Ani SQL

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION: SQL is the heart of RDBMS. SQL is the language used for all operations in a relational database. The minimum operations required for handling database are: creation of table, inserting data, updating data, deleting data and retrieval of data. Besides, while working in a multi-user database, a user may want to secure his data from another user. This could be possible by controlling the access of data in a multi-user database through provision of adequate security. In most of the RDBMSs, the operations are specified using SQL only and that is the only language interpreted by an RDBMS. We have to issue a command to an RDBMS in SQL, the RDBMS will interpret the command and take necessary action. Diagrammatically it can be shown as
USER
SQL
RDBMS
SQL is very powerful language in the sense that most of the operations in RDBMS can be performed using SQL. It is also a standardized language like C i.e. the syntax of SQL changes very little from one RDBMS to another. An important feature of SQL is that it is a non-procedural language; we have to describe what to do rather than how to do. SQL Commands: SQL commands are instructions used to communicate with the database to perform specific task that work with data. SQL commands can be used not only for searching the database but also to perform various other functions like, for example, you can create tables, add data to tables, or modify data, drop the table, set permissions for users. SQL commands are grouped into four major categories depending on their functionality:
Data Definition Language (DDL) - These SQL commands are used for creating, modifying, and dropping the structure of database objects. The commands are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, and TRUNCATE.
Data Manipulation Language (DML) - These SQL commands are used for storing, retrieving, modifying, and deleting data. These commands are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
Transaction Control Language (TCL) - These SQL commands are used for managing changes affecting the data. These commands are COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT.
Data Control Language (DCL) - These SQL commands are used for providing security to database objects. These commands are GRANT and REVOKE.
DATA TYPES IN ORACLE:

When you create a table or cluster, you must specify a data type for each of its columns. When you create a procedure or stored function, you must specify a data type for each of its arguments. These data types define the domain of values that each column can contain or each argument can have.

NUMBER: It is used to numerical values up to 38 significant digits. CHAR: It is used store fixed length of characters up to 2000. VARCHAR & VARCHAR: It is used store variable length of characters up to 4000. LONG: It is used store variable length of characters up to 2GB. DATE: It is used to store date format. BLOB (Byte oriented large object binary): It is used to store unstructured binary large
objects.
CLOB (Character large object binary): It is used to store single-byte and multi-byte
character data.
NCLOB (Non Character large object binary): It is used to stores Unicode data.
SQL> connect Enter user-name: system Enter password: Connected.
SQL> create user anisha identified by mba; User created. SQL> grant dba to anisha; Grant succeeded. SQL SELECT Statement The most commonly used SQL command is SELECT statement. The SQL SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. A query may retrieve information from specified columns or from all of the columns in the table. To create a simple SQL SELECT Statement, you must specify the column(s) name and the table name. The whole query is called SQL SELECT Statement. Syntax of SQL SELECT Statement: SELECT column_list FROM table-name [WHERE Clause] [GROUP BY clause] [HAVING clause] [ORDER BY clause];
table-name is the name of the table from which the information is retrieved. column_list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved. The code within the brackets is optional.
Data Definition Language (DDL)

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE Statement is used to create tables to store data. Integrity Constraints like primary key, unique key, foreign key can be defined for the columns while creating the table. The integrity constraints can be defined at column level or table level. The implementation and the syntax of the CREATE Statements differs for different RDBMS. The Syntax for the CREATE TABLE Statement is: CREATETABLE TABLE_NAME(column_name1 datatype,column_name2 datetype_
ACCOUNT TABLE SQL>
Table created.
DESCRIBE It gives the description of the table SQL>
Name
Null?
Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ACCNO NAME DOJ BAL
NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) DATE NUMBER(20)
INSERTION: SQL INSERT Statement The INSERT Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table. We can insert data to a table in two ways, 1) Inserting the data directly to a table. Syntax for SQL INSERT is: INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME [ (col1, col2, col3,...colN)] VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
SQL>
Enter value for accno: 101 Enter value for name: anisha Enter value for date: 06-jan-1999 Enter value for bal: 20000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(101,'anisha','06-jan-1999',20000) 1 row created.
SQL> insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal); Enter value for accno: 102
Enter value for name: bhuvana Enter value for date: 15-june-2000 Enter value for bal: 300000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(102,'bhuvana','15-june-2000',300000) 1 row created. SQL> insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal); Enter value for accno: 103 Enter value for name: darani Enter value for date: 16-july-2009 Enter value for bal: 4000000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(103,'darani','16-july-2009',4000000) 1 row created. SQL> insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal); Enter value for accno: 104 Enter value for name: prasuna Enter value for date: 12-oct-2011 Enter value for bal: 5000000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(104,'prasuna','12-oct-2011',5000000) 1 row created. SQL> insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal); Enter value for accno: 105 Enter value for name: karunya
Enter value for date: 17-nov-1999 Enter value for bal: 340000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(105,'karunya','17-nov-1999',340000) 1 row created. SQL> insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal); Enter value for accno: 001 Enter value for name: sai Enter value for date: 12-dec-2012 Enter value for bal: 340000 old 1: insert into account101 values(&accno,'&name','&date',&bal) new 1: insert into account101 values(001,'sai','12-dec-2012',340000) 1 row created.
TO SEE THE CONTENTS OF TABLE:

