policy, which readily acknowledges that the department believes that training is one of the most important facets of the department objective. The policy further explains that its training responsibilities meet the criteria set forth by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services and provides supplemental in-house training programs. Supporting the Departments training program and initiatives is the use of the Departments Intranet (PR-111.04), which also provides for additional training opportunities, stating: Throughout the year, training courses will be made available for elective enrollment. These courses can be accessed from the Course Category List located on the main page of the Intranet. Personnel are encouraged to enroll themselves in all training courses made available on the site. Beyond keeping personnel apprised of new orders, directives, intelligence, and open forums used for sharing updates, police information, the Intranet (PR-111.05) also provides for the dissemination of important law enforcement related training information and materials. The Intranet also advises personnel of other training opportunities for specializations and new assignments. These include, but are not limited to supervisory training, investigative training,
25
White Plains Police Department Analysis tactical training, and other specialized training addressed hereafter in the section entitled InService Training.
B.
Recruit Training
While this report principally addresses the departments in-service training and accreditation, the proper training, conditioning, and indoctrination of police officers begins during the process of basic police training. Second to the importance of recruitment and selection, basic police training represents a comprehensive process that provides recruits with a wide-range of disciplines pertaining to the social, cultural, legal, ethical, operational, procedural, and administrative components associated with professional policing. It also entails developing physical and psycho-physical skill sets and competencies. The New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services, which provides the requisite oversight of basic police training, notes that such training is often considered to be the most important learning experience that a police officer completes during his or her career (http://criminaljustice.state.ny.us/ops/training/bcpo/bcpo01.htm). Newly hired officers of the White Plains Police Department are required to successfully complete this training which takes the span of 20 weeks (639 hours). This training is conducted by the Westchester County Police Academy which meets the criteria set forth by New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. Upon graduation from the police academy, recruits are certified by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice. Thereafter, recruits return to the department to continue their training for another 20 weeks under the auspices of a Field Training Officer (FTO) program. PR-98 that after completing basic training: All officers must attend a recruit training program developed and staffed by the department prior to being assigned regular police duties. This training program reviews important topics discussed in the Police Academy and supplements training with issues specific to this department. A curriculum for this course is filed with the office of the Chief of Police and the Commissioner of Public Safety as well as with the Training Officer. Failure to satisfactorily complete this component may be cause for termination before the completion of the probation period. The recruit training program will include an extensive field training and evaluation component. This field training and evaluation is intended to orient the new police officer to proper police practices, familiarize them with the City and the departments current crime control strategies, and evaluate their suitability for continued employment. A review of this program, including the Daily Observation Report, weekly evaluation forms, and other related forms and reports completed by the Departments trained and certified
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Field Training Officers indicates a thorough and comprehensive post-academy coaching and mentoring program to ensure an effective and professional indoctrination into the Department. Anecdotally, the rotation of recruits to different Field Training Officers is an excellent practice that ensures continuity, corroboration, collaboration, and multiple assessments.
C.
In-Service Training
A police departments training can be characterized as entailing four principle areas: (1) basic police training, (2) in-service training that require annual training and retraining in areas such as firearms proficiency, use of force training, and periodic review of the departments policies and procedures, (3) specialized training that provides advanced training in areas such as criminal investigation, special weapons and tactics, or supervisory training, and (4) elective training, designed to improve an officers proficiency in select areas. Based on the information provided, the Department provides personnel with a wide array of training opportunities from a host of professional agencies; some of these include: Federal Bureau of Investigation, FBI National Academy, U.S. Secret Service, Police Executive Research Forum - Senior Management Institute for Police, New York State Police Academy, New York State Division of Criminal Justice, New York State Preparedness Training Center, Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency, Law Enforcement Bicycle Association, U.S. Department of Justice, Office on Violence Against Women, New York Tactical Officers Association, Manhattan District Attorneys Office, U.S, Department of Homeland Security, New York State Youth Officers Association, John Jay College of Criminal Justice Emergency Psychological Technician, Westchester Jewish Community Service, National Alliance on Mental Illness (Dealing with Mentally Ill), Westchester Independent Living Center for the Disabled, North American Youth Institute Police-Youth Relations, Pace Womens Justice Center Domestic Violence, Elder Abuse, American Red Cross Emergency Preparedness Sheltering, New York State Chiefs Sex Offender Management Westchester County Office for Women Domestic Violence, Children Exposed to DV, Elder Abuse, IACP National Leadership Institute, New York Women in Law Enforcement, and the Anti-Defamation League. The Departments Manual of Procedures entitled Training (PR-98) mandates that all sworn officers will receive at least 21 hours of in-service training annually, to include, at a minimum, firearms training, legal updates, a review of the use of force and the use of deadly force policies.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis The Department is in compliance with Section 33 of the New York Division of Criminal Justice Services Standards and Compliance Verification Manual which calls for a minimum of 21 hours of in-service training annually. As noted by Lynch and Lynch (2005), who recommend that police agencies engage in 40 hours of annual training, we are currently entering a time when, for a number of reasons (especially lawsuits and adverse judgments), that greater emphasis must be placed on qualitative training (p. 254). Further to this point, Cordner and Scarborough (2007, p.160) note that more progressive police agencies provide at least one week of in-service training a year for each officer. It was noted during the course of meetings with the administrative staff that plans were underway to increase in-service training from the required 21 hours to 40 hours annually, a practice that was formerly in use. Recommendation: Recognizing the requisite allocation of resources associated with training, it is nevertheless recommended that the Department resume its former practice of providing sworn personnel with a minimum of 40 hours of in-service training on an annual basis. We were assured that this practice will resume by the end of this year.
D.
Emotionally Disturbed Persons Policy and Training
Given factors and circumstances that prompted the commission of this review and assessment, it is apropos to address the Departments policies, procedures, and training practices as it relates to Emotionally Disturbed Persons. Please note that Professor Walker addresses this matter in greater detail from an operational and procedural perspective. As noted in the foregoing section that addressed the departments Written Policy Directive System, policies and procedures are the product of ever-changing social, legal, operation, procedural, managerial, and administrative events and conditions, and as also noted, will inevitably increase in their numbers and complexity. It is noteworthy to point out, given its geographical location and history for rendering assistance to citizens in need of mental health services, that the Department has been proactive in collaborating with the Westchester County Department of Community Mental Health in developing a Crisis Intervention Mental Health Outreach Team whose mission is to proactively engage persons in need of services. As noted in one of Departments descriptive documents, thus underscoring that Departments sensitivity to dealing with Emotionally Disturbed Persons, it explains that:
28
White Plains Police Department Analysis The purpose of the Outreach Team and Crisis Intervention training [is] to deal with person[s] in need at the lowest level which is safest for the police officer and the individual, yet most appropriate based on the circumstances. Preventing escalation of incidents with persons in need is fundamental to the Outreach Team approach, thus lessening the possibility of injury to police personnel and the individual in need (New York Council of Mayors Submission Award, 2010). While the Department has a policy that addresses responding to Mentally and Emotionally Disturbed Persons (PR-87), and has proactively provided 66 officers with 40 hours of instruction in Emergency Psychological Training or Crisis Intervention Training (2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010) both courses which address dealing with emotionally disturbed persons (not an uncommon occurrence within police work) the following recommendation is proffered. Recommendations: Research and attain professional advice from experts and professionals in the field to expand the existing policy and procedures in responding to Emotionally Disturbed Persons. References and documents are provided herewith Appendix 1 and 2 at the end of this report. Continue the Departments initiatives, as cited above, in providing advanced training to personnel that addresses Emotionally Disturbed Persons we recommend, as in recommendation 3, to look at 2 academic papers, that provide an alternative and innovative model to departmental training regarding EDP and other Stressful Situations Training attached in Appendix 1 and 2.
E.
Training Records
Section 98-02 of the aforementioned policy notes that whenever a member attends training programs, it is the members responsibility to prepare an outline and summary of the topics covered and submit them to the Training Officer, the Chief of Police and the Deputy Commissioners of Public Safety, and that if a certificate is issued, a copy of same will be also forwarded. The procedure indicates that the master file for all training programs/records satisfactorily completed by officers of the department is in the office of the Chief of Police. While an entire review of all personnels training records was not conducted, a sample review of select personnel training records provided, indicated that the records were thorough and organized indicating in chronological order the name of the officer, the date and nature of the training, and its venue. The records did not appear to have been generated by the departments database, rather, appeared to be recorded manually.
29
White Plains Police Department Analysis Recommendation: Given the department use of state-of-the-art technologies in nearly all aspects of its operations, that include the use of its own Intranet and computer-aided dispatch system/management information system (PAFCOM), it is recommended that its training records utilize the Departments electronic database. In this regard, it should be noted Assistant Chief FitzSimmons acknowledged that plans are underway to address this recommendation.
F.
Equipment and Resources
As is evident by the foregoing review and assessment, the focus of this report is on the Departments accreditation, policies and procedures, and training. In addressing a Departments equipment and resources, it is often the lack thereof that can have an adverse impact on an agencys training capabilities, and thus its efficiency and effectiveness. When addressing the state of its equipment and resources, Chief Bradley readily acknowledged that while additional and updated equipment and resources are always welcomed, he forthrightly stated that the Department was adequately equipped. Acknowledging the importance for austerity, he noted there have been times, when necessary, that he was able to apply the proceeds from forfeited funds toward the acquisition of equipment. This practice, however, should not preempt the necessary appropriations to the Departments annual budget. While a complete itemized inventory of the departments equipment was not available, given the foregoing, it appears that the department is sufficiently equipped with the necessary tools and resources; this included, but not limited to the Public Safety Complex, the departments multiple computer systems (e.g., eJustice, PAFCOM, Intranet), fleet and emergency response vehicles, communications system, firearms, first-aid equipment (including Automatic External Defibrillators), tactical and emergency response equipment, traffic control devices, uniforms, and other pertinent equipment and resources. Notwithstanding the foregoing recommendations, it is noteworthy to recognize that the White Plains Police Department has successfully met and achieved the standards for accreditation as set forth by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice Service. While achieving accreditation represents a significant milestone, of equal importance is that the Departments philosophy, policies, and practices reflect a comprehensive and conscientious commitment to ensuring the proper and effective training of its personnel, which as noted in the introduction of this report, is directly related to a departments efficiency and effectiveness. Ortmeier and Davis (2012) underscoring the importance of effective training and personnel development, argue that it requires an agency culture that emphasizes learning and growth, and those that strive toward this new direction, define staff training, development, and
30
White Plains Police Department Analysis deployment as top priorities while continuing to provide the swift and effective responses to crises and calls-for-service that the public expects (p. 243). Based on this review, the White Plains Police Department has developed such a culture; one that recognizes the importance of training and has accordingly instituted it in both policy and practice. Finally, on an anecdotal note, while in-service training is generally incumbent upon the police organization, officers should be encouraged to develop themselves personally and professionally, whether by pursuing their undergraduate or graduate degrees, and/or learning new skill sets involving new technologies, proficiency in other languages, and other areas that can improve and serve their personal and professional enrichment and those of the department and the community.
VI.
A.
Administration of the White Plains Police Department