SQL> ACCNO NAME DOJ BAL
---------- ------------------------------ --------- ---------101 anisha 102 bhuvana 103 darani 104 prasuna 06-JAN-99 15-JUN-00 16-JUL-09 20000 300000 4000000
12-OCT-11 5000000
DEPT TABLE SQL>
Table created. SQL>
Name
Null?
Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION SQL>
NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(30)
Enter value for deptno: 10 Enter value for dname: accounting Enter value for location: newyork old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location') new 1: insert into dept values(10,'accounting','newyork') 1 row created. SQL> insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location'); Enter value for deptno: 20 Enter value for dname: research
Enter value for location: dallas old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location') new 1: insert into dept values(20,'research','dallas') 1 row created. SQL> insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location'); Enter value for deptno: 30 Enter value for dname: sales Enter value for location: chicago old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location') new 1: insert into dept values(30,'sales','chicago') 1 row created. SQL> insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location'); Enter value for deptno: 40 Enter value for dname: operations Enter value for location: boston old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&location') new 1: insert into dept values(40,'operations','boston') 1 row created. SQL> DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION
---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------10 accounting 20 research 30 sales 40 operations newyork dallas chicago boston
EMP101 TABLE SQL>
Table created. SQL> Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO
NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(30) NUMBER(20) DATE NUMBER(30) NUMBER(30) NUMBER(20)
SQL>
Enter value for empno: 7369 Enter value for ename: smith Enter value for job: clerk Enter value for mgr: 7902
Enter value for hiredate: 17-dec-1980 Enter value for sal: 800 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 20 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7369,'smith','clerk',7902,'17-dec-1980',800,0 ,20)
1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7499 Enter value for ename: allen Enter value for job: salesman Enter value for mgr: 7698 Enter value for hiredate: 20-feb-1981 Enter value for sal: 1760 Enter value for commision: 300 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7499,'allen','salesman',7698,'20-feb-1981',17 60,300,30) 1 row created.
SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7521 Enter value for ename: ward Enter value for job: salesman Enter value for mgr: 7698 Enter value for hiredate: 22-feb-1981 Enter value for sal: 1375 Enter value for commision: 500 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7521,'ward','salesman',7698,'22-feb-1981',137 5,500,30) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7566 Enter value for ename: jones Enter value for job: manager Enter value for mgr: 7839 Enter value for hiredate: 02-april-1981 Enter value for sal: 3272 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 20
old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7566,'jones','manager',7839,'02-april-1981',3 272,0,20) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7654 Enter value for ename: martin Enter value for job: salesman Enter value for mgr: 7698 Enter value for hiredate: 20-sep-1981 Enter value for sal: 1375 Enter value for commision: 1400 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7654,'martin','salesman',7698,'20-sep-1981',1 375,1400,30) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7698 Enter value for ename: blake Enter value for job: manager
Enter value for mgr: 7839 Enter value for hiredate: 01-may-1981 Enter value for sal: 2695 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 10 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7698,'blake','manager',7839,'01-may-1981',269 5,0,10) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7782 Enter value for ename: clark Enter value for job: manager Enter value for mgr: 7839 Enter value for hiredate: 09-july-1981 Enter value for sal: 3135 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7782,'clark','manager',7839,'09-july-1981',31 35,0,30) 1 row created.
SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7788 Enter value for ename: scott Enter value for job: analyst Enter value for mgr: 7566 Enter value for hiredate: 19-april-1987 Enter value for sal: 3300 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 20 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7788,'scott','analyst',7566,'19-april-1987',3 300,0,20) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7839 Enter value for ename: king Enter value for job: president Enter value for mgr: 0 Enter value for hiredate: 17-nov-1981 Enter value for sal: 5500 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 10
old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7839,'king','president',0,'17-nov-1981',5500, 0,10) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7844 Enter value for ename: turner Enter value for job: salesman Enter value for mgr: 7698 Enter value for hiredate: 08-sep-1981 Enter value for sal: 1650 Enter value for commision: 1650 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7844,'turner','salesman',7698,'08-sep-1981',1 650,1650,30) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7876 Enter value for ename: adams Enter value for job: clerk
Enter value for mgr: 7788 Enter value for hiredate: 23-may-1987 Enter value for sal: 1210 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 20 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7876,'adams','clerk',7788,'23-may-1987',1210, 0,20) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7900 Enter value for ename: james Enter value for job: clerk Enter value for mgr: 7698 Enter value for hiredate: 03-dec-1981 Enter value for sal: 1045 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 30 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7900,'james','clerk',7698,'03-dec-1981',1045, 0,30) 1 row created.
SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7902 Enter value for ename: ford Enter value for job: analyst Enter value for mgr: 7566 Enter value for hiredate: 03-dec-1981 Enter value for sal: 3300 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 20 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7902,'ford','analyst',7566,'03-dec-1981',3300 ,0,20) 1 row created. SQL> insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal,&com mision,&depno); Enter value for empno: 7934 Enter value for ename: miller Enter value for job: clerk Enter value for mgr: 7782 Enter value for hiredate: 23-jan1982 Enter value for sal: 1430 Enter value for commision: 0 Enter value for depno: 10
old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(7934,'miller','clerk',7782,'23-jan1982',1430, 0,10) 1 row created.
SQL> select * from emp101; EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO
---------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- 7369 smith 7499 allen 7521 ward 7566 jones 7654 martin 7698 blake 7782 clark 7788 scott 7839 king 7844 turner 7876 adams 7900 james 7902 ford 7934 miller 14 rows selected. clerk 7902 17-DEC-80 20-FEB-81 22-FEB-81 02-APR-81 800 1760 1375 3272 1375 2695 3135 3300 5500 1650 1210 1045 3300 1430 0 300 500 0 1400 0 0 0 0 1650 0 0 0 0 20 30 30 20 30 10 30 20 10 30 20 30 20 10
salesman 7698 salesman 7698 manager 7839
salesman 7698 20-SEP-81 manager 7839 manager 7839 analyst president 7566 0 01-MAY-81 09-JUL-81 19-APR-87 17-NOV-81 08-SEP-81 23-MAY-87 03-DEC-81
salesman 7698 clerk clerk analyst clerk 7788 7698
7566 03-DEC-81 7782 23-JAN-82
RENAME
SQL RENAME Command The SQL RENAME command is used to change the name of the table or a database object. If you change the object's name any reference to the old name will be affected. You have to manually change the old name to the new name in every reference. Syntax to rename a table RENAME old_table_name To new_table_name;
SQL> Table renamed. SQL> select * from dept101; DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to modify the definition (structure) of a table by modifying the definition of its columns. The ALTER command is used to perform the following functions. 1) Add, drop, modify table columns 2) Add and drop constraints 3) Enable and Disable constraints Syntax to add a column ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
SQL> Table altered. SQL> desc student; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------ROLL NAME JOINING COURSE FEE CONTACT AGE NUMBER(10) VARCHAR2(10) DATE VARCHAR2(10) NUMBER(10) NUMBER(10) NUMBER(10)
Data Manipulation Language (DML)

SQL UPDATE Statement The UPDATE Statement is used to modify the existing rows in a table. The Syntax for SQL UPDATE Command is: UPDATE table_name SET column_name1 = value1, column_name2 = value2, ... [WHERE condition] SQL> 1 row updated.
COLOUM ALIASING
SQL Aliases are defined for columns and tables. Basically aliases is created to make the column selected more readable. SQL>
NO NAME ---------- -----------------------------7369 smith 7499 allen 7521 ward 7566 jones 7654 martin 7698 blake
7782 clark 7788 scott 7839 king 7844 turner 7876 adams NO NAME ---------- -----------------------------7900 james 7902 ford 7934 miller 14 rows selected.
SELECTION
SQL>
EMPNO
SAL ENAME
---------- ---------- -----------------------------7566 7698 7782 7788 7839 7902 3272 jones 2695 blake 3135 clark 3300 scott 5500 king 3300 ford
6 rows selected.
SQL>
EMPNO
SAL ENAME
COMMISION
---------- ---------- ------------------------------ ---------7499 7521 7654 7844 1760 allen 1375 ward 1375 martin 1650 turner 300 500 1400 1650
SQL>
EMPNO
SAL ENAME
---------- ---------- -----------------------------7566 7698 7782 7788 7902 3272 jones 2695 blake 3135 clark 3300 scott 3300 ford
Data Control Language (DCL)

It's easier to GRANT or REVOKE privileges to the users through a role rather than assigning a privilege direclty to every user. If a role is identified by a password, then, when you GRANT or REVOKE privileges to the role, you definetely have to identify it with the password. We can GRANT or REVOKE privilege to a role as below. For example: To grant CREATE TABLE privilege to a user by creating a testing role: First, create a testing Role CREATE ROLE testing Second, grant a CREATE TABLE privilege to the ROLE testing. You can add more privileges to the ROLE. GRANT CREATE TABLE TO testing; Third, grant the role to a user. GRANT testing TO user1;
DISTINCT
SQL>
DEPNO ---------30 20 10
SQL> SAL ---------5500 1650 3272 2695 1760 3135 3300 1210 1045 1430 800 1375 12 rows selected. SQL>
DEPNO
SAL
---------- ---------30 20 30 30 20 1760 3300 1045 1375 800
30 10 20 10 10 30 DEPNO
1650 1430 3272 2695 5500 3135 SAL
---------- ---------20 1210
12 rows selected. SQL>
DEPNO ENAME ---------- -----------------------------30 turner 20 smith 20 ford 30 martin 10 king 30 james 30 allen 30 ward 20 jones 10 blake 10 miller
DEPNO ENAME ---------- -----------------------------30 clark 20 scott 20 adams 14 rows selected.
DELETING A COLUMN
SQL>
Table altered.
SQL> select * from account101;
ACCNO NAME
DOJ
BAL
---------- ------------------------------ --------- ---------101 anisha 102 bhuvana 103 darani 104 prasuna 105 karunya 1 sai 6 rows selected. 06-JAN-99 15-JUN-00 16-JUL-09 12-OCT-11 17-NOV-99 12-DEC-12 20000 300000 4000000 5000000 340000
340000
CUSTOMER TABLE
SQL>
Table created.
SQL>
Enter value for id: 11021E0101 Enter value for name: anisha Enter value for date: 14-july-1989 Enter value for price: 20000 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price) new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E0101','anisha','14-july-1989',200 00) 1 row created. SQL> insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price); Enter value for id: 11021E0102 Enter value for name: bhuvana Enter value for date: 22-june-1988 Enter value for price: 344555 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price)
new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E0102','bhuvana','22-june-1988',34 4555) 1 row created. SQL> insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price); Enter value for id: 11021E0103 Enter value for name: darani Enter value for date: 4-july1987 Enter value for price: 23337 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price) new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E0103','darani','4-july1987',23337 1 row created. SQL> insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price); Enter value for id: 11021E0104 Enter value for name: prasuna Enter value for date: 24-oct-1988 Enter value for price: 243455 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price) new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E0104','prasuna','24-oct-1988',243 455) 1 row created. SQL> insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price); Enter value for id: 11021E0105 Enter value for name: karunya
Enter value for date: 25-june-2011 Enter value for price: 346636 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price) new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E0105','karunya','25-june-2011',34 6636) 1 row created. SQL> insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price); Enter value for id: 11021E003 Enter value for name: sai Enter value for date: 22-oct-2012 Enter value for price: 23455 old 1: insert into customer101 values('&id','&name','&date',&price) new 1: insert into customer101 values('11021E003','sai','22-oct-2012',23455) 1 row created. SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED PRICE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------11021E0101 11021E0102 11021E0103 11021E0104 11021E0105 11021E003 anisha bhuvana darani prasuna karunya sai 14-JUL-89 22-JUN-88 04-JUL-87 24-OCT-88 25-JUN-11 22-OCT-12 20000 344555 23337 243455 346636 23455
ADDING A COLUMN
SQL>
Table altered.
SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED PRICE AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------- ---------11021E0101 11021E0102 11021E0103 11021E0104 11021E0105 11021E003 6 rows selected. anisha bhuvana darani prasuna karunya sai 14-JUL-89 22-JUN-88 04-JUL-87 24-OCT-88 25-JUN-11 22-OCT-12 20000 344555 23337 243455 346636 23455
CHANGING DATATYPE OF A FIELD

We are changing the date type of field age to from number to varchar SQL>
Table altered. SQL> desc customer101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------ID NAME PURCHASEDATE PRICE AGE VARCHAR2(20) VARCHAR2(20) DATE NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(20)
UPDATING A COLUMN (ENTERNING VALUES INTO EXTRA ADDED COLUMN)

SQL>
1 row updated. SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED PRICE AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------- ---------11021E0101 11021E0102 11021E0103 11021E0104 11021E0105 11021E003 6 rows selected. anisha bhuvana darani prasuna karunya sai 14-JUL-89 22-JUN-88 04-JUL-87 24-OCT-88 25-JUN-11 22-OCT-12 20000 344555 23337 243455 346636 23455 22
DELETING A ROW
SQL>
1 row deleted.
DELETING A COLUMN
SQL>
Table altered. SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------11021E0101 11021E0102 11021E0103 11021E0104 11021E0105 anisha bhuvana darani prasuna karunya 14-JUL-89 22-JUN-88 04-JUL-87 24-OCT-88 25-JUN-11 22 21 23 22 24
ORDERBY
The ORDER BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to sort results either in ascending or descending order. Oracle sorts query results in ascending order by default. Syntax for using SQL ORDER BY clause to sort data is: SELECT column-list FROM table_name [WHERE condition] [ORDER BY column1 [, column2, .. columnN] [DESC]];
SQL>
ID
NAME
PURCHASED
AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------11021E0102 11021E0101 11021E0104 11021E0103 11021E0105 5 rows selected SQL> bhuvana anisha prasuna darani karunya 22-JUN-88 14-JUL-89 24-OCT-88 04-JUL-87 25-JUN-11 21 22 22 23 24
ID
NAME
PURCHASED
AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------11021E0105 11021E0103 11021E0101 11021E0104 11021E0102 karunya darani anisha prasuna bhuvana 25-JUN-11 04-JUL-87 14-JUL-89 24-OCT-88 22-JUN-88 24 23 22 22 21
NULL OPERATOR
SQL IS NULL Operator A column value is NULL if it does not exist. The IS NULL operator is used to display all the rows for columns that do not have a value SQL>
1 row updated. SQL> select * from customer101;
ID
NAME
PURCHASED
AGE
-------------------- -------------------- --------- ---------11021E0102 11021E0103 11021E0104 11021E0105 bhuvana darani prasuna karunya 22-JUN-88 04-JUL-87 24-OCT-88 25-JUN-11 24 23
EMP TABLE-addition
SQL>
SAL+COMMISION ------------800 2060
1875 3272 2775 2695 3135 3300 5500 3300 1210 1045 3300 14 rows selected.
ADDITION OF COLOUMNS WITH NULL VALUES