Staffing
In May 2010 the Police Department experienced a reduction in force from 207 sworn to 195 sworn (-9.3%) due to municipal fiscal problems; the staffing holds to 195 to date. At the time of this writing the Organizational Chart for the Department8 shows a lean bureaucracy with command personnel9 accounting for only 19 of the total positions (9.7%); the ratio of sergeant to detective/police officer is 1:8.6, which is a broader span of control than most urban police departments use (the average is between 1:6 and 1:7). The department has most of its personnel assigned to the line, or operational, function (89%) with the remainder serving in staff positions.
B.
Supervision
According to Chief Bradley, Each division within the Department is staffed with supervisors based on its duties and the complexities of its work. For instance, the Criminal Investigation Division has a lieutenant to run the day to day operations, and he reports directly to Assistant Chief FitzSimmons. He has three sergeants; two for general investigations and one for Narcotics and Intelligence. Their schedule is set up in such a way that there is investigative supervision six days a week. The nature of their work requires that they be available to respond to take over investigations when needed. The Patrol Division has the largest number of supervisors, not just because it is the largest, but due to our operational program. The Patrol lieutenants are our Tour Commanders, in
In a message from Assistant Chief FitzSimmons dated 8/7/12, she stated that the Department now has 192 sworn with two newly hired and one who recently resigned. 9 Command personnel includes the ranks of Chief, Assistant Chief, Captain, and Lieutenant.
8
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White Plains Police Department Analysis other departments this might be known as the Watch Commander. That lieutenant has his/her desk in the Communications Room and is the central command and control of all activities in the Department at all times. Despite the recent change in the length of the tours of duty for Patrol officers, the concept has always been the same. Thus, excluding some unforeseen event, all tours of duty will have a lieutenant in charge, sergeants on the road and supervisors from the other divisions working as well. No matter what is the nature of the assignment, rank has responsibility for the actions of all officers. Some incidents are better served by the appropriate divisional rank, but until they are in place, the highest ranking officer is the incident commander. All of the command level officers have completed the appropriate NIMS level training and are fully capable of commanding a scene until the cavalry arrives. The Special Operations Division is commanded by a captain and an executive officer (lieutenant). The E.O. is also our primary tactical officer and is in charge of the ESU and Special Response Team officers. The Neighborhood Conditions Unit always has two supervisors and their schedule is set up so that there is a supervisor working at all times with the unit. The Community Policing Division has a high number of supervisors to officer ratio because of their unique duties. They represent the Department on numerous committees, boards, and other functions and their rank signifies the Department's commitment. The Administration Division has a sergeant who commands the Data Management Unit, which in addition to Records function, has the responsibility for the in- house Intranet, website and computer services. Although the department receives support from the City's IT Department for services that originate from them and are provided to the entire City, the department is responsible for all of the in-house systems and equipment. These are police officers who have been trained and developed these skills. The WPPD does not employ any civilian technicians. There will always come a time when vacation, injuries or illness create a gap in coverage. However, the department utilizes its overtime budget to fill those gaps if we are not able to slide another appropriate supervisor over to take that tour. The ratio of supervisors to detectives/police officers in the White Plains Police Department is currently close to 1:6.2.
C.
Discipline
With regard to the discipline related activities, in addition to the review of the Departmental MOPs the following reports were examined and compared against similar reports utilized by other police departments: 1. Discipline Report and Personnel Complaint (used by Supervisor for in house complaint)
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White Plains Police Department Analysis 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Personnel Complaint (used to address complaint from outside department) Patrol Supervisor's Log Patrol Officer's Activity Log Traffic Officer's Log Patrol Division Performance Assessment Criminal Investigation Performance Assessment Subordinate Development Report
In addition a lengthy conversation with Chief Bradley regarding the processes in which various disciplinary steps are applied completed the picture of the status of the disciplinary prong of the department.
D.
Technology
The Department has become very reliant on the use of technology which, with todays funding issues, allows departments to do more with less manpower. The department has installed a secure intranet which allows for functions such as electronic scheduling, dissemination of administrative bulletins, notices and subpoenas, and the posting of new or updated procedures along with a function allowing the officers to complete a brief quiz in order to measure their understanding of the policy. Additionally, the department had made use of video surveillance monitoring of streets within the city. Recommendation: Have police officers actively monitor the surveillance video cameras: this can be done by officers assigned to the security desk, in the communications room, or while on light duty.
E.
Homeless Persons
It was reported to our committee that, although the city at one time had a large homeless population, especially in the vicinity of the Metro North train station, that this problem has been virtually eliminated through a partnership with homeless shelters and outreach groups (Chong, Bradley, & FitzSimmons, 2012). Additionally the department avails itself of psychiatric services from the local hospital to deal with the homeless that may have mental health issues. It appears that these initiatives have helped to rectify a problem that plagues many urban areas.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis F. Emotionally Disturbed Individuals
Sixty one members of the White Plains Police Department have attended forty hour courses in the effective handling of emotionally disturbed individuals. These courses were conducted through the auspices of either John Jay College of Criminal Justice (Emergency Psychiatric Technician Course) or the State of New York Division of Criminal Justice Services (Crisis Intervention for Police Officers). All of the members of the Emergency Services Unit and most members of the Special Response Team attended the John Jay program.
G.
Policing Housing Developments
White Plains is home to the largest number of public housing developments in Westchester County and this has posed a problem for the department until recently. According to Chief Bradley, this problem was remedied through a partnership with the housing authority which included proactive security measures in the developments, prosecution of trespassing complaints on those found on housing property without a legitimate reason, and the use of video cameras throughout the developments (Chong, Bradley, & FitzSimmons, 2012).
H.
Addressing the Needs of the College Student Community
The City of White Plains is encircled by college campuses10 and lately it found itself the place for students to go to unwind, eat, and have a drink. This led to problems including brawls outside of the venues in the city and DUI. The Police Department joined an initiative to reduce these issues and that includes the following measures: College shuttles to safely bring the students into center city and to safely deliver them back to campus. Specially detailed police officers who attempt to intervene in problems stemming from the student (and other) population at night with the goal of avoiding arresting if possible (in many cases they will call a taxi for the offender to take him/her away). Having the colleges agree to reimburse taxi drivers who take fares to the college campuses but the fare flees from the vehicle without paying the fare.
The larger colleges surrounding White Plains include State University of New York, Purchase; Pace University and Pace University School of Law; Empire State College; Mercy College; Fordham University; and Cornell Medical School.
10
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White Plains Police Department Analysis I. Use of Force: Handling of the Kenneth Chamberlain Case
One of the members of the committee, Prof. Michael Walker, has taught police use of force in academies throughout Northern New Jersey and has been accepted as an expert witness in cases where Paterson (NJ) Police Officers have resorted to the use of deadly force.11 Prof. Walker have analyzed the nearly 200 pages of documents along with crime scene photos, audio- and video-clips filed as a result of the situation on November 19, 2011 involving Kenneth Chamberlain and members of the White Plains Police Department. Two police officers were dispatched to Mr. Chamberlains apartment in a public housing development at 5:05 am based on a call from Life Station Medical Alert regarding a medical alert activation; the address and Mr. Chamberlain were well known to the police due to past encounters with the subject. When the first officer at the scene advised that the subject was yelling and screaming but that he refused to open the door12, a sergeant was dispatched to supervise. Two officers who were off-duty but were still at headquarters volunteered to go to the scene as they possessed, as part of their patrol duties, passkeys to the apartments. While still trying to get Mr. Chamberlain to open the apartment door (Life Alert dispatchers were doing the same over an intercom) voluntarily, the officers unlocked the door and pushed it open, only to be stymied by a u-shaped slap lock which prevented the door from opening only a few inches.13 The officers called for a White Plains Fire Department rescue truck to respond in order to obtain tools to force the door. The officers and the Life Alter dispatchers continued to ask Chamberlain to open the door and the officers used a Halligan tool from the fire department to hold the door open while using a pair of bolt cutters to cut the slap lock. As this was being attempted, Chamberlain threatened to kill anyone who came into the apartment. Chamberlain then took a meat cleaver and struck at the officers through the door opening and, at an opportune instant, the officer used the bolt cutters to latch onto the cleaver and rip it from Chamberlains hands. Chamberlain then used a butcher knife to cut at the officers through the door opening.
See for example State of New Jersey v. Heriberto Rodriguez; State of New Jersey v. Ronald Cohen; State of New Jersey v. Ricky Williams, and State of New Jersey v. Phillip Perrone, Jr. 12 Once an alert device is operated it is incumbent upon the police and emergency medical responders to ensure the well-being of persons inside the residents. Without personally seeing and speaking to Mr. Chamberlain and ensuring that there was no one else in distress inside the apartment, the police could not leave the scene. 13 The doors in public housing developments are notoriously difficult to force open; they are made of steel and the steel door frame is secured in concrete and cinderblock walls. The doors open inward to the apartment and the hinges are protected from attack from the outside.
11
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White Plains Police Department Analysis At one point an officer was sent to the outside rear of the apartment to bang on the windows and distract Chamberlain so that entry could be made while he was away from the door; this failed to get the desired result. The officers on scene used a novel combination of implements to keep the door wedged open while allowing them to stay back from Chamberlains knife slashes; the axe that originally held the door open was replaced with a Halligan tool connected to the officer controlling it by a length of rope. When the door was finally breached at approx. 6:30 am it fell into the apartment but at a tilt since a chair had been placed behind the door. Initially the officers attempted to deploy a Taser to incapacitate Chamberlain but only one dart lodged in him and the device was ineffective. The officers then decided to use less-than-lethal bean bag rounds to disable Chamberlain, who was still gripping the butcher knife and threatening to kill the officers; the first round was intentionally aimed at Chamberlains upper thigh because the officers felt that a shot to the chest might cause a heart attack. The shot hit its mark and Chamberlain was unaffected by it and still held the knife; three more shots followed into Chamberlains chest but these too were ineffective they knocked him back but he still gripped the knife. As Chamberlain advanced on a sergeant in the room, an officer fired two rounds to stop Chamberlain; one hit him in the top of the arm which held the knife but traveled into Chamberlains chest and turned out to be the fatal round14, the other missed. Chamberlain fell backward onto the floor and began to use the knife in an attempt to cut his own throat; the knife was knocked free with an ASP baton and Chamberlain was restrained and given medical assistance. He was transported to the hospital where he was pronounced dead at 7:09 am. Based on Prof. Walkers assessment of the documents presented to us, his law enforcement training and experience it is his belief that the shooting of Mr. Chamberlain was totally justified and took place only after negotiations and all non-lethal means were unsuccessful and Mr. Chamberlain came at a police sergeant with a knife. Recommendations: Purchase additional equipment, like cameras that can be slipped under the doors, in order to assess the gravity of given situations.
According to the autopsy, the fatal round entered through Chamberlains right arm, right lung, top portion of the spine, and left lung and remained within Chamberlains torso.
14
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Ensure that the hydraulic ram (which enables the breach of a door typical of one found in a housing development) be available at all times for members of the White Plains Police and Fire Departments.
J.
Selection Process for Specialized Assignments
This portion of the report was addressed, more specifically, by two of the committee members; Prof. Michael Walker and Dr. John DeCarlo. 1. Prof. Michael Walker: Based on this writers experience it is always best for a police department to set clear requirements for each specialized assignments (including such things as training, length of service, service record, physical requirements, and psychological requirements). These requirements should be related specifically to each assignment, be well known to all members of the agency and any exceptions made to the requirements must be thoroughly explained. This allows all members of the agency to self-select for an assignment that they may be interested in and obtain the requirements prior to the assignment being posted. An example of this would be the Paterson (NJ) Police Department Emergency Response Team (ERT). I was the incoming Police Director and knew that the capabilities of the departments existing emergency response was limited; I sought to budget for a 24 member ERT which would be available for duty from 0600 to 0400 hours (the contract called for uniformed personnel to work a schedule of four, eleven hour days on duty followed by four days off duty). Based on specifications and recommendations from other, similar sized units a plan was devised to accept anyone who wanted to apply but required them to pass a five part qualification process consisting of a medical examination, a job related physical performance course, a psychological examination, a firearms qualifications course (with heightened requirements), and a review of the candidates job performance. Based on these factors the top candidates would be chosen for the team and subjected to further training that lasted for months. The unit has been in operation since 2007 and the requirements to join have not changed; there have been no challenges from the union about the issue and officers seeking to join the team, a prestigious assignment in the department, work to being themselves up to the published standards. Incumbent members of the unit must pass the physical performance and the firearms qualification requirements annually and are dropped from the team if they fail to perform to standard. About a year after the formation of the ERT the City Council and the Mayor requested that the department initiate a four dog canine unit (with three canines trained in Patrol and Narcotics duties and the other in Patrol and Explosive Detection). I decided to place the K-9 Unit under the auspices of the ERT and required aspiring handlers to meet the requirements of joining