SQL>
SAL+NVL(COMMISION,0) -------------------800 2060 1875 3272 2775 2695
3135 3300 5500 3300 1210 SAL+NVL(COMMISION,0) -------------------1045 3300 1430 14 rows selected.
ADDITION + COLUMN ALIASING

SQL>
NETSAL ---------800 2060 1875 3272 2775 2695
3135 3300 5500 3300 1210 NETSAL ---------1045 3300 1430
14 rows selected.
ORDER BY TYPES
SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
SAL COMMISION
---------- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------7369 smith 7900 james 7876 adams 7521 ward 7654 martin 7934 miller 800 1045 1210 1375 1375 1430 0 0 0 500 1400 0
7844 turner 7499 allen 7698 blake 7782 clark 7566 jones EMPNO ENAME
1650 1760 2695 3135 3272
1650 300 0 0 0 SAL COMMISION
---------- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------7788 scott 7902 ford 7839 king 14 rows selected. 3300 3300 5500 0 0 0
SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
SAL COMMISION
---------- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------7369 smith 7782 clark 7902 ford 7900 james 7876 adams 7566 jones 7698 blake 800 3135 3300 1045 1210 3272 2695 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7934 miller 7788 scott 7839 king 7499 allen EMPNO ENAME
1430 3300 5500 1760
0 0 0 300 SAL COMMISION
---------- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------7521 ward 7654 martin 7844 turner 1375 1375 1650 500 1400 1650
BETWEEN CONDITION
SQL>
SAL ---------1760 3272 2695 3135 3300 1650 3300 7 rows selected.
SQL>
HIREDATE ENAME --------- -----------------------------02-APR-81 jones 20-SEP-81 martin 01-MAY-81 blake 09-JUL-81 clark 17-NOV-81 king 08-SEP-81 turner 03-DEC-81 james 03-DEC-81 ford 8 rows selected.
DUPLICATION
Duplication is to copy the content of one table to another, here we are copying the contents of empl101 to emp101 SQL>
TNAME
TABTYPE CLUSTERID
------------------------------ ------- ---------CUSTOMER101 EMPL101 TABLE TABLE
DEP101 STUD101 ACC101 EMP101 6 rows selected.
TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE
IN LIST
SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 smith 7902 17-DEC-80 7499 allen 7698 20-FEB-81 7521 ward 7698 22-FEB-81 EMPNO ENAME 1375 1760 800 clerk 0 salesman 300 salesman 500 JOB 30 30 20
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7566 jones 7839 02-APR-81 7654 martin 7698 20-SEP-81 7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 EMPNO ENAME 1375 3272
manager 0 salesman 1400 manager 2695 0 JOB 10 30 20
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7844 turner 7698 08-SEP-81 7876 adams 7788 23-MAY-87 EMPNO ENAME 1210 1650 3135 manager 0 salesman 1650 clerk 0 JOB 20 30 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 7934 miller 7782 23-JAN-82 11 rows selected. 1430 1045 clerk 0 10 clerk 0 30
STRING OPERATORS
PERCENT(%): The % character matches any substring SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 smith 7902 17-DEC-80 7788 scott 7566 19-APR-87 SQL> 3300 800 clerk 0 analyst 0 20 20
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7499 allen 7698 20-FEB-81 7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 7782 clark 1760 salesman 300 manager 2695 0 10 30
manager
7839 09-JUL-81 EMPNO ENAME
3135
0 JOB
30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7934 miller 7782 23-JAN-82 UNDERSCORE(_): The _ character matches any character SQL> 1430 clerk 0 10
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7499 allen 7698 20-FEB-81 7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 3135 1760 salesman 300 manager 2695 0 10 30
manager 0 30
SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 smith 7902 17-DEC-80 7499 allen 7698 20-FEB-81 7566 jones 7839 02-APR-81 EMPNO ENAME 3272 1760 800 clerk 0 salesman 300 manager 0 JOB 20 30 20
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7788 scott 7566 19-APR-87 EMPNO ENAME 3300 3135 manager 2695 0 10
manager 0 analyst 0 JOB 20 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7876 adams 7788 23-MAY-87 1210 clerk 0 20
7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 8 rows selected. 1045
clerk 0 30
SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7654 martin 7698 20-SEP-81 7934 miller 7782 23-JAN-82 1430 1375 salesman 1400 clerk 0 10 30
SQL>
It gives names with minimum 3 letters EMPNO ENAME JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 smith 7902 17-DEC-80 7499 allen 800 clerk 0 salesman 20
7698 20-FEB-81 7521 ward 7698 22-FEB-81 EMPNO ENAME
1760
300 salesman
30
1375
500 JOB
30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7566 jones 7839 02-APR-81 7654 martin 7698 20-SEP-81 7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 EMPNO ENAME 1375 3272 manager 0 salesman 1400 manager 2695 0 JOB 10 30 20
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7788 scott 7566 19-APR-87 7839 king 0 17-NOV-81 EMPNO ENAME 5500 3300 3135 manager 0 analyst 0 president 0 10 JOB 20 30
---------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------
MGR HIREDATE
SAL COMMISION
DEPNO
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7844 turner 7698 08-SEP-81 7876 adams 7788 23-MAY-87 7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 EMPNO ENAME 1045 1210 clerk 0 JOB 30 1650 salesman 1650 clerk 0 20 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7902 ford 7566 03-DEC-81 7934 miller 7782 23-JAN-82 14 rows selected. 1430 3300 clerk 0 10 analyst 0 20
ORACLE BUILT IN FUNCTIONS

There are two types of functions in Oracle. 1) Single Row Functions: Single row or Scalar functions return a value for every row that is processed in a query. 2) Group Functions: These functions group the rows of data based on the values returned by the query. This is discussed in SQL GROUP Functions. The group functions are used to calculate aggregate values like total or average, which return just one total or one average value after processing a group of rows. There are four types of single row functions. They are: 1) Numeric Functions: These are functions that accept numeric input and return numeric values. 2) Character or Text Functions: These are functions that accept character input and can return both character and number values. 3) Date Functions: These are functions that take values that are of datatype DATE as input and return values of datatype DATE, except for the MONTHS_BETWEEN function, which returns a number. 4) Conversion Functions: These are functions that help us to convert a value in one form to another form. For Example: a null value into an actual value, or a value from one datatype to another datatype like NVL, TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, TO_DATE etc. You can combine more than one function together in an expression. This is known as nesting of functions.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
ARITHEMETIC DATE STRINGS CONVERSIONAL MISCELLEANOUS
ABSOLUTE
Absolute value of the number 'x'
SQL> ABS(-50) ---------50
DIFFERENCE
SQL>
(EMPNO-MGR) -----------533 -199 -177 -273 -44 -141 -57 222 7839 146 88 (EMPNO-MGR)
----------202 336 152 14 rows selected.
MULTIPLICATION
SQL>
SAL HOUSEALLOWANCE HEALTHALL PERFORMANCE ---------- -------------- ---------- ----------800 1760 1375 3272 1375 2695 3135 3300 5500 1650 1210 160 352 275 654.4 275 539 627 660 1100 330 242 400 880 687.5 1636 687.5 1347.5 1567.5 1650 2750 825 605 640 1408 1100 2617.6 1100 2156 2508 2640 4400 1320 968
SAL HOUSEALLOWANCE HEALTHALL PERFORMANCE ---------- -------------- ---------- -----------
1045 3300 1430
209 660 286
522.5 1650 715
836 2640 1144
14 rows selected.
CEIL
It returns integer value that is Greater than or equal to the number x
SQL> CEIL(750.35) 751
FLOOR
It returns integer value that is Less than or equal to the number 'x'
SQL> FLOOR(750.35) ------------750
MODULUS
It returns the remainder
SQL> MOD(10,3) ---------1
SQL> MOD(3,10) ---------3 SQL>
It returns the rows whose salary is odd in number EMPNO ENAME JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7521 ward 7698 22-FEB-81 7654 martin 7698 20-SEP-81 7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 EMPNO ENAME 1375 1375 salesman 500 salesman 1400 manager 2695 0 JOB 10 30 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 1045 3135 manager 0 clerk 0 30 30
POWER
SQL> POWER(2,3) ---------8
ROUND
It returns rounded off value of the number 'x' up to the number 'y' decimal places
SQL> ROUND(30.756,2) --------------30.76
SQL> ROUND(30.754,2) --------------30.75
TRUNCATE
It truncates value of number 'x' up to 'y' decimal places
SQL> TRUNC(234.45545,2) -----------------234.45
SQUARE ROOT
It returns the square of the given value SQL> SQRT(225) ---------15
ARITHEMATIC FUNCTIONS:
SIGN It returns the sign of the given value SYNTAX: sign(value) It returns 1 for positive value -1 for negative value 0 for zero SQL> SIGN(-9) ----------1 SQL> SIGN(9) ---------1 SQL> SIGN(0) ---------0
GREATEST
It returns greatest value among the given values
SQL> GREATEST(3,56.56,56.57) ----------------------56.57 SQL> GREATEST(3,56.56,-56.57) ----------------------56.56
LEAST
It returns least value among the given values
SQL> LEAST(3,56.56,-56.57,56477,4,-0) --------------------------------56.57 SQL> LEAST(3,-56.56,-56.57,56477,4,-0) ---------------------------------56.57 SQL> LEAST(3,56.56,56.57,56477,4,-0) ------------------------------0
DATE FUNCTIONS ADD_MONTHS

Returns a date value after adding 'n' months to the date 'x'
SQL> SYSDATE --------13-MAR-12
SQL>
ADD_MONTH --------13-DEC-12 SQL>
ADD_MONTH --------13-JAN-13 SQL>
ADD_MONTH --------13-MAR-17
MONTHS_BETWEEN
Returns the number of months between dates x1 and x2.
SQL>
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'14-JULY-2011') -------------------------------------7.98807161 SQL>
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'14-MAR-2011') ------------------------------------11.9880933 SQL> MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'14-MAR-2012') -------------------------------------.01190226
NEXT_DAY
Returns the next date of the 'week_day' on or after the date 'x' occurs.
SQL>
NEXT_DAY( --------20-MAR-12 SQL>
NEXT_DAY( --------17-JUL-12
LAST_DAY
It is used to determine the number of days remaining in a month from the date 'x' specified
SQL>
LAST_DAY( --------31-MAR-12 SQL>
LAST_DAY( --------31-JUL-12 SQL>
LAST_DAY( --------29-FEB-12
CONSTRAINTS
SQL Integrity Constraints Integrity Constraints are used to apply business rules for the database tables. The constraints available in SQL are Foreign Key, Not Null, Unique, Check. Constraints can be defined in two ways 1) The constraints can be specified immediately after the column definition. This is called column-level definition. 2) The constraints can be specified after all the columns are defined. This is called tablelevel definition. 1) SQL Primary key: This constraint defines a column or combination of columns which uniquely identifies each row in the table. Syntax to define a Primary key at column level: column name datatype [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] PRIMARY KEY Syntax to define a Primary key at table level: [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] PRIMARY KEY (column_name1,column_name2,..)
ITEM TABLE
SQL> create table item(icode number(20) primary key,name varchar2(30),price numb er(30),mfd date); Table created. SQL> insert into item values(&icode,'&name',&price,'&mfd');
Enter value for icode: 001 Enter value for name: perfume Enter value for price: 2000 Enter value for mfd: 14-july-1989 old 1: insert into item values(&icode,'&name',&price,'&mfd') new 1: insert into item values(001,'perfume',2000,'14-july-1989') 1 row created. SQL> insert into item values(&icode,'&name',&price,'&mfd'); Enter value for icode: 002 Enter value for name: dress Enter value for price: 200000 Enter value for mfd: 07-july-1989 old 1: insert into item values(&icode,'&name',&price,'&mfd') new 1: insert into item values(002,'dress',200000,'07-july-1989') 1 row created.
CUST4101(PRIMARYKEY,NOTNULL,CHECK,UNIQUE,REFERENCE,DE FAULT)
Table created.
SQL> desc cust4101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
CID NAME AGE ADDRESS ITEMCODE GENDER INSERTION:
NOT NULL NUMBER(20) NOT NULL VARCHAR2(30) NUMBER(10) VARCHAR2(32) NUMBER(30) CHAR(4)
SQL> insert into cust4101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&gender '); Enter value for cid: 234 Enter value for name: sdg Enter value for age: 55 Enter value for address: sdghh Enter value for itemcode: 45 Enter value for gender: m old 1: insert into cust4101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&ge nder') new 1: insert into cust4101 values(234,'sdg',55,'sdghh',45,'m') insert into cust4101 values(234,'sdg',55,'sdghh',45,'m') *
ERROR at line 1: ORA-02291: integrity constraint (ANISHA.SYS_C003914) violated - parent key not Found SQL> insert into cust4101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&gender '); Enter value for cid: 234 Enter value for name: asdgf Enter value for age: 45 Enter value for address: dgg Enter value for itemcode: 001 Enter value for gender: m old 1: insert into cust4101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&ge nder') new 1: insert into cust4101 values(234,'asdgf',45,'dgg',001,'m') 1 row created.
TO ALTER A TABLE TO ADD A COLUMN INCLUDING A CONSTRAINT