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White Plains Police Department Analysis the ERT with the added hurdle of an interview with the candidates spouse/companion and children (if living at home) about their thoughts about having a working police dog residing in their home. Many applied for the positions and four were chosen; again officers who failed to make the team had no complaints due to the open, competitive process and applicants for future openings know of the requirements for the position should an opening develop. In many police bureaucracies how a person is selected to a position is usually a mystery and thus police officers, in their cynical thought process, attribute the person selected as being designated due to having a rabbi or a hook (in the corporate world these people who guide people through their careers are referred to as mentors). It is imperative that a police organization clearly state what is required for a position and allow all who are interested apply for it. Another way to achieve an open, transparent appointment process would be to have clearly established career paths; in Paterson, for example, a way to join the Detective Bureau would be to work in the Street Crimes Unit and a way to join the Narcotics and Vice Division would be to show an interest in interdicting drugs while in uniform. Traffic assignments are usually offered to those who show an interest in traffic enforcement while on patrol but are ultimately only given to those able to successfully complete a Motorcycle Operation Course (all traffic personnel, including superior officers, are required to be able to ride a motorcycle). 2. Dr. John DeCarlo:
Although a police department is broken into several large functional units, such as patrol and investigations, there are many special assignments that supplement these two basic areas. In many police departments of other areas of endeavor, selection is based on merit or controlled by a process described within the collective bargaining agreement. A representative sampling of special assignments normally found in a police department might include: Aviation Unit Communications Community Policing Community Relations Crime analysis Data management Detective division Dive Team Emergency Services Unit Marine unit Media office Narcotics
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Neighborhood Conditions Unit Special Response Team Street Crime Traffic division
There are a variety of methods by which employees gain entry to these specialized units (Cordner, 2010.) These include assignment at the discretion of the chief or other supervisory personnel; written promotional testing; fulfilling of experiential requirements; oral interviews; past performance evaluations; assessment centers; or other structures that might have been negotiated through collective bargaining. Staffing of these units is considered a fundamental part of the administration of a police department (Conderery, 1998). It is obvious that persons selected for specialized duties within a police department should be qualified and have some degree of aptitude to carry out those duties. Very often, assignment to special duties is an analogue to a promotion, although there does not necessarily have to be a rise in rank. In an interview with Chief Bradley and Assistant Chief Fitzsimmons, they indicated that special assignments were usually not tested for and were ultimately at the prerogative of the chief. Chief Bradley stated that approximately 50 percent of the personnel in the White Plains Police Department were in special assignments. In addition, the Chief noted that because the collective bargaining agreement was very management oriented, it was largely silent on the issues of special assignments. It should be noted that detectives and other special assignments in the White Plains Police Department are not covered under civil service rules, although promotional ranks such as sergeant and lieutenant are. Many special assignments carry a pay differential and the ability to speak Spanish also carries a monetary stipend. Seniority is not usually used to weight an applicants eligibility for a position. The procedure for filling special assignments, as described by the Chief and Deputy Chief, is that when an assignment becomes open, notice is put out to employees. At that time, individuals considered qualified may apply or be recommended by their supervisor. Ultimately, a committee makes the decision of who will be placed in a special assignment, although the Commissioner has the ability to override or veto a committee decision at his discretion. The process by which police departments make promotions and special assignments varies tremendously throughout the United States (Gaines, 2012) Currently, there is no consistent pattern that is overarchingly recommended. As stated earlier, different methods such as written exams, oral interviews, etc. are used to evaluate
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Individuals. Generally, the method used by the White Plains Police Department is not inconsistent with the way other departments operate. However, Cordner (2004) cautions that police departments that use only one or two of the vetting techniques can anticipate having problems in the administration of the process. It is not recommended, for example, that promotions would be solely based on the outcome of a written exam. Cordner, (2010) further stresses that departments that fail to use multiple techniques, with published weight values assigned to each criterion, impede the successful output of the staffing process. Since the White Plains Police Department has very strong management rights, caution must be exercised to ensure fairness in the process of assignment to special duties. Much discussion of late has centered on the concept of police legitimacy and its applicability to how the public perceives the way police interact with members of the public and the procedural justice that enhances these interactions. It is just as important that legitimacy and procedural justice be applied internally to the organization since if a process is not considered just, then the perceived legitimacy of the administration might suffer and with it, morale and efficiency in the department. Recommendations: There should be an appeal process in place for persons who competed in a selection process and were not successful. The Chief indicated that he is always open to discussion and explanations regarding the justification of the selection process, members of the committee felt that a more defined appeal process should be in place. The selection criteria used for assignment to special duties should not be perceived as discriminatory. Once placed in a special assignment, the individual should expect to be evaluated regularly, and also should understand that they are subject to a probationary period of at least one year. The Chief indicated that the officers are indeed evaluated and on probation for 18 months the committee would still recommend a written, detailed account of the evaluation process. Employees should be rotated through special assignments on a regular basis with a term limit on how long officers spend in each assignment. This is recommended because moving officers into several assignments enhances their overall holistic institutional knowledge and allows a greater number of officers to gain the educational and job related benefits of special assignment jobs. Merit pay for special assignments should be standardized in the interest of fairness, providing that this does not violate various contractual agreements.
K.
Community Policing
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The White Plains Police Department engages in many areas of positive community engagement. In an interview with Assistant Chief Fitzsimmons, many areas were described and written documentation of the programs provided. These included mental health outreach; re-entry program; school resource officer initiative; a sex offender management unit; bicycle patrol; park, walk and talk program; rapid recovery autism program; and a community policing supervisor for the community policing In addition, the department has a community-policing supervisor and what appears to be a community advocacy unit and a community policing unit. These programs are extremely commendable, and the department should be lauded for its positive and energetic efforts to be a part of the community. Community policing is a philosophy and methodology that promotes organizational strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime ((Kappeler, 2012). Community policing is comprised of three key components: Community Partnerships Collaborative partnerships between the police agency and the individuals and organizations they serve to develop solutions to problems and increase trust in police o Other Government Agencies o Community Members/Groups o Nonprofits/Service Providers o Private Businesses o Media Collaborative partnerships between the police agency and the individuals and organizations they serve to develop solutions to problems and increase trust in police. Community policing, recognizing that police rarely can solve public safety problems alone, encourages interactive partnerships with relevant stakeholders. The range of potential partners is large and these partnerships can be used to accomplish the two interrelated goals of developing solutions to problems through collaborative problem solving and improving public trust. The public should play a role in prioritizing public safety problems. Police organizations can also partner with a number of other government agencies to identify community concerns and offer alternative solutions. Examples of agencies include legislative bodies, prosecutors, probation and parole, public works departments, neighboring
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White Plains Police Department Analysis police agencies, health and human services, child support services, ordinance enforcement and schools (Skogan, 2003). Individuals who live, work, or otherwise have an interest in the communityvolunteers, activists, formal and informal community leaders, residents, visitors and tourists, and commutersare a valuable resource for identifying community concerns. Partnerships with these factions of the community can engage the community in achieving specific goals at town hall meetings, neighborhood association meetings, decentralized offices/storefronts in the community, and team beat assignments (Swanson, Territo et al. 2005). Advocacy and community-based organizations that provide services to the community and advocate on its behalf can be powerful partners. These groups often work with or are composed of individuals who share certain interests and can include such entities as victims groups, service clubs, support groups, issue groups, advocacy groups, community development corporations, and the faith community. For-profit businesses also have a great stake in the health of the community and can be key partners because they often bring considerable resources to bear on problems of mutual concern. Businesses can help identify problems and provide resources for responses, often including their own security technology and community outreach. The local chamber of commerce and visitor centers can also assist in disseminating information about police and business partnerships and initiatives (Kappeler, 2012). The media represent a powerful mechanism by which to communicate with the community. They can assist with publicizing community concerns and available solutions, such as services from government or community agencies or new laws or codes that will be enforced. In addition, the media can have a significant impact on public perceptions of the police, crime problems, and fear of crime. Recommendations As is illustrated above, community policing does not exist in a program or a unit. Indeed, it is a philosophy that is inextricably woven into the fabric of a department. Each and every officer practices community policing methodologies on a daily basis and in every interaction with the public. It is recommended that to add to the already-effective community policing efforts that the White Plains Police Department already has in place,that the following occur: 1. Since the department already has in place several partnerships with other governmental agencies, it is recommended that strategic partnerships be formed with a mediation agency. This would decrease the number of repeat calls handled by police officers and hopefully
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White Plains Police Department Analysis increase public satisfaction with the department. Mediators would address and mediate issues that are normally not reconcilable by the police department. However, the Chief informed us that he is not sure that such an agency is in existence in White Plains. 2. The department should ally itself with one or more media sources to increase its transparency and penetration of news to the public. A partnership with one or more media outlets would allow the department to actively report on positive programs that it has implemented and would allow the Chief and/or command staff to appear regularly in print and broadcast media. A good example would be for the Department to initiate a cable television show with regularity, for example, monthly. This option is usually at no cost and goes a long way in keeping the citizenry informed. Another example would be to initiate a monthly newspaper column in the local community newspaper. We discussed this recommendation with the Chief and he stated that much of the transparency happens on the WPPD sophisticated website and he was not convinced if enough is happening in his jurisdiction that would mandate that much media interaction hence, we leave this recommendation with the Chiefs disclaimer. 3. Policies should be updated to better explain community policing and its expected use by the entire department at all times, not just by particular units or during particular programs. 4. In addition, officers coming out of the Academy and before going into regular service should be assigned to attend city council or aldermanic meetings, at least once, and all meetings of neighborhood groups in the areas to which they will be assigned, if there are any. 5. A Professional Standards Unit should regularly measure outcomes of community programs that the department has in place. By using the SARA method, the department will constantly be able to measure the efficacy of its actions and make adjustments when needed, rather than get caught in the circular trap of rapid response, reactive investigation and random patrol. 6. A Crime Analysis Unit should use hot spotting and predictive policing methods to assist in preventing crime rather than wait for incidents to occur. All information should be shared at Compstat and non-sensitive information should be shared with the public (Kelling, 1991). According to the Chief there is a sophisticated software in place that addresses our recommendations however, predictive policing is a methods that works best in crime ridden environments that are not necessarily part of his jurisdiction. Nevertheless we decided to leave this recommendation from the perspective of future needs.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis M. Organizational Transformation
Organizational transformation is the alignment of organizational management, structure, personnel, and information systems in order to support community partnerships and proactive problem solving. Agency Management o Climate and culture o Leadership o Labor relations o Decision-making o Strategic planning o Policies o Organizational evaluations o Transparency o Organizational Structure Geographic assignment of officers o De-specialization o Resources and finances Personnel o Recruitment, hiring, and selection o Personnel supervision/evaluations o Training Information Systems (Technology) o Communication/access to data o Quality and accuracy of data It is important that the organizational structure of the agency ensures that local patrol officers have decision-making authority and are accountable for their actions. This can be achieved through long-term assignments, the development of officers who are generalists, and using special units appropriately. Geographic assignment of officers with community policing, there is a shift to the long-term assignment of officers to specific neighborhoods or areas. Geographic deployment plans can help enhance customer service and facilitate more contact between police and citizens, thus establishing a strong relationship and mutual accountability. Beat boundaries should correspond to neighborhood boundaries and other government services should recognize these boundaries when coordinating government publicservice activities (Oliver, 2007). To achieve community-policing goals, officers have to be able to handle multiple responsibilities and take a team approach to collaborative problem solving and partnering with