SQL>
Table altered. SQL> insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&gender ','&place') 2 ; Enter value for cid: 234
Enter value for name: sameera Enter value for age: 22 Enter value for address: bhubaneswar Enter value for itemcode: 24 Enter value for gender: f Enter value for place: orissa old 1: insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&ge nder','&place') new 1: insert into cust2101 values(234,'sameera',22,'bhubaneswar',24,'f','oris sa') 1 row created. SQL> insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&gender ','&place'); Enter value for cid: 234 Enter value for name: guru Enter value for age: 24 Enter value for address: kiarnataka Enter value for itemcode: 24 Enter value for gender: m Enter value for place: orissa old 1: insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&ge nder','&place') new 1: insert into cust2101 values(234,'guru',24,'kiarnataka',24,'m','orissa') insert into cust2101 values(234,'guru',24,'kiarnataka',24,'m','orissa') *
ERROR at line 1: ORA-00001: unique constraint (ANISHA.SYS_C003903) violated SQL> insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&gender ','&place'); Enter value for cid: 345 Enter value for name: guru Enter value for age: 24 Enter value for address: karnataka Enter value for itemcode: 356 Enter value for gender: m Enter value for place: bangalore old 1: insert into cust2101 values(&cid,'&name',&age,'&address',&itemcode,'&ge nder','&place') new 1: insert into cust2101 values(345,'guru',24,'karnataka',356,'m','bangalor e') 1 row created. NOTE: while using insert to insert values into a table we have to give all the values i.e., all the columns must be specified or else it will not work Example: SQL> insert into cust2101 values('&place'); Enter value for place: andhrapradesh old 1: insert into cust2101 values('&place') new 1: insert into cust2101 values('andhrapradesh') insert into cust2101 values('andhrapradesh')* ERROR at line 1: ORA-00947: not enough values
Note: we cannot drop a column which is parent key column SQL> alter table item drop column icode; alter table item drop column icode * ERROR at line 1: ORA-12992: cannot drop parent key column Here icode is the parent key column SQL> alter table cust4101 drop column itemcode; Table altered. SQL> alter table item drop column icode; Table altered.
ADDING A CONSTRAINT
SQL>
Name
Null?
Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------------------ID NAME PURCHASEDATE AGE VARCHAR2(20) VARCHAR2(20) DATE NUMBER(20)
SQL>
Table altered. SQL> desc customer101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- --------------------------ID NAME PURCHASEDATE AGE NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) VARCHAR2(20) DATE NUMBER(20)
TABLE CAN HAVE ONLY ONE PRIMARY KEY SQL> alter table cust101 add constraint cid_pk primary key(cid); alter table cust101 add constraint cid_pk primary key(cid) * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02260: table can have only one primary key
ADDING A FOREIGN KEY