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White Plains Police Department Analysis the community. Community policing encourages its adoption agency-wide, not just by special units, although there may be a need for some specialist units that are tasked with identifying and solving particularly complex problems or managing complex partnerships. Resources and finances agencies have to devote the necessary human and financial resources to support community policing to ensure that problem-solving efforts are robust and that partnerships are sustained and effective (Schafer, 2011). The principles of community policing need to be infused throughout the entire personnel system of an agency including recruitment, hiring, selection, and retention of all police agency staff, including sworn officers, non-sworn officers, civilians, and volunteers, as well as personnel evaluations, supervision, and training (Morash and Ford 2002). Agencies need a systematic means of incorporating community policing elements into their recruitment, selection, and hiring processes. Job descriptions should recognize community policing and problem-solving responsibilities and encourage the recruitment of officers who have a spirit of service, instead of only a spirit of adventure. A community policing agency also has to thoughtfully examine where it is seeking recruits, whom it is 450 recruiting and hiring, and what is being tested. Some community policing agencies also look for involvement of the community in this process through the identification of competencies and participation in review boards (Morash and Ford 2002). Supervisors must tie performance evaluations to community policing principles and activities that are incorporated into job descriptions. Performance, reward, and promotional structures should support sound problem-solving activities, proactive policing and community collaboration, and citizen satisfaction with police services (US Department of Justice 2011). Training at all levelsacademy, field, and in-servicemust support community policing principles and tactics. It also needs to encourage creative thinking, a proactive orientation, communication and analytical skills, and techniques for dealing with quality-of-life concerns and maintaining order. Officers can be trained to identify and correct conditions that could lead to crime, raise public awareness, and engage the community in finding solutions to problems. Field training officers and supervisors need to learn how to encourage problem solving and help officers learn from other problem-solving initiatives. Until community policing is institutionalized in the organization, training in its fundamental principles will need to take place regularly (Kappeler 2012). Community policing is information-intensive and technology plays a central role in helping to provide ready access to quality information. Accurate and timely information makes problem-solving efforts more effective and ensures that officers are informed about the crime and community conditions of their beat. In addition, technological enhancements can greatly
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White Plains Police Department Analysis assist with improving two-way communication with citizens and in developing agency accountability systems and performance outcome measures. Communication/access to data technology provides agencies with an important forum by which to communicate externally with the public and internally with their own staff. To communicate with the public, community policing encourages agencies to develop two-way communication systems through the Internet to provide online reports, reverse 911 and e-mail alerts, discussion forums, and feedback on interactive applications (surveys, maps), thereby creating ongoing dialogs and increasing transparency. Technology encourages effective internal communication through memoranda, reports, newsletters, e-mail and enhanced incident reporting, dispatch functions, and communications interoperability with other entities for more efficient operations. Community policing also encourages the use of technology to develop accountability and performance measurement systems that are timely and contain accurate metrics and a broad array of measures and information. Community policing encourages the use of technology to provide officers with ready access to timely information on crime and community characteristics within their beats, either through laptop computers in their patrol cars or through personal data devices. In addition, technology can support crime/problem analysis functions by enabling agencies to gather information about the greater aspects of events including more detailed information about offenders, victims, crime locations, and quality-of-life concerns, and to further enhance analysis (US Department of Justice 2011). Information is only as good as its source and, therefore, it is not useful if it is of questionable quality and accuracy. Community policing encourages agencies to put safeguards in place to ensure that information from various sources is collected in a systematic fashion and entered into central systems that are linked to one another and checked for accuracy so that it can be used effectively for strategic planning, problem solving, and performance measurement (Morash and Ford 2002).
N.
Problem Solving
The process of engaging in the proactive and systematic examination of identified problems to develop and rigorously evaluate effective responses.
o o o o o
Scanning: Identifying and prioritizing problems Analysis: Researching what is known about the problem Response: Developing solutions to bring about lasting reductions in the number and extent of problems Assessment: Evaluating the success of the responses Using the crime triangle to focus on immediate conditions (victim/offender/location)
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Figure 1. Crime triangle
Community policing emphasizes proactive problem solving in a systematic and routine fashion. Rather than responding to crime only after it occurs, community policing encourages agenciesto proactively develop solutions to the immediate underlying conditions contributing to public safety problems. Problem solving must be infused into all police operations and guide decision-making efforts. Agencies are encouraged to think innovatively about their responses and view making arrests as only one of a wide array of potential responses. A major conceptual vehicle for helping officers to think about problem solving in a structured and disciplined way is the SARA (Scanning, Analysis, Response and Assessment) problem- solving model. The objectives of scanning are to identify a basic problem, determine the nature of that problem, determine the scope of seriousness of the problem, and establish baseline measures. An inclusive list of stakeholders for the selected problem is typically identified in this phase. A problem can be thought of as two or more incidents similar in one or more ways and that is of concern to the police and the community. Problems can be a type of behavior, a place, a person or persons, a special event or time, or a combination of any of these. The police, with input from the community, should identify and prioritize concerns. Analysis is the heart of the problem-solving process. The objectives of analysis are to develop an understanding of the dynamics ofthe problem, develop an understanding of the limits of current responses, establish correlation, and develop an understanding of cause and effect. As part of the analysis phase, it is important to find out as much as possible about each aspect of the crime triangle by asking Who?, What?, When?, Where?, How?, Why?, and Why Not? About the victim, offender, and crime location (U.S. DOJ, 2011). The response phase of the SARA model involves developingand implementing strategies to address an identified problemby searching for strategic responses that are both broad and uninhibited. The response should follow logically from the knowledge learned during the analysis and should be tailored to the specific problem. The goals of the response can range from totally eliminating the problem, substantially reducing the problem, reducing the amount of harm caused by the problem, or improving the quality of community cohesion.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Assessment attempts to determine if the response strategieswere successful by determining if the problem declined and ifthe response contributed to the decline. This information notonly assists the current effort but also gathers data that build knowledge for the future. Strategies and programs can be assessed for process, outcomes, or both. If the responses implemented are not effective, the information gathered during analysis should be reviewed. New information may have to be collected before new solutions can be developed and tested. The entire process should be viewed as circular rather than linear. To understand a problem, many problem solvers have found it useful to visualize links among the victim, offender, and location (the crime triangle) and those aspects that could have an impact on them, for example, capable guardians for victims, handlers for offenders, and managers for locations. Rather than focusing primarily on addressing the root causes of a problem, the police focus on the factors that are within their reach, such as limiting criminal opportunities and access to victims, increasing guardianship, and associating risk with unwanted behavior (U.S. DOJ, 2011).
VII. Recommendations
Following is the all-inclusive list of recommendations the team panel proposes for implementation considerations by the White Plains Police Department. These recommendations appear under each relevant section of this report and are presented here to illustrate the complete picture of the teams analysis. The order in which the recommendations are presented does not denote the level of importance or the priority of implementation but rather the order in which they are presented in different sections of this report. 1. Increase the number of full-time personnel assigned to youth services and youth outreach. 2. Investigate the implementation of a Police Cadet Corp program, a Police explorer Program, a Police Youth League, and/or a Police Academy during the summer for teenagers. 3. Since the Consent Decree metric for Hispanic hiring is still the furthest from be being attained, an outreach to that community should be constantly undertaken in an effort to increase interest in a police career there; since a pay differential is available to bi-lingual officers maybe this can be stressed. 4. The Department appears to be in full compliance with NY Division of Criminal Justice Services Standards and Compliance Verification policy. As noted, the
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Manual of Procedures is required reading of all new personnel. When new and updated policies and procedures are promulgated, personnel are apprised of them in a timely manner utilizing the departments Intranet, which pursuant to PR-98, officers are required to access on every tour of duty, thus ensuring that they have read and understood the same. Given that some policies date back to September 1996, may not have necessitated updates, and consequently may not have been read by personnel over some time, it may behoove management to institute a process or mechanism that ensures that personnel review and familiarize themselves with the Departments Manual of Procedures on an annual basis. The Chief stated that the policies and procedures are readily available on the Intranet, yet it would be beneficial to have a mechanism in place that assures that this availability is indeed translated into a useful tool. 5. Recognizing the requisite allocation of resources associated with training, it is nevertheless recommended that the Department resume its former practice of providing sworn personnel with a minimum of 40 hours of in-service training on an annual basis. We were assured that this practice will resume by the end of this year. 6. Research and attain professional advice from experts and professionals in the field to expand the existing policy and procedures in responding to Emotionally Disturbed Persons. References and documents are provided herewith Appendix 1 and 2 at the end of this report. 7. Continue the Departments initiatives, as cited above, in providing advanced training to personnel that addresses Emotionally Disturbed Persons we recommend, to look at 2 academic papers that provide an alternative and innovative model to departmental training regarding EDP and other Stressful Situations Training attached in Appendix 1 and 2. 8. Given the department use of state-of-the-art technologies in nearly all aspects of its operations, that include the use of its own Intranet and computer-aided dispatch system/management information system (PAFCOM), it is recommended that its training records utilize the Departments electronic database. In this regard, it should be noted Assistant Chief FitzSimmons acknowledged that plans are underway to address this recommendation.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis 9. Have police officers actively monitor the surveillance video cameras: this can be done by officers assigned to the security desk, in the communications room, or while on light duty. 10. Purchase additional equipment, like cameras that can be slipped under the doors, in order to assess the gravity of given situations. 11. Ensure that the hydraulic ram (which enables the breach of a door typical of one found in a housing development) be available at all times for members of the White Plains Police and Fire Departments. 12. There should be an appeal process in place for persons who competed in a selection process and were not successful. The Chief indicated that he is always open to discussion and explanations regarding the justification of the selection process, members of the committee felt that a more defined appeal process should be in place. 13. The selection criteria used for assignment to special duties should not be perceived as discriminatory. 14. Once placed in a special assignment, the individual should expect to be evaluated regularly, and also should understand that they are subject to a probationary period of at least one year. The Chief indicated that the officers are indeed evaluated and on probation for 18 months the committee would still recommend a written, detailed account of the evaluation process. 15. Employees should be rotated through special assignments on a regular basis with a term limit on how long officers spend in each assignment. This is recommended because moving officers into several assignments enhances their overall holistic institutional knowledge and allows a greater number of officers to gain the educational and job related benefits of special assignment jobs. 16. Merit pay for special assignments should be standardized in the interest of fairness, providing that this does not violate various contractual agreements. 17. Since the department already has in place several partnerships with other governmental agencies, it is recommended that strategic partnerships be formed with a mediation agency. This would decrease the number of repeat calls handled by police officers and hopefully increase public satisfaction with the department. Mediators would address and mediate issues that are normally not reconcilable by the police department. However, the Chief informed us that he is not sure that such an agency is in existence in White Plains.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis 18. The department should ally itself with one or more media sources to increase its transparency and penetration of news to the public. A partnership with one or more media outlets would allow the department to actively report on positive programs that it has implemented and would allow the Chief and/or command staff to appear regularly in print and broadcast media. A good example would be for the Department to initiate a cable television show with regularity, for example, monthly. This option is usually at no cost and goes a long way in keeping the citizenry informed. Another example would be to initiate a monthly newspaper column in the local community newspaper. We discussed this recommendation with the Chief and he stated that much of the transparency happens on the WPPD sophisticated website and he was not convinced if enough is happening in his jurisdiction that would mandate that much media interaction hence, we leave this recommendation with the Chiefs disclaimer. 19. Policies should be updated to better explain community policing and its expected use by the entire department at all times, not just by particular units or during particular programs. 20. In addition, officers coming out of the Academy and before going into regular service should be assigned to attend city council or aldermanic meetings, at least once, and all meetings of neighborhood groups in the areas to which they will be assigned, if there are any. 21. A Professional Standards Unit should regularly measure outcomes of community programs that the department has in place. By using the SARA method, the department will constantly be able to measure the efficacy of its actions and make adjustments when needed, rather than get caught in the circular trap of rapid response, reactive investigation and random patrol. 22. A Crime Analysis Unit should use hot spotting and predictive policing methods to assist in preventing crime rather than wait for incidents to occur. All information should be shared at Compstat and non-sensitive information should be shared with the public (Kelling, 1991). According to the Chief there is a sophisticated software in place that addresses our recommendations however, predictive policing is a methods that works best in crime ridden environments that are not necessarily part of his jurisdiction. Nevertheless we decided to leave this recommendation from the perspective of future needs.
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VIII. Summary and Conclusions

The team of 4 researchers, who represent a collective knowledge of police profession on all it facets, from the organizational through operational/tactical aspects, analyzed the operations of the White Plains Police Department over the period of 4 months. The evaluation of the department included interviews with its leadership as well as an indepth analysis of volumes of documents presented to us upon our requests. These documents included standard operational procedures of the department with regard to recruitment, selection, training, supervision as well as discipline of its personnel. In addition we received every document we felt was necessary for us to review in order to get an informed knowledge of administrative and operational decision making process. Such documents included reports on use of force, specific high-profile incidents, disciplinary dispositions and more. We further examined the certification, accreditation, promotion and special assignments allocation as well as the state of the departments equipment. Finally, we analyzed the departments approach to the philosophy of Community Oriented Policing and the role the community plays in the daily deployment. Based on the research performed, the team compiled a list of 22 recommendations for the department to consider, in addition to 2 innovative approaches to training that, with minimal resource allocation can benefit, greatly, the departments personnel as well as the community they serve. Despite the list of 22 recommendations it is of outmost importance to state that we have found in White Plains a department of a professional stature that can certainly serve as a model to many police departments in the country. Our team evaluated, in the past, police departments around the country and the world hence our collective knowledge will always produce recommendations that can lead into enhancement of any police department as they are based on witnessing, first hand, many of the best policies and practices. This been said, it is imperative to state that all of the above identified recommendations will simply enhance what already constitutes a very solid organizational structure.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Our final words are directed to Mayor Thomas Roach, Commissioner David Chong and Chief James Bradley we congratulate you on your hard work in creating and maintaining a department of professional standing and integrity.
IX.
Bibliography
Aamodt, M. (2004). Research in Law Enforcement selection. Boca Raton, FL: Brown Walker Press. Allen, J. M., & Sawhney, R. (2010). Administration and management in criminal justice: A service quality approach. Los Angeles: Sage. Chong, D. E., Bradley, J. M., & FitzSimmons, A. (2012, July 25). Overview of White Plains Police Department. (M. C. Walker, Interviewer) City of White Plains. (nd). Overall Statistics Police Officer 2005 Exam: Passed Agility. City of White Plains. (n.d.). Police Officer Physical Fitness Activity Testing. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from City of White Plains: http://www.cityofwhiteplains.com/templates/template_text_image_right_panel.aspx?Id=Police% 20Agility%20Test Conderey, S. E. (1998). Handbook of human resource management in government. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. Cordner, G. W., & Scarborough, K. E. (2010). Police Administration. Albany, NY: LexisNexis/Anderson Publishing. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (n.d.). Crime in the United States (2010), Table 78, Fulltime Law Enforcement Employees by City 2010. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from Federal Bureau of Investigation: http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.2010/tables/table-78/10tbl78ny.xls Federal Bureau of Investigation. (n.d.). Crime in the United States 2008: Police Employee Data: New York. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from Federal Bureau of Investigation: http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2008 FitzSimmons, A. (2012, August 8). Email communication on hiring of women. Fyfe, J. J., & Wilson, O. W. (1997). Police administration. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Gaines, L. K., & Worrall, J. L. (2012). Police administration. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar/Cengage. Isenberg, J. (2010). Police leadership in a democracy: Conversations with America's police chiefs. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Kelling, G. (1999). Crime and metaphor. New York: City Journal. Meegan, L. (2011). New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services Agency Personnel Report. White Plains Police Department. Muniz, S. L. (2011, May 19). Inter-Office Memorandum: 2011 Recruitment. Muniz, S. L. (n.d.). Memorandum of Recruitment Drive. New York State Department of Civil Service. (n.d.). A Guide to the Written Test for the Entry-Level Police Officer Series. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from New York State Department of Civil Service: http://www.cs.ny.gov/testing/test_guides/entry_level_police_officer_test_guide.pdf New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. (a). Blueprint for Effective Law Enforcement: New York State Law Enforcement Accreditation Program. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services: http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/ops/docs/accred/blueprint.pdf New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. (b). List of Accredited Agencies. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services: http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/ops/accred/accredited-agencies.htm New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. (c). NYS Division of Criminal Justice Services - Index Crimes Reported to Police: 2007 - 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services: http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/crimnet/ojsa/indexcrimes/Westchester.pdf New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services. (d). NYS Division of Criminal Justice Services -- Law Enforcement Personnel in 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services: http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/crimnet/ojsa/2011-le-personnel.pdf Oristano, K. (2008). Inter-Office Memorandum Police results from Examination OC # 63-738.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Ortmeier, P. J., & Davis, J. J. (2012). police administration: A leadership approach. New York: McGraw-Hill. Roberg, R. R. (2012). Police & society. New York: Oxford University Press. Sciortino, D. (2012, July 13). White Plains Patrol Officers Go Back to 8-Hour Shifts . Retrieved July 14, 2012, from White Plains Patch: http://whiteplains.patch.com/articles/whiteplains-patrol-officers-go-back-to-8-hour-shifts The City of White Plains. (2011, May 16). City of White Plains Announces Police Officer Exam Press Release. United States of America v. City of Yonkers, et al., 80 Civ. 7407 (ADS) (United States District Court, Southern District of New York April 17, 1981). U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. Census Bureau: DP-1 Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010. Retrieved July 11, 2012, from U.S. Census Bureau: http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?fpt=table U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Policing Services. (2011). Community Policing Defined. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice. Wilson, O. W. (1974). Police administration. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Appendix I. Learning to Deal with Potentially Dangerous Situations: A Situation Oriented Approach.
The contents of the section were based on Chapter 10 of Innovations in Police Research and Training by Otto Adang, edited by M.R. Haberfeld, C. Clarke and D. Sheehan, Springer, 2012. ______________________________________________________________________________
Be careful. Do not approach too quickly. Give yourself more time to assess the situation. If you respond to a call without thinking, you will be confronted with unexpected things. By allowing yourself that time, you can reduce the risk. Advice of Amsterdam police officer Jan Redegeld (Amsterdam) after a shooting incident where his fellow officer almost lost his life and he himself could barely save himself (ANPV-magazine, 1997). Introduction In 1986, Fyfe drew attention to what he called the split second syndrome: the feeling that since no two street situations are alike, it is impossible to train officers in other than very broad tactical skills. The split second syndrome is based on the mistaken idea that decisions officers make in dealing with dangerous situations are typically made in a fraction of a second, that there are no principles that may be applied to the diagnosis of specific situations; that police operate under such stresses and time constraints as to create a high percentage of inappropriate decisions; and that assessments of the justifiability of police conduct are most appropriately made on the exclusive basis of the perceptions of the immediate situation in which a decision has to be made (Fyfe, 1986). Analyses of incidents where police use force or are confronted with violence, tend to focus on a small, final, portion of a situation that actually begins when police becomes aware of the likelihood of confronting a violent person or dangerous situation. The work of Fyfe builds on the notion that in a potentially dangerous situation the final decision to shoot or to use force always follows earlier decisions taken in the situation. Research shows that in practice, many officers manoeuvre themselves into situations where the only option left to them is to shoot (Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink, 1994). Fyfe (interviewed in de Jong & Mensink, 1994) points to the fact that shooting is the result of , and usually the result of a situation where an officer had better acted differently. On the basis of data from the then Belgian Gendarmerie, Pauwels, Helsen, and Wuyts (1994) state that many situations where officers used their firearm could have been resolved with less use of force. They
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White Plains Police Department Analysis mention several examples of sins against rules that should apply in potentially dangerous situations, such as: Jumping (or remaining standing unnecessarily) in front of vehicles Giving chase at any price Disregarding opportunities to take cover Underestimating the risks attached to use of the fire-arm Neglecting the division of tasks with fellow officers For the Netherlands, these findings were confirmed by Timmer (1998). It is therefore important to realize that there are different phases in potentially dangerous police-citizen encounters. Scharf and Binder (1983) distinguish the following phases: 1. Anticipation the interval between becoming aware of the situation and arriving on the scne. 2. Entry and initial contact the interval between arriving on the scne and approaching the civilian. 3. Information exchange the phase during which, through verbal or non-verbal communication, officers and civilians assess each other and the situation by orders, threats or negotiations. 4. Physical tactics of regulation that may or may not include the use of (less-lethal) weapons. 5. Final frame decision, where officers decide whether or not to use their fire-arm. 6. Aftermath this phase includes both the period directly after the shoot- no shoot decision as well as the period thereafter, such as judicial inquiry, prosecution, future contacts between the officer and civilian concerned, contacts with colleagues, medical and psychological help, tactical analysis and reflection. This phase is not be neglected due to the potential for posttraumatic stress reactions. Pauwels et al. (1994) distinguish between just two phases, the initial and the situational phase. They show that when initial judgement meaning decisions taken before first (eye) contact with the suspect has taken place has been correct (i.e. effective), situational judgement is greatly simplified (Pauwels et al., 1994). They conclude that education should therefore explicitly address the initial judgement phase (Pauwels et al., 1994). Pauwels et al. (1994) recommend a learning setting that starts when officers become aware that they may encounter a potentially dangerous suspect. Compared with the Sharf and Binder model, these moments and circumstances are to be found in the first two phases of that model (anticipation and arrival, before initial contact). Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink (1994) made a similar proposal. He concludes that it is beneficial to include the approach- phase of use-of-force situations (the phase between becoming aware of a situation that requires attention and arrival at the scene) in training situations the moment officers are confronted with a life-threatening situation/ suspect, they no longer act on the basis of cognition but mechanically and instinctively (De Jong & Mensink, 1994, p. 42). Education and training should therefore address those moments and circumstances where they still have a choice what the best possible next step can be.
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Adang et al. (2006) report that even though (obviously) no two situations were exactly alike, it was possible to identify a limited number of typical situations that recurred again and again (with some variation) and constitute the larger part of potentially dangerous situations officers face . In the situations that formed part of the study, the following typical situations were identified Regarding disturbed individuals: Responding to a nuisance in public space Responding to a nuisance inside a building Helping a disturbed or suicidal individual Searching for, arresting or transferring a psychiatric patient to an institution Dealing with (groups of) youths Responding to a nuisance in public space Giving a ticket or a warning as part of a "zero tolerance" policy Policing night-time districts Responding to a fight in the street Responding to problems at the door of an establishment Giving a ticket or a warning as part of a "zero tolerance" policy
The observations indicated that, on average, there was a five-minute interval between police officers receiving a call from the control room and their arrival on the scene (range 0 to 15 minutes). The study showed that, in general, during this interval, officers did not formulate what the goal of their intervention should be (only in 18% of the cases did they formulate a goal), nor did they proceed methodically (only in 10% of the cases did they make some kind of plan) or use the opportunity to gather additional information prior to their arrival on the scene (only 13% of the cases was additional information requested). Generally, the officers in our study did not communicate with each other about how to act in the specific situation they were going to face (only 13% of the pairs did). Officers treated the situations in which they intervened as standalone incidents, rarely made connections with previous situations involving the same individuals or locations and made limited use made of information that was or could have been available to them. After the situations were dealt with, officers hardly ever reflected with each other about what had happened or about the best approach to specific types of incidents. The interviews with officers made clear that they did have opinions about what constitutes good practice, but that they rarely if ever communicated with each other about this. The study concluded that officers often do not use (or make) the time available to them to anticipate on potentially dangerous situations, even though similar types of situations occur regularly. The study also concluded that it is possible and feasible to formulate practically useful
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White Plains Police Department Analysis rules-of-thumb/good practices for regularly occurring typical situations, that would help officers being confronted with problematic situations or facing tough choices. More specifically, the study made the following recommendations: For each police station/ district/ department to analyse what the most typical potentially dangerous situations are in its working area. On the basis of this analysis, to structurally reflect on and discuss good practices for dealing with potentially dangerous situations in briefings and debriefings and to ensure that these good practices are being applied. On the basis of this analysis and a network analysis, to come to agreements with relevant third parties (local council, health services, etc) about responsibilities, division of tasks, exchange of information and cooperation in relation to identified potentially dangerous situations. To avoid treating incidents on a stand-alone basis and make sure relevant information is recorded and used. To do research into what constitutes good practice in dealing with specific types of potentially dangerous situations. To match advanced training to local needs and locally occurring potentially dangerous situations. To this purpose, police trainers should become involved in analysing police interventions in potentially dangerous situations and in reflections at police station level.
The conclusion is justified that police officers can do a better job anticipating potentially dangerous situations. This raises the question how best to prepare them to intervene in these types of situations. Learning to Deal with Potentially Dangerous Situations: An Educational Vision How best to prepare officers to deal with potentially dangerous situations requires an educational vision. The vision formulated below is based on Adang et al. (1996), de Jong and Mensink (1997), Pauwels et al. (1994), and Timmer et al. (1996). A potentially dangerous situation represent a problem to a police officer every time it occurs. To teach police officers to manage dangerous situations, their education and training should be aimed at increasing their problem solving skills. Skills in shooting/ handling weapons are only part of what is needed. Important is that actual transfer to practice takes place. This vision recognises the difference between the initial and situational judgement phases of police citizen encounters and emphasises: The importance of gaining experience The importance of linking to practice The role of emotions That to manage dangerous situations, officers do not only need motor skills, but also judgemental and decision-making skills and perceptual skills