SQL Foreign key or Referential Integrity : This constraint identifies any column referencing the PRIMARY KEY in another table. It establishes a relationship between two columns in the same table or between different tables. For a column to be defined as a Foreign Key, it should be a defined as a Primary Key in the table which it is referring. One or more columns can be defined as Foreign key. Syntax to define a Foreign key at column level: [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] REFERENCES Referenced_Table_name(column_name)
NOTE: Foreign key can be given only for the columns or the attribute which have the constraint primary key. That is the referred column must be unique or should have primary key as its constraint.
SQL>
alter table emp101 add constraint depno_fk foreign key(depno) references dept101 (deptno) * ERROR at line 1: ORA-02270: no matching unique or primary key for this column-list SQL> select * from dept101; DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION
SQL> alter table dept101 add constraint deptno_pk primary key(deptno);
Table altered.
SQL> desc dept101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- -------------------------
DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION SQL>
NOT NULL NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(30)
Table altered. TESTING FOREIGN KEY SQL>
Enter value for empno: 35 Enter value for ename: egtg Enter value for job: dfhh Enter value for mgr: 457656 Enter value for hiredate: 14-july-2012 Enter value for sal: 56457 Enter value for commision: 436 Enter value for depno: 50 old 1: insert into emp101 values(&empno,'&ename','&job',&mgr,'&hiredate',&sal, &commision,&depno) new 1: insert into emp101 values(35,'egtg','dfhh',457656,'14-july-2012',56457, 436,50) insert into emp101 values(35,'egtg','dfhh',457656,'14-july-2012',56457,436,50)
* ERROR at line 1: ORA-02291: integrity constraint (ANISHA.DEPNO_FK) violated - parent key not Found Here I gave deptno as 50 which is not entered in the dept table so the foreign key is violated.
DELETING A CONSTRAINT
SQL> desc customer101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ID NAME PURCHASEDATE AGE
NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) VARCHAR2(20) DATE NUMBER(20)
SQL>
Table altered.
SQL> desc customer101; Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------ID NAME PURCHASEDATE VARCHAR2(20) VARCHAR2(20) DATE
AGE
NUMBER(20)
q)display first three characters of all employees SQL>
SUB --smi all war jon mar bla cla sco kin tur ada SUB --jam for mil 14 rows selected.
Q)display first half of the employee name in lower case and second half in upper case. SQL>
LOWER(SUBSTR(ENAME,1,LENGTH(ENAME)/2))||UPPER(SUBSTR(ENAME,L -----------------------------------------------------------smITH alLEN waRD joNES marTIN blAKE clARK scOTT kiNG turNER adAMS LOWER(SUBSTR(ENAME,1,LENGTH(ENAME)/2))||UPPER(SUBSTR(ENAME,L -----------------------------------------------------------jaMES foRD milLER 14 rows selected.
LPAD
Returns 'string_value' left-padded with 'pad_value' . The length of the whole string will be of 'n' characters.
SQL> LPAD('ANISH ----------*****anisha
RPAD
Returns 'string_value' right-padded with 'pad_value' .
SQL> RPAD('ANISH ----------anisha*****
LTRIM
All occurrences of 'trim_text'is removed from the left of 'string_value'
SQL> LTRIM( -----Anisha SQL> LENGTH(LTRIM('ANISHA')) -------------------- 6
SQL>
LENGTH(LTRIM('ANISHA')) ----------------------6
SQL>
LENGTH(LTRIM('SHALINI')) -----------------------7 SQL>
LENGTH(LTRIM('SHALINI')) -----------------------10
SQL>
LTRIM('AN --------anisha NOTE: length of ltrim of a word with space before it gives the length of the word deleting the spaces. If the spaces are after the word then the then ltrim counts the word with spaces
TRUNC
Returns the date 'x' lesser than or equal to the nearest century, year, month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the 'date_format'
SQL> TRUNC(SYS --------29-APR-12 SQL> TRUNC(SYS --------01-MAY-12 SQL> TRUNC(SYS --------01-JAN-12
ROUND
Returns the date 'x' rounded off to the nearest century, year, month, date, hour, minute, or second as specified by the 'date_format' SQL>
ROUND(SYS --------06-MAY-12
SQL>
ROUND(SYS --------01-MAY-12 SQL>
ROUND(SYS --------01-JAN-12
LENGTH
q) display the length of all employee names SQL>
LENGTH(ENAME) ------------5 5 4 5 6 5 5 5
4 6 5 LENGTH(ENAME) ------------5 4 6 14 rows selected.
SQL> LENGTH('ENAME') --------------5
q) display the details of employees whose name contains atleast 5 characters SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 smith clerk
7902 17-DEC-80 7499 allen 7698 20-FEB-81 7566 jones 7839 02-APR-81 EMPNO ENAME
800
0 salesman
20
1760
300 manager
30
3272
0 JOB
20
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7788 scott 7566 19-APR-87 EMPNO ENAME 3300 3135 manager 2695 0 10
manager 0 analyst 0 JOB 20 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7876 adams 7788 23-MAY-87 7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 8 rows selected. 1045 1210 clerk 0 30 clerk 0 20
LOWER
It converts upper case letters to lower case
SQL> LOWER( -----string
SQL> LOWER( -----string
SQL> LOWER(ENAME) -----------------------------smith allen ward jones martin blake clark scott king
turner adams LOWER(ENAME) -----------------------------james ford miller 14 rows selected.
UPPER
It converts lower case letters to upper case
SQL> UPPER(ENAME) -----------------------------SMITH ALLEN WARD JONES MARTIN BLAKE CLARK SCOTT KING TURNER ADAMS
UPPER(ENAME) -----------------------------JAMES FORD MILLER 14 rows selected.
ROWNUM
It returns the no of the row
SQL>
UPPER(ENAME) -----------------------------SMITH ALLEN WARD JONES
INITCAP
All the letters in 'string_value' is converted to mixed case
SQL> INITCAP(ENAME) -----------------------------Smith
Allen Ward Jones Martin Blake Clark Scott King Turner Adams INITCAP(ENAME) -----------------------------James Ford Miller 14 rows selected.
SUBSTRING
Returns 'n' number of characters from 'string_value' starting from the 'm' position
SQL>
SUBST ----nisha
SQL>
SUBS ---Isha SQL>
SUBST ----Nisha
ASCII
It returns ASCII value of the given letter
SQL> ASCII('A') ---------97 SQL> ASCII('A') ---------65 SQL> ASCII('APPLE') -------------65
SQL> ASCII('APPLE') -------------97 SQL> ASCII('B') ---------98 NOTE: if we give the string it will consider the first letter of the string.
CHR
Converts Numeric and Date values to a character string value. It cannot be used for calculations since it is a string value.
SQL> C B
SQL> C b
TRANSLATE
SQL>
TRANSL -----Anitha SQL> TRANSL -----Nalini
REPLACE
Returns column value with every occurrence of string, replaced with replacement string. If replacement string is omitted all occurrences of search string are removed. If both string and replacement string are not supplied then an error occurs
SQL>
REPLACE( -------manament SQL>
REPLAC ------
Anitha
INSTR
This will allows you for searching through a string for set of characters
SQL>
INSTR('MANAGEMENT','E',7,1) --------------------------8
SQL>
INSTR('MANAGEMENT','E',7,2) --------------------------0
SQL>
INSTR(ENAME,'A') ---------------0 1 2
0 2 3 3 0 0 0 1
INSTR(ENAME,'A') ---------------2 0 0
14 rows selected.
Q) display the employees whose name contains character a SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7499 allen salesman
7698 20-FEB-81 7521 ward 7698 22-FEB-81 7654 martin 7698 20-SEP-81 EMPNO ENAME
1760
300 salesman
30
1375
500 salesman
30
1375
1400 JOB
30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7698 blake 7839 01-MAY-81 7782 clark 7839 09-JUL-81 7876 adams 7788 23-MAY-87 EMPNO ENAME 1210 3135 manager 2695 0 10
manager 0 clerk 0 JOB 20 30
---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7900 james 7698 03-DEC-81 7 rows selected. 1045 clerk 0 30
CONVERSIONAL FUNCTIONS
These are functions that help us to convert a value in one form to another form. For Ex: a null value into an actual value, or a value from one datatype to another datatype like NVL, TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER, TO_DATE DDD- returns no of the day of the year since 1st jan(1 to 365) SQL>
TO_ --136 DD- DAY OF THE MONTH SQL>
TO -15 d-day of the week SQL>
T 3 NOTE: Sysdate is Tuesday.it counts from Sunday
DAY-SPELLS THE DAY
SQL>
TO_CHAR(S --------Tuesday MM-NO OF THE MONTH SQL>
TO -05 MON-1ST 3 CHARACTERS OF MONTH SQL>
TO_ --MAY yy-LAST TWO DIGITS OF THE YEAR SQL>
TO -12 YYYY-LAST 4 DIGITS OF THE YEAR SQL>
TO_C ---2012 YEAR-SPELLS THE YEAR SQL>
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'YEAR') -----------------------------------------TWENTY TWELVE HH(hour of the day(0-12)) SQL>
TO -12 HH24(hour of the day(1-24)railyway timings) SQL>
TO -12 MI(minutes of the hour) SQL>
TO -48 SS(seconds of the minute) SQL>
TO -08 AM/PM(displays am or pm) SQL>
TO -PM
SQL>
TO -PM SQL> TO_CHAR(S --------15-MAY-12
q)display all employees who joined in the year 1981 SQL>
ENAME -----------------------------allen ward jones martin blake clark king turner james ford 10 rows selected.
q)display 21st nov 2009 SQL>
TO_CHAR(SY ---------23rd-05-12 q)display like twenty three-nov-two thousand nine
SQL> TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MON-YEAR') ------------------------------------------------23-may-twenty twelve
SQL> TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSP-MON-YEAR') ----------------------------------------------------------twenty-three-may-twenty twelve
SQL>
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSP-MON-YYYYSP') ----------------------------------------------------------twenty-three-may-two thousand twelve q)display time like 11:54:16 SQL> TO_CHAR( -------11:54:16 q)display all employees who joined after 15th of the hiredate SQL>
ENAME ------------------------------
smith allen ward martin scott king adams miller 8 rows selected. q)display all employees who joined on wednesday SQL>
ENAME -----------------------------Smith SQL>
TO_CHAR(H --------wednesday friday sunday thursday sunday friday
thursday sunday tuesday tuesday saturday
TO_CHAR(H --------thursday thursday saturday 14 rows selected.
TO_DATE FUNCTIONS
These are functions that take values that are of datatype DATE as input and return values of datatypes DATE, except for the MONTHS_BETWEEN function, which returns a number as output
SQL>
TO_DATE(2 --------23-MAY-12
SQL>
TO_DATE(1
--------14-JUL-89
SQL>
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('24/JU ---------------------24*july *Monday
SQL>
TO_CHAR( -------23*05*12
SQL>
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTION
DECODE SQL>
DECODE(MOD(CO ------------even even even even even even even even even even even DECODE(MOD(CO ------------even even even
14 rows selected.
q) display all employees whose salary is odd figure
SQL>
ENAME -----------------------------ward martin blake clark james
GROUP BY
SQL>
DEPNO SUM(SAL) COUNT(*) ---------- ---------- ---------30 20 10 SQL> 10340 11882 9625 6 5 3
JOB
SUM(SAL) COUNT(*)
------------------------------ ---------- ---------salesman clerk president manager 6160 4485 5500 9102 4 1 3 4
analyst
6600
GROUPING OF TWO COLUMNS