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Gaining experience It is important for police officers to experience success, so that they learn what they can do in dangerous situations. Overwhelming officers with complicated life-threatening situations contributes more to creating feelings of fear and failure than to developing the practical intelligence needed for safe and responsible action. Using simulated problematic situations, allowing for positive, non-fatal outcomes, self-confidence may be enhanced. From this perspective, shooting practice at the shooting range in itself contributes little to shooting skills in practice, where more complex and wide ranging situations will be encountered. The emphasis in increasing experience should be on the build-up from simple to more complex. Linking to practice For optimal transfer the specific characteristics of real-life situations has to be taken into account. In training, these specifics have to be respected as much as possible. Characteristics of the most common dangerous situations encountered in practice should be dealt with. Especially inforce follow-up training should include local or regional characteristics and situations (De Jong & Mensink, 1994; Fyfe, 1989; Pauwels et al., 1994). Role of emotions Stress and emotions play a big role in dangerous situations. It is a well-known fact that decision making and judgemental processes are influenced strongly by stress and emotions. It is also known that, in stressful or fearful conditions, shooting accuracy of police officers declines. The education and training of officers should pay attention to these effects and skills should be taught to deal with stress and emotions. Solomon (as cited in De Jong & Mensink, 1997) distinguishes six stadia that officers need to understand to help regulate themselves and others in threatening circumstances: 1. Awareness of danger and problems 2. Awareness of vulnerability 3. Recognition of threat and a shift of attention from personal risk to conditions causing the threat 4. Choosing between a violence-reduction strategy and a self-defence strategy 5. Mental commitment to the chosen strategy and gathering courage to implement it 6. The response: the physical attempt to carry out the strategy The six stadia can be compressed in a short time span and will most often not be gone through in a conscious manner.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Skills needed Police officers need certain skills to be able to solve problems in dangerous situations. De Jong and Mensink (1997) point to Doerner (year), who indicates that manipulating the fire-arm and shooting accuracy may be compromised progressively in function of the way in which the learning situation approaches reality more closely. This is an indication of the fact that in shooting situations not only shooting accuracy, physical condition and contextual factors exert an influence, but also the judgemental skills of officers. Pauwels et al. (1994) characterize the firing of a shot as a failed attempt to gain control of a situation and they propose that training should therefore be aimed at gaining control of dangerous situations by way of preventive and positive actions. They distinguish between three types of skills (see also De Jong and Mensink, 1997). 1. Perceptual skills Pauwels et al. (1994) show differences exist in the way in which officers perceive potentially dangerous situations. The perceptions of highly experienced officers form a useful starting point for learning the assessment of situations. Their viewing patterns and judgement schemes on the relevance of information may serve as an example. Officers should be trained in observing potentially dangerous situations: what is relevant, where to look at, how to recognize danger? 2. Judgemental and decision skills Learning problem solving skills for dangerous situations is an ongoing process. Both attitudinal aspects as well as a methodical mindset are important. Attitudinal aspects include the basic principles for use-of-force, such as force as a last resort, legitimacy, reasonableness and proportionality. Decision making and judging situations are founded on these principles. 3. Motor skills Officers need to know and understand each others actions unequivocally. Whether or not they include the use of force, all actions to be used in dangerous situations need to be practiced. In addition to motor skills in the social context, motor skills related to manipulating use-of-force means/ weapons should be practiced. From the point of view of safety and shooting accuracy, technical and shooting related motor skills need to be practiced (see also De Jong and Mensink, 1997). Traditionally, use-of-force training is focused on motor skills and much less on judgemental and decision making skills, whereas minimal attention is given to training perception
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White Plains Police Department Analysis skills. Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink (1994), makes the case for a shooting training that starts at the moment: Officers become aware of the fact that they may be going to confront a potentially dangerous suspect. Starting from this awareness, the goal of the training is to teach officers to approach the situation in such a way that their protective task is maximized while their exposure to danger is minimized. This has to be done especially by restructuring the situation in such a way that shooting becomes less likely. To make this happen, it is imperative to pay more attention to the preliminary stages of potentially dangerous situations: from information gathering to making a goal/ means assessment, to assessing the risks involved in the situation, the recognition of emotions involved and the consideration of alternative options. On the basis of what we know about didactics and about shooting incidents, officer training in use of force should therefore not focus one-sidedly on final frame decisions (e.g. shoot/ dont shoot) but start with perception and preparation and include decision making. In this vision, education and training for the management of potentially dangerous police citizen encounters has to be situation oriented training in the sense that they are based on situations as they are encountered in practice, with the most typical situations included. Furthermore, the learning trajectory has to have a careful build-up: it should not be too complicated at the start (as this is too overwhelming). It is important that officers experience what they CAN achieve/ do and to avoid a wrong conditioning. Learning has to integrated in the sense that it does not only involve controlled use of force, but the management of potentially dangerous situations. Shooting is only a part of that. Specialist weapons and tactics teams (SWAT teams) are used to this kind of approach and seldom have to fire their weapon (Timmer, 1998). It is also important that learning is treated as a continuous process. The development of police officers towards problem solving managers of dangerous situations should never stop and periodically, officers should be tested if they meet the demands for a safe practitioner. The learning process that starts at the initial education should be continued within forces, both through advanced training as through learning in the work environment. Learning Tools There are several learning tools that need to be used with care with an eye to a correct transfer to professional practice. The main ones are: Traditional shooting range (training cognitive and motor skills in relation to shooting accuracy) Shoot simulators (training cognitive and motor skills in relation to shoot/ no-shoot decision making
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Hypermedia and network applications (independent learning and construction) Role play (training all necessary competences with a high level of realism) Shooting range: limitations knowledge
Traditionally, firearms training takes place at the shooting range. In a general sense it can be said that firearms training where students use their own weapon with live ammunition is preferable. However, this goes along with severe limitations: training can only be done at shooting ranges and it is not possible to train interactively (it is only possible to shoot at inanimate objects). To a certain extent and with some creativity, it is possible to progressively increase the difficulty and complexity of the training. This can be done by introducing time pressures and by varying the amount and complexity of information. Shoot simulation To avoid the limitations of shooting ranges, interactive shooting simulation systems have been developed. In a study on the use of a shoot simulation system (Fire-Arms Training System, FATS), de Jong and Mensink (1994), concluded that within a given time frame, at least 20% more shots can be fired in a training session compared to a shooting range training session. Given the goal of training for shooting accuracy to hit the intended target especially learning gains in relation to shooting with live ammunition are relevant. In that respect, de Jong and Mensink (1994) found no differences between the different types of training: only using live ammunition, only simulated shots, or a combination of the two. Based on these outcomes it is difficult to say how much use should be made of traditional shooting range for training in shooting accuracy. However, where shoot/ dont shoot decisions are concerned, De Jong and Mensink (1994) found clear differences between the different training conditions. The combination group (25% live, 75% simulation) showed the best results and the live-only group the worst. The use of shooting simulation in the curriculum means increased reality in education and as such fulfils the function of experience-based training. Certain conditions have to be met for a successful inclusion of a simulation system (De Jong & Mensink, 1994). The situations included in the simulations should be constructed for optimal learning effects, the system should be taken seriously and not treated as a game and the level of artificiality should be kept low. Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink (1994), critically commented the use of shooting simulators. According to him shooting simulators maximise artificiality. There is no interaction with real individuals (although this can be countermanded in part by human contact in front of the screen) and even with branching, the system does not react the way real life situations develop. Digital shooting simulators are more flexible than the first generation shooting
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White Plains Police Department Analysis simulators. They allow a much more rapid and flexible production of scenarios that can more easily be adapted. Of course the needs depend on the goals of the fire arms training and the teaching aids deployed. As of yet, there is no comparative research into available digital shooting simulators. Shooting simulators can be used to teach both shooting accuracy as well as shoot/ no shoot decision making. It is important to distinguish between these two types of use in relation to the difficulty of the information offered. In learning to shoot accurately (hitting the target one aims at) the difficulty of the information provided may range from simple circles to complex life-like situations where a suspect who is located within a larger group of people has to be hit. With regard to the last type of situation it can be questioned in how far this is a realistic option, given criteria for legitimate use of lethal force. The training of shooting decision making does not benefit from these types of 'duck-shooting'. The danger is that a shooting simulator becomes or is seen more as a game than as a learning tool and that practicing shooting accuracy has a negative impact on training shooting decision making. As far as the difficulty of the information presented for the training in shooting decision making, shooting simulators have less to offer. The amount of information, time pressure in the strength of stimuli can be varied through different scenarios. However, the artificiality of the information or stimuli may restrict transfer to practice. The information is presented interactively. However, interaction only takes place as a result of the decision to shoot or not to shoot, i.e. through the firing of the gun (be it a laser-gun or live fire). A more indirect form of interaction can be achieved when the trainer responds to the behaviour/ decisions of the officer (verbal commands, movement etc.). This type of interaction is difficult to achieve in a more direct manner, especially because it is virtually impossible to embed all possible verbal and nonverbal actions through branching. For this type of interaction role play is much more adequate, because interactions develop much more naturally. The real power or benefit of shooting simulation can be found in the professional conversation, the evaluation of the actions of police officers in the simulated situation. De Jong and Mensink (1997) tried to answer the question with what intensity simulationaided instruction could be incorporated responsibly in the initial training of police students. An experimental group received 34% traditional shooting range training and 66% simulation training, a control group received 50% traditional shooting range training and 50% simulation training. There were no clear differences in results. The main conclusion of the researchers was that the breaking up of initial education into separate sequential modules (with shooting training concentrated in one module) could lead to diminished learning outcomes (especially in relation to safety procedures) compared to a situation where shooting training occurs over a longer time period through the course of initial education over. The authors therefore recommended to regularly repeat training of safe handling of the weapon.
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As a result of the training, students became more aware of the criteria and reasons they use in justifying their decisions in life threatening situations. There were no indications that use of simulation was more effective in this respect compared to other forms of instruction. Because of the difference between students that followed the module and experienced officers, de Jong and Mensink (1997) recommend advanced training that includes more than shooting accuracy training. The training for experienced officers should focus especially on decision making in different phases of dealing with potentially dangerous situations and include inter-vision and exchange between colleagues. In an interesting paper on use-of-force simulation training, Bennell et al. (2007), notes that cognitive load theory suggests that in order for this training to be effective, instructional methods must facilitate the acquisition and automation of task-relevant schemas without overwhelming the limited processing capacity of the learner. They point to the urgent need to assess how the knowledge gained from cognitive load theory might serve to enhance the effectiveness of use-of-force simulation training as currently, there is little evidence that use-offorce simulation training is effective in minimizing unnecessary cognitive demands, enhancing schema acquisition, or carefully managing the inherent complexity of the to-be-learned material (Bennell et al., 2007). Role play According to Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink (1994), in role play, officers have more options to choose their own approach and to respond to real (unpredictable) (re)actions of an opponent than in a videogame. In other words, role play gives the best opportunities to simulate reality, without sacrificing credibility. Of course, effectiveness depends on the way in which role play is organised and implemented. Fyfe (1998) did research on the effects of a training in Florida where dealing with potentially dangerous situations was practiced using role play. First, an explanation was given, after which several role plays were executed. These were recorded on video and discussed afterwards. The result of this training was a reduction of violence used against these officers with 30-50%. Fyfe (1998) concluded that, in addition to a good introduction, the discussion after role play was a critical success factor. Pauwels et al. (1994) add to this combined exercises with use of tactical procedures are best done on suitable terrain using role play (p.73). Role play can be used very flexibly when one pays attention to the different aspects related to the difficulty of the information presented. In role play, it is easy to vary on all relevant aspects (amount and nature of information, stimulus strength, time pressure). Only the
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White Plains Police Department Analysis way in which the information is presented is fixed: interactively. Role play can be used at any time to teach police officers to deal with potentially dangerous situations. Computer assisted learning provides many opportunities. Multimedia applications make use of animations, moving images, video and sound. Hypermedia refers to texts connected via links in combination with multimedia elements. In addition to tailor made educational programs, digital works of references can be used either online or offline to assist learning. Given the place of computers and the internet within present-day society, these types of independent, learning where the responsibility for the learning process lies with police officers themselves, offers lots of possibilities for the future. The power and flexibility of multi- and hypermedia applications makes it easy to vary the difficulty of the information presented. The power and flexibility of these applications are also their main pitfall. Often, too much is expected from these applications by teachers, end-users and decision makers. This is especially true when they are implemented as stand-alone learning tools, where the programmes serve to replace part of the curriculum. Give the learning goals, it is only to be expected that a multi- or hypermedia application can never fully replace an existing learning means, but rather has to serve to support and strengthen other elements of the curriculum.
Networks
National and international networks can provide access to a variety of knowledge centres. These knowledge centres can relate to laws and regulations, jurisprudence, information on relevant topics etc. Just as is the case for multi- and hypermedia applications, no general criteria exist for these types of applications. Information may be bought or developed dependent on officers information needs. The flexibility of the information offered depends on two factors: on the way the database is built and on the program providing access to the network.
Teachers
Use of new teaching tools within a curriculum will involve a larger amount of integration within use-of-force training than is currently the case. As far as network and computer assisted applications is concerned, the role of teacher will shift from source of knowledge and being responsible for the transfer of knowledge to coaching officers in knowledge construction. This is the logical consequence of the increasing independence in the learning process typical for these learning tools. In addition to this shift in tasks, the task teachers that are involved with simulation aided training in marksmanship and judgemental, will remain essentially the same. According to Pauwels et al. (1994), the core of the task of teachers in this respect is to reduce the amount of information into meaningful chunks and to focus on the core aspects. Fyfe, interviewed in de Jong & Mensink (1994) emphasises that simulation, in whatever form, is an artificial representation of reality and that it is the task of the trainer to minimize that artificiality.
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It is not reasonable to expect from teachers to possess all professional skills in addition to their didactic/pedagogical competences. Their task in the learning process of officers is to explicitly link the different areas to optimally integrate different skills and to achieve maximum transfer to practice. Before using any learning tool, the goal of the tool, its place in the curriculum and the way it is used should be made clear to officers, teachers and supervisors. Implementing the Situation Oriented Approach As a result of this vision, over the past few years several initiatives have been taken in the Netherlands. In 1998, the Dutch Police Inspectorate noted that the use of firearms is the ultimate means of coercion available to a police officer and recommended that firearm proficiency should no longer be viewed in isolation, but should be seen as one aspect of a broader form of in-service training including practice in other professional police skills such as situation management techniques, use of other means of coercion, theoretical knowledge etc. (Lucardie, 1998, p 79). The entitlement to carry and use a firearm should be subject to the possession of a fixed term certificate following the assessment of professional skills (not just firearms proficiency). Accordingly, a nationally mandated compulsory test was introduced (RTGP) which officer had to pass twice yearly. The test included firearms proficiency, theoretical knowledge related to use of force and a test of self-defense and arrest skills. Granting that this test was an advance, unfortunately, it did not require police officers to show they were able to manage potentially dangerous situations adequately. The test was seen as addressing minimum requirements and fear was that a more practice-oriented test would require more training hours (Stel et al., 2009). However, in recent years the need for a more practice and situation-oriented approach to testing was felt and competencies were formulated for officers dealing with (potentially) violent situations.15 These competences involve: problem-analytical skills (eg. the ability to recognise problems or critical situations at an early stage and the ability to process information), communication skills, operational effectiveness skills (eg. the ability to deal with stress, the ability to act decisively), motivational skills (eg. the ability to focus on getting results, selfreflection abilities) and cooperative skills. As from 2011, as a first step, the two-yearly proficiency test includes a situation in which officers have to intervene. They can only pass the test if they show the competencies mentioned above. In the meantime, sseveral forces have taken initiatives to do more than the minimum requirements and provide additional situationoriented learning opportunities for their officers, e.g.:
In 2002, all education at the Police of the Netherlands became competency based. Strangely enough, it took until 2010 before specific competencies were formulated in relation to dealing with (potentially) dangerous situations
15
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White Plains Police Department Analysis By requiring patrol officers to train together with other officers from their police station (including their commanding officer) rather than having officers attend training on an individual basis; By focusing more on role-play than on simulations; By organizing team-based reflections on the professional approach to the management of specific incidents or potentially dangerous situations in general, and include police trainers in these reflections (de Blauw et al., 2008); By preparing officers specifically for situations they will encounter on a regular basis, eg in night-time districts (van der Torre et al., n.d.).
To be easily applicable at the level of patrol officers, the principles of the situationoriented approach were formulated in the form of an easy to internalize goal-approach analysis (Adang & Timmer, 1998). This goal-approach analysis now forms the basis of all use-of-force education and training (both basic and advanced) in the Netherlands and every officer is taught that before approaching a potentially dangerous situation he should answer five basic questions to himself (which can be done in a minute, if needed, but usually there is more time): 1. what is my goal? 2. what are the risks involved in this situation? 3. do I have the authority to act? 4. do I have the skills/ equipment/ possibility to act? 5. how do I approach the situation/ what is my plan? Partners should then communicate with each other about their goal-approach analysis. To assist this development, several CDs have been produced for officers to practice with the methodology in a safe way. Also a learning text was produced for teachers with cases derived from practice to be used in police officer training. The learning tools and a database of good practices is made available through a nationally available Police Knowledge Net maintained at the Police Academy. The learning text and provides representative situations where police officers felt that at some point they had to resort to use of their firearm are presented in different phases: Initial phase: a description of the initial situation or report made to police Situational phase: entry, arrival on the scene and first contact, gathering of information. The situational phase starts as soon as the danger becomes manifest, the first contact is made with the suspect and there is an exchange of information Situational phase part two, where police actions take place Aftermath
The description of each situation is followed by questions that specifically relate to the situation and can be used by teachers to start discussion and address knowledge-related aspects. Every situation finishes with relevant points of attention that can be used in discussing the specific case. The points of attention always include judicial, technical/ tactical specs, organizational aspects and behavioural perspectives. Teachers are suggested to use the cases in
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White Plains Police Department Analysis such a way that students first make a goal approach analysis, phase by phase, in a classroom setting and that after discussing their answers, they are then presented with other learning situations achieving a careful build-up from simple to complex by varying the amount of information offered to students, the nature of the information, the strength of stimuli, time pressure and the way in which information is presented: static (slide, video still), dynamic (video) or interactively (simulator, role play). Eventually, students will be given the opportunity to implement their own action plan with teachers providing feedback. Dependent on the goal perception, motor skills, judgement and decision making skills or a combination of these will be emphasized. In addition, the research program Managing dangerous situations has been set up with the specific purpose to study the interaction between police and civilians in a variety of potentially dangerous conflict situations. It includes research on use-of -force issues (e.g. the use of fire-arms and less-lethal weapons), crisis communication and hostage negotiation, riots, public order management and crowd management. The research program analyzes how police and citizens regulate their position in cooperation and in competition with each other by means of their communicative and interactive behaviors. The aim of the research program is to gain insight into the regulation of conflicts and social tension and to contribute to a better management of potentially dangerous situations. It has already led to a large number of publications and examples where good practices have been identified and implemented in practice, e.g. in relation to the introduction of pepper-spray in the Dutch police, dealing with interethnic tensions, and dealing with small and large-scale public order problems around New Years eve (Adang et al., 2010; Adang & Mensink, 2004; Adang & van der Torre, 2007; Kop & Euwema, 2007).
References Adang, O.M.J. & F.H.A.J. van Liempt. (1996). Voorkomen en beheersen van geweld. PIOV legt meer nadruk op probleemoplossing, Algemeen Politieblad, nr. 6, 16 maart 1996, pp. 22-23. Adang, O.M.J., J. ter Huurne, F. H. A. J. v. Liempt & D. Spaans. (1996). Kwaliteit in Veiligheid. Leren met betrekking tot geweldstoepassing door de politie: een nieuwe visie. (Hoogerheide, PIOV) Adang, O.M.J., & J.S. Timmer. (1998, revised version 2005). Beheersing van gevaar. Praktijkboek voor de opleiding van vuurwapendragenden en de toetsing van geweldstoepassing. 's-Gravenhage, Elsevier bedrijfsinformatie
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Adang, O.M.J., N. Kop, H. Ferwerda, J. Heijnemans, W. Olde Nordkamp, P. de Paauw & K. van Woerkom. (2006). Omgaan met conflictsituaties: op zoek naar goede werkwijzen bij de politie. Politie en Wetenschap nr 30. Uitgeverij Kerkebosch, Zeist Adang, O.M.J. & J. Mensink (2004) Pepper spray: An unreasonable response to suspect verbal resistance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 27 (2), 206-219. Adang, O., H. Quint, H., & R. van der Wal (2010). Zijn wij anders? Waarom Nederland geen grootschalige etnische rellen heeft. Stapel & de Koning, Apeldoorn Adang, O.M.J & E.J. van der Torre, Eds. (2007). Hoezo rustig?! Een onderzoek naar het verloop van jaarwisselingen in Nederland. Politieacademie, Apeldoorn Bayley, D.H. (1986). The tactical choices of patrol officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 14, 329-348. Bennell, C., N.J. Jones & S. Corey (2007). Does use-of-force simulation training in Canadian police agencies incorporate principles of effective training? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law,13 (1), 3558. Blauw, H. de., R. Holvast & S. Algra (2008). Professioneel handelen. Evaluatie workshops, juni 2007 januari 2008 Regiopolitie Haaglanden, bureau Zoetermeer. Politieacademie, Apeldoorn Fyfe, J.J. (1986). The Split-Second Syndrome and Other Determinants of Police Violence in Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings. 3rd ed. edited by Dunham, R.G and G.P. Alpert (Eds.) Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc, 531-546. Fyfe, J.J. (1989). Police/citizen violence reduction project, FBI-law enforcement bulletin, (58) 5, p. 18-23. Fyfe, J.J. (1998). De split second beslissing is een mythe. Politieel geweldgebruik in kritieke situaties is vaak te voorkomen. Algemeen Politieblad, nr. 9, 14-16. Helsen, W. F., & Starkes, J. L. (1999). A new training approach to complex decision making for police officers in potentially dangerous interventions. Journal of Criminal Justice,27, 395410.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis Jong, F.P.C.M., de & J. Mensink (1994). Scherp of niet scherp...: Een onderzoek naar het gebruik van een schietsimulator. Amersfoort: Landelijk Selectie en Opleidingsinstituut Politie. Jong, F.P.C.M., de geweldsbenadering, -instructie Amersfoort: LSOP & J. Mensink, en de noodzaak (1997). De complexiteit van van (onderwijskundig) onderzoek,
Kop, N., & Euwema, M. (2007). Conflict op straat: strijden of mijden? Marokkaanse en Antilliaanse jongeren in interactie met de politie. Stapel & de Koning, Politie & wetenschap, Apeldoorn Lucardie, R.J.J. (1998). Schietvaardigheid. Een onderzoek naar de mate van geoefendheid van de Nederlandse politie in het gebruik van het vuurwapen. Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken, Den Haag Pauwels, J.M., Helsen, W., & Wuyts, P. (1994). Perceptie en actie in gevaarsituaties. Een onderzoeksproject van de Generale staf van de Rijkswacht in samenwerking met de Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Brussel/Leuven: Rijkswacht/KU Leuven. Scharf, P., & Binder, A. (1983). The Badge and the Bullet. New York: Praeger Publishers. Stel, E.L.A.C., de Groot, R. M., Bervoets, E., van der Torre, E. J., & Visser, J. M. I. (2009). De Regeling Toetsing Geweldsbeheersing Politie Een evaluatie en behoefte-onderzoek. COT Instituut voor Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement, Den Haag Timmer, J. (1999). Politiewerk in gevaarsituaties. Omgaan met agressie en geweld van burgers in het basispolitiewerk. Alphen aan den Rijn: Samsom. Timmer, J.S., Naey, J., & van der Steeg, M. (1996). Onder Schot Vuurwapengebruik van de politie in Nederland, Gouda Quint, Deventer Van der Torre, E.J., van Duin, M. J., & van der Torre-Eilbert, T.B.W.M. (n.d.). Beproefde patronen: de politile aanpak van geweld op de Korenmarkt. LokaleZaken
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Appendix II. Strategies
Stress Management Training the F.I.T.: Feelings, Inputs,
The contents of this appendix are based on Chapter 7 of Critical Issues in Police Training, M.R. Haberfeld, Pearson Publishing, 2002, 2011.
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1.1. Critical Incident Stress (C.I.S.) Definition - as a Source of Misguided Approach to Training In the past, most studies of stress in law enforcement focused exclusively on postshooting trauma. Kureczka (1996) identified a number of other traumatic events, collectively known as critical stress incidents. His definition encompasses any event that has a stressful impact sufficient to overwhelm theusually effective coping skills of an individual. Among the events listed are a line of duty death or serious injury of a co-worker, a police suicide, an officer involved shooting in a combat situation, a life threatening assault on an officer, a death or serious injury caused by an officer, an incident involving multiple deaths, a traumatic death of a child, a barricaded suspect/hostage situation, a highly profiled media event, or any other incident that appears critical or questionable. According to Kureczka, the definition of a critical incident must remain fluid because what affects one officer might not affect another. This particular assumption is extremely valid for the expanded definition of the C.I.S., which will be presented in the next section of this paper. In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association formally recognized the existence of a disorder, similar to what was frequently referred by the Military as a battle fatigue, which became known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Symptoms of the disorder include intrusive recollections, excessive stress arousal, withdrawal, numbing, and depression. Pierson (1989) claims that critical stress affects up to 87 percent of all emergency service workers at least once in their careers. Critical incident stress manifests itself physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Walker (1990) provides a slightly different definition of a critical incident and describes it as any crisis situation that causes emergency personnel, family members, or bystanders to respond with immediate or delayed stress-altered physical, mental, emotional, psychological, or social coping mechanisms. She recognizes the need for critical incident stress debriefing procedures, using Mitchells(1983) process, which includes the elements of factual description of the event, emotional ventilation, and identification of stress response symptoms.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis 2.2 Stress Management Training as a Function of an Ill Defined Problem The approaches to the C.I.S., as defined above, are among the prevalent definitions of the problem, and the Stress Management training modules, devised by and for various law enforcement training academies rely heavily on those definitions. Finn and Esselman Tomz (1997) published a thorough manual about developing law enforcement stress programs, however, this publication seems to suffer from a similar disease the multiple and intangible definitions. The over-reliance on fluid and elusive terms on one hand and, on a infinite host of traditional traumatic events (like shootings, deaths, injuries, etc.) on the other, provides for a misguided approach to training. The problems enveloped in the C.I.S. are ill defined and inadequate. First, one cannot devise an effective training module if one cannot define, and define precisely, what it is that you would like your recruits to be trained in, against, for, etc. Undoubtedly there are a number of good definitions, offered by the researchers, however, those definitions cover only a small percent of the problematic issues involved in critical stress incident. If, as the researchers claim, the definition must remain fluid, since what constitutes a critical incident for one officer might not affect another, then the only rational conclusion is that we must abandon the stress management training since we are targeting only a very small percentage of our audience. It is extremely difficult to identify with certain situations, that are supposed to generate feelings and emotions, when one cannot generate those feelings and emotions since the situations presented are not relevant to ones emotional buildup. The theoretical depiction of the events, in a given training environment, no matter how realistic and potent, remains theoretical for a significant segment of the audience. The examples, mentioned by the researchers, like the death of your partner, death of a child, traumatic media event, etc. remain in the sphere of unreal, since the training is offered to the recruits who still do not have a partner, most of them do not have a child, and they cannot possibly envision the power and influence of the media on their daily performance. When the stress management training is offered only to the officers who are already on the force, then the new recruits enter the work force exposed to the dangers of being affected by the C.I.S. and having no coping mechanism what so ever, nor the ability to recognize the danger. To emphasize how important a definition of a problem is, to an effective training module, one might want to examine a number of the traditional training topics, like for example stress during the night fire (training module offered by the New Orleans Police Department). It is impossible to envision this training module being offered to anybody without a clear definition of the problem which would probably include the fact that this stress could only be developed under night light circumstances if on the other hand this particular module would start with a fluid and elusive definition - like, you might encounter this stress during the night shooting or maybe also in other circumstances the effectiveness of the module becomes highly
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White Plains Police Department Analysis questionable. Therefore, the current Stress Management Training, as and when, offered to law enforcement officers, is clearly a product of an ill defined problem.
2.3.
Redefining Critical Incident Stress Its a Cop thing. You Wouldnt Understand.
The new, and expanded, definition of Critical Incident Stress offered in this paper, is based on the assumption that police officers, en mass, join law enforcement agencies to serve and protect the public from the so called bad guys. These sentiments were adequately defined by researchers. Crank (1998)believes that police see themselves as representatives of a higher morality embodied in a blend of American traditionalism, patriotism, and religion. According to Sykes (1986) as moral agents, police view themselves as guardians whose responsibility is not simply to make arrests but to roust out societys trouble makers. They perceive themselves to be a superior class (Hunt & Magenau, 1993), or as people on the side of angels, the sense of us vs. them that develops between cops and the outside world forges a bond between cops whose strength is fabled (Bouza, 1990). Police believe themselves to be a distinct occupational group, apart from society (Van Maanen, 1974). This belief stems from their perception that their relationship with the public, with brass, and with the courts is less than friendly, sometimes adversarial. As outsiders, officers tend to develop a we-them attitude, in which the enemy of the police tends to shift from the criminal element to the general public (Sherman, 1982). Police are haunted by accountability. They are in an occupation where situations in which they intervene are unpredictable, and sometimes they have to make rapid-fire judgments in emotional circumstances. Cops know that they will make many mistakes for which they would be publicly rebuked by any of a number of groups, the press, civic organizations, departmental brass. Each of these is an influential actor in the cops world and career (Crank, 1998). Furthermore, they joined the force to serve and protect all those influential actors, who are scrutinizing, so frequently, their performance. To serve and protect entails, at least in an officers mind, to deliver justice. In other words the good guys (the police officers) are here to enable us (members of the society) to live in a civilized manner, protected, or at least being under constitutional certainty entitled to the protection, from the bad guys. This profound, sometimes taken for granted, sub-conscious belief enables us to function on a daily basis, without looking over our shoulders for predators and enemies. This sense of security is almost build-into our civilized systems, we know that around us there is this invisible fence of protection provided by law enforcement officers. Of course, sometimes, we do experience some erosion in the sense of this build in security, predominantly when we are involved in a incident, from which we emerge injured, physically, psychologically or both, since there was nobody out there to protect us, on an immediate basis.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis This sense of insecurity could be extremely traumatic, for the rest of the persons life, and frequently one cannot regain the build-in feeling of security. Police officers, despite serving as protectors from evil and messengers of justice, no matter how symbolic, have the same build in need for security and justice, even though they are supposed to provide these needs for themselves. They are fully prepared, at least mentally to do so, however, very frequently, as opposed to a citizen, they face the reality of danger and injustice. From these assumptions, a new and expanded definition for C.I.S. is presented as: Critical Stress Incident can be generated by any situation /encounter with a citizen, peer, organization or others, from which a police officer emerges with a feeling/perception that justice has not been served for him and or the others. The sense of being on the right side, on the side of the angels crumbles when the officer realizes that, although he or she is expected to provide justice for others (again in a symbolic way by serving and protecting the good citizens from the bad ones) there is no justice for him or her. The build-in mechanism which produces the faulty, but effective, sense of safety and security disintegrates, the sense of fairness disappears, leaving a residue of fear and cynicism, a proven formula for stress and in the most extreme cases police suicide. 3. MASLOWS NEED HIERARCHY REVISITED 3.1. The Missing Link in Maslows Need Hierarchy as the Root Cause of Deficient Training Probably one of the most widespread motivational theories, in use, is the one developed by Maslow (1954). He postulated that peoples needs were exceedingly complex and were arranged in a hierarchy. His theory of motivation is based on the assumption that human beings are motivated by a number of basic needs that are clearly identifiable as species-wide, unchanged, and instinctual. This theory identified five need categories: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization. 1. Physiological the strongest and most fundamental needs that sustain life. These include: food, shelter, sex, air, water, and sleep. 2. Security emerge once the basic needs are fulfilled. The dominant security needs are primarily the need for reasonable order and stability, and freedom from being anxious and insecure. 3. Social (or the original Belongingness and Love Needs) with the fulfillment of the physiological and security needs, the social needs emerge. Human beings will strive for affiliation with others, for a place in a group, and will attempt to achieve this goal with a great deal of intensity.
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White Plains Police Department Analysis 4. Esteem there are two categories of esteem needs the first is self-esteem, including such factors as the need for independence, freedom, confidence, and achievement. The second is respect from others and includes the concepts of recognition, prestige, acceptance, status, and reputation. 5. Self-Actualization when most of the esteem needs are fulfilled, then what man can be, he must be. This is the stage of self-actualization characterized by the need to develop feelings of growth and maturity, become increasingly competent, and gain a mastery over situations. Motivation is totally internalized and external stimulation is unnecessary. Maslow did not view the hierarchy of need as a series of levels, totally independent. In fact, the categories overlap and are not entirely precise. He suggested that the unsatisfied needs influence peoples behavior. Since the initial research, Maslow developed a new list of needs identified as growth needs- (social, self-esteem, and self- actualization) as compared to basic needs (physiological and safety). The higher, or the growth needs, utilize the basic needs as a foundation. These higher or growth needs are: wholeness, perfection, completion, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, beauty, goodness, uniqueness, effortlessness, playfulness, truth, and self-sufficiency. (The need for justice can be related to the sense of injustice discussed above). These values are interrelated and cannot be separated. One should not make a mistake of thinking that by satisfying one need, like good salary, will automatically transform all employees into growing, self-actualized individuals. When the needs are not fulfilled the lack of satisfaction generates certain behavioral patterns. Unfulfilled physiological needs can generate pain, suffering, possible impairment, discomfort or illness. Unsatisfied security needs might cause stress, anxiety, fearfulness, trepidation of fright. Feelings of being alone, remote, sad, or unloved can be caused by lack of social needs. Insecurity, lack of a firm belief in ones own power may be a result of unfulfilled self-esteem needs. Finally, when the self-actualization needs are missing the result is alienation, bitterness, frustration or feeling of uselessness. What appears to be missing from Maslows typology, is one basic need that could probably be included in the category of basic needs physiological and security (or safety). This need is the need to communicate or to put it in more plain terms the need to speak ones mind. As much as a human being needs food, shelter, sex, air, water, and sleep he/she also needs to express his/her unique thought process. From the early times, in the most ancient archeological sites, it is pretty apparent, then even back than in those challenging times, when the time was devoted primarily, if not exclusively, to the satisfaction of the basic needs 76
White Plains Police Department Analysis physiological and safety people found time to paint and draw the first primitive form of expression of their thought processes. The need to speak or to communicate enables people to move on to the next stage of Maslows hierarchy - to fulfill their social, self-esteem, and selfactualization needs or the higher/growth needs. The missing link in Maslows hierarchy, should be, therefore, added to the pyramid and the proposed new pyramid should include THE NEED TO COMMUNICATE INSERTED BETWEEN THE PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED AND THE SECURITY NEED. Presented below are the two pyramids: # 1 Maslows Hierarchy of Need and # 2 Haberfelds Missing Link Hierarchy of Need:
# 1. Maslows SELF ACTUALIZATION ESTEEM SOCIAL SECURITY PHYSIOLOGICAL
# 2.
Haberfelds
SELF ACTUALIZATION ESTEEM SOCIAL SECURITY COMMUNICATION PHYSIOLOGICAL
The communication needs are broken into two, rough, sub-categories: the need to talk (which may include and or be substituted by other forms of expressions of ones thought process like drawing, painting, writing, etc.) and the more specific form of the need to express the thought process THE NEED TO VENT YOUR FRUSTRATIONS, TO COMPLAIN, TO RELIEF ONESELF FROM THE UNRESOLVED FEELINGS, PROBLEMS, AND DILEMAS. If the communication needs are not fulfilled they will influence the other needs, both basic and higher, to the point where dysfunctional behavior will take precedence over any other need, including the need to survive and stay alive. 3.2 The Safety or Security Need (Category) and Stigma
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White Plains Police Department Analysis If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, the new set of needs emerges, what Maslow referred to as the Safety Needs. The human organism may be wholly dominated by them similar to the physiological needs, although in less degree of desires. Nevertheless, the Safety Needs may serve as the almost exclusive organizers of behavior, recruiting all the capacities of the organism in their service, which then can be described as a safety-seeking mechanism. Practically everything looks less important than safety, a man in this state, if extreme enough and chronic enough, may be characterized as living almost for safety alone. To understand clearly the safety needs of an adult one could look at infants and children. One reason for the clearer appearance of the threat or danger reaction in infants is that they do not inhibit it at all costs. Thus even when adults do feel their safety to be threatened, we may not be able to see this on the surface. The healthy normal, fortunate adult in our culture is largely satisfied in his safety needs. The peaceful, smoothly running, good society ordinarily makes it members feel safe enough from wild animals, extremes of temperature, criminal assault, murder, tyranny, etc. Therefore, in a very real sense, he no longer has any safety needs as active motivators (Maslow, 1954). Law enforcement officers, however, are not as free from safety needs as the rest of our society. Danger is a poorly understood phenomenon of police work. Police officers believe that their work is dangerous, though their perception differs from simplistic media fare. Officers will describe brief moments of terror in the midst of long periods of routine activity. Danger is not sought and not lied, but recognized as an inevitable accompaniment of their work. Danger is a central theme of police work, and thinking about and preparing for danger are central features of the police culture. It is not the actual danger that causes the fear so much as the potential for danger infused in their working environment. Practically anything can happen on the streets! (Crank, 1998). If one adopts Maslows theory that a persons organism can become wholly dominated by the need for safety, than another simple notion should also be recognized. A counseling session, a therapy, a peer support group, or any other environment that contains a potential stigma for being weak and fearful will be met with complete resentment on the part of the law enforcement officers. They spend their days and night preparing to deal with the danger, to protect other and themselves, a sign of weakness (which be associated with any reach out for help whether external or internal) will immediately decrease perceived ability to face the danger in a boisterous and forceful way. The officers who are willing to admit that they need the offered support inadvertently admit their weakness, they are stigmatized not so much in the eyes of the others but first and foremost in their own view and perception. This is the reason
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White Plains Police Department Analysis why counseling and support sessions, in the format offered today, are not as effective as they might have been, if approached from a different angle. 3.3 The self-esteem Needs (Category) and Label Maslow, describes the overall desire of people for self esteem: All people in our society (with a few pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based, usually high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others. These needs may be classified into tow subsidiary sets. First set the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom. Second set the desire for reputation and prestige (defining it as respect or esteem from other people), status, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, or appreciation. Thwarting of these needs produces feelings of inferiority, of weakness, and of helplessness (Maslow, 1954, pp. 90-91). Police officer strives for the desire for strength more than an average person. His/her primary orientation is skewed towards and pictured as a portrait of strength. One does not picture in his/her mind a law enforcement officer as somebody in need of help and/or support such a picture would defy the entire image of a police officer, an image so crucially important to our own safety needs. Needless to say, this image is also crucially important to the officers own safety needs. The desire for reputation and prestige can be only satisfied if an officer is perceived as strong and invincible. If the officer admits to the need of counseling or any other form of support this need will turn into a life lasting label - and this label will forever prevent him/her from fulfilling the self-esteem needs. 4. THE NEW APPROACH
4.1 Introducing the F.I.T. Model (FEELINGS-INPUTS-TACTICS) It is not this authors intention to ignore or reduce the importance of counseling , peer support, or any other stress relief technique that is being offered to law enforcement officers. To the contrary, by introducing the missing link in Maslows theory the need to communicate and to vent the crucial significance of the right platform to express ones feeling cannot be overstated. However, the key words here are the right platform! As previously stated, it
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White Plains Police Department Analysis appears that we are dealing more with the wrong terminology and approach than with a faulty concept. The words: support, counseling, stress management, etc. all connote and allude to stigma and label of being weak, less than able to perform the dangerous job, maybe even a danger to others who count on his/her strength during the potentially dangerous encounters, in short less than adequate to be a police officer. On the other hand, however, the need to express ones frustrations, fears, dissatisfaction, and the overall sense of injustice is present, in police work more than in any other environment. What is therefore the right platform to vent the feelings, get some input from others, and maybe a tip or two how to deal with the injustice? Based on years of experience in and with law enforcement the only reasonable answer seems to be a built in mechanism that will not stand out as a stigmatic venture for a given individual. The same way time is made for officers to participate in biweekly Compstat Meetings, the same way time is made for roll-call training, time must be set aside for all the members of a given agency to participate in meetings during which individuals will take turn in revealing their feelings of injustice. Time should be provided for inputs from other participants, as well as tips and tactics as to how to deal with a given injustice in the future. Nobody should be excluded from those meetings, or excused for any reason. Even members who feel that they have nothing to share with others have to participate, the same way as in any other mandatory meeting or activity, regardless of the enthusiasm or willingness. Only by securing the attendance of the entire personnel of a given agency it will be possible to get rid of the stigma, the label, and providefor a productive and preventive forum. Brief overview of the implementation techniques follows. 4.2 Implementation target a. Academy It is beyond the scope of this proposal to provide detailed training modules of the F.I.T. model, it should be analyzed and customized by each academy and agency. The significance of the model presented lies not in detailed modules, but in introducing the new, quite radical concept, that could potentially change the overall morale of police personnel. To be able to destigmatized the idea of stress management, counseling, and peer support the basic concepts of the F.I.T. model must be introduced during the academy training. Officers have to be exposed to and familiarize with the definition of C.I.S. as presented above, absorb the potential for encounters in which justice has not been served and introduced to the build-in, mandatory mechanism of self-defense (the F.I.T.) model, the same way that they are introduced to other mechanisms of physical self defense. Physical self-defense is by no means labeled or stigmatized during the academy training, to the contrary the more able one becomes in physical self-defense techniques the more one is admired by other officers. There is
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White Plains Police Department Analysis no reason why the same admiration could not be bestowed upon officers skilled in psychological self-defense techniques. b. In-Service
Once the F.I.T. model is introduced during the academy training the in-service implementation becomes problematic only as far as the actual logistics of the meetings are concerned, in relation to men-power. It is quite obvious that in a smaller agency the logistic will differ quite significantly from the ones in a large organization. This is why the detailed module is not feasible, nevertheless, following is a general (generic) contour of such meeting that can be customized by each and every agency. I. Meetings are scheduled on a regular basis (same way as Compstat meetings or roll-call meetings are). Only in emergency situations meetings will be canceled but must be rescheduled within a reasonable time period. The frequency of meeting will depend on the men-power situation in a given agency, however, should occur not less than once a month. Emphasis must be placed on the fact that the meetings are mandatory for the entire sworn personnel of a given organization. Nobody will be excluded or excused, no matter how resistant to the idea. Same way an officer needs to qualify twice a year or more to maintain the fire-arms or to go through in-house 40 hours of training to maintain his/her certification as a sworn officer, nobody will be re-certified without attending a certain number of the F.I.T. meetings. Depending on the organizational culture of the department the meeting can be arranged either by ranks or mixed. Nobody is going to be a designated leader of a given meeting, or trained as a counselor or peer support officer. Each meeting will start with somebody who will volunteer to share his/her experience of injustice with the others, if no volunteer could be found officers will draw a number (or anything else available) and the highest number will start. If the highest number has nothing to share, the next in line will start. (Debriefing Stage I) After the story is shared, the Feelings about a given injustice encounter are out in the open the discussion with other will follow this will constitute the Inputs part. Lastly, some ideas as to how to deal with the given event or similar events in the future will be solicited from the participants which will constitute the final part of Tactics. (Debriefing Stage II)
II.
III.
IV.
V.
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References:
Bouza, A. (1990). The Police Mystique: An Insiders Look at Cops, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Crank, J.P. (1997). Understanding Police Culture. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company. Finn, P. and J.Esselman Tomz (1997). Developing a Law Enforcement Stress Program for Officers and Their Families. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, March, 1997. Hunt, R.G. and J.M. Magenau (1993). Power and the Police Chief: An Institutional and Organizational Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Kureczka, A. W. (1996). Critical Incident Stress in Law Enforcement. Enforcement Bulletin, 65 (3), pp. 10-16. FBI Law
Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers. Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers. Mitchell, J. T. (1983). When Disaster Strikes the Critical Incident Stress Debriefing Process. Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 8, pp. 36-39. Olson, D.T. (1998). Improving Deadly Force Decision Making. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, February 1998, p. 4 Pierson, T. (1989). Critical Incident Stress: A serious Law enforcement Problem. The Police Chief, February, 1989, pp. 32-33. Sherman, L. (1982). Learning Police Ethics. Criminal Justice Ethics, 1, pp. 10-19. Sykes, G.W. (1986). Street Justice: A Moral Defense of Order Maintenance Policing. Justice Quarterly 3, pp. 497-512. Van Maanen, J. (1974). Working the Street: A Developmental View of Police Behavior. In H. Jacob (ed.)
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White Plains Police Department Analysis The Potential for Reform in Criminal Justice, vol. 3, pp. 83-84, 87, 100-110. Beverly Hill, CA: Sage. Walker, G. (1990). Crisis-Care in Critical Incident Debriefing. Death Studies, 14, pp. 121-133.
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Kenneth Chamberlain - Police Analysis

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Kenneth Chamberlain - Police Analysis

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An Analysis of the White Plains Police Department

White Plains Police Department Analysis

The Triangle of Police Integrity Recruitment Selection Training

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Recruitment, Selection, Training, Supervision, and Discipline: Conceptual Background

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Physical Agility Testing

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Compliance with Consent Decree

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Emotionally Disturbed Persons Policy and Training

Equipment and Resources

Administration of the White Plains Police Department

White Plains Police Department Analysis F. Emotionally Disturbed Individuals

Policing Housing Developments

Addressing the Needs of the College Student Community

Selection Process for Specialized Assignments

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis M. Organizational Transformation

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Figure 1. Crime triangle

White Plains Police Department Analysis

VIII. Summary and Conclusions

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

White Plains Police Department Analysis

Appendix II. Strategies

Stress Management Training the F.I.T.: Feelings, Inputs,

# 1. Maslows SELF ACTUALIZATION ESTEEM SOCIAL SECURITY PHYSIOLOGICAL

SELF ACTUALIZATION ESTEEM SOCIAL SECURITY COMMUNICATION PHYSIOLOGICAL

White Plains Police Department Analysis

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