SQL>
JOB
DEPNO SUM(SAL) COUNT(*)
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------salesman manager manager clerk manager clerk analyst president clerk 9 rows selected. 30 30 10 20 20 10 20 10 30 6160 3135 2695 2010 3272 1430 6600 5500 1045 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 1 1
GROUP BY WITH HAVING CLAUSE

SQL>
DEPNO COUNT(*) ---------- ---------30 20 6 5
q)Display the departments whose sum(sal)>10000
SQL>
DEPNO SUM(SAL) ---------- ---------30 20 10340 11882
q) display the employee whose max salary >3500 SQL>
DEPNO MAX(SAL) ---------- ---------10 5500
GROUP BY-WHERE CLAUSE

SQL>
DEPNO COUNT(*) ---------- ---------30 20 10 1 3 1
GROUP BY-ORDER BY CLAUSE
SQL>
DEPNO COUNT(*) ---------- ---------30 10 20 1 1 3
q)display all employees whose first twoo characters of hiredate=last two characters of salary SQL
no rows selected q)display the product of the o/p from emp SQL>
--------------------------------------------SMITH*****Clerk***** ALLEN**Salesman***** WARD**Salesman***** JONES***Manager***** MARTIN**Salesman***** BLAKE***Manager*****
CLARK***Manager***** SCOTT***Analyst***** KING*President***** TURNER**Salesman***** ADAMS*****Clerk***** UPPER(ENAME)||RPAD(LPAD(INITCAP(JOB),10,'*'), --------------------------------------------JAMES*****Clerk***** FORD***Analyst***** MILLER*****Clerk***** 14 rows selected. q) Which query will return the day of the week for any date entered in the format dd/mm/yy 1)SQL>
TO_CHAR(T --------thursday
JOINS
SQL Joins are used to relate information in different tables. A Join condition is a part of the sql query that retrieves rows from two or more tables. A SQL Join condition is used in the SQL WHERE Clause of select, update, delete statements. The Syntax for joining two tables is:
SELECT col1, col2, col3... FROM table_name1, table_name2 WHERE table_name1.col2 = table_name2.col1;
SQL Joins can be classified into Equi join and Non Equi join. 1) SQL Equi joins It is a simple sql join condition which uses the equal sign as the comparison operator. Two types of equi joins are SQL Outer join and SQL Inner join. For example: You can get the information about a customer who purchased a product and the quantity of product. 2) SQL Non equi joins It is a sql join condition which makes use of some comparison operator other than the equal sign like >, <, >=, <= 1) SQL Equi Joins: An equi-join is further classified into two categories: a) SQL Inner Join b) SQL Outer Join a) SQL Inner Join: All the rows returned by the sql query satisfy the sql join condition specified.
For example: If you want to display the product information for each order the query will be as given below. Since you are retrieving the data from two tables, you need to identify the common column between these two tables, which is theproduct_id. The query for this type of sql joins would be like,
SELECT order_id, product_name, unit_price, supplier_name, total_units FROM product, order_items WHERE order_items.product_id = product.product_id;
The columns must be referenced by the table name in the join condition, because product_id is a column in both the tables and needs a way to be identified. This avoids ambiguity in using the columns in the SQL SELECT statement. The number of join conditions is (n-1), if there are more than two tables joined in a query where 'n' is the number of tables involved. The rule must be true to avoid Cartesian product. We can also use aliases to reference the column name, then the above query would be like,
SELECT o.order_id, p.product_name, p.unit_price, p.supplier_name, o.total_units FROM product p, order_items o WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id;
b) SQL Outer Join: This sql join condition returns all rows from both tables which satisfy the join condition along with rows which do not satisfy the join condition from one of the tables. The sql outer join operator in Oracle is ( + ) and is used on one side of the join condition only. The syntax differs for different RDBMS implementation. Few of them represent the join conditions as "sql left outer join", "sql right outer join".
SQL>
ENAME
DNO DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------smith allen ward johns mortein blake clark scott king turner odams 20 research 30 sales 30 sales 20 research 30 sales 30 sales 30 sales 20 research 10 accounting 20 research 20 research
ENAME
DNO DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------james ford miller 30 sales 20 research 10 accounting
14 rows selected.
NONEQUI-JOIN SQL>
ENAME
SAL
LOWSAL HIGHSAL
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------GRADE -------------------king A+ jones A clark A ENAME SAL LOWSAL HIGHSAL 3135 3001 5000 3272 3001 5000 5500 5001 6000
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------GRADE -------------------cott A ford A blake B ENAME SAL LOWSAL HIGHSAL 2695 2001 3000 3300 3001 5000 3300 3001 5000
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------GRADE -------------------allen C ward C martin C ENAME SAL LOWSAL HIGHSAL 1375 1001 2000 1375 1001 2000 1760 1001 2000
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------GRADE -------------------turner C adams C james C ENAME SAL LOWSAL HIGHSAL 1045 1001 2000 1210 1001 2000 1650 1001 2000
------------------------------ ---------- ---------- ---------GRADE -------------------miller C 1430 1001 2000
smith D 14 rows selected.
800
100
1000
Q) display the grades of all employees SQL>
ENAME
SAL GRADE
------------------------------ ---------- -------------------king jones clark scott ford blake allen ward martin turner adams ENAME 5500 A+ 3272 A 3135 A 3300 A 3300 A 2695 B 1760 C 1375 C 1375 C 1650 C 1210 C SAL GRADE
------------------------------ ---------- -------------------james miller smith 1045 C 1430 C 800 D
14 rows selected.
q) display all employees whose grade is A SQL>
ENAME
SAL GRADE
------------------------------ ---------- -------------------jones clark scott ford 3272 A 3135 A 3300 A 3300 A
q) display all employees whose name is jones SQL>
ENAME
SAL GRADE
------------------------------ ---------- -------------------jones 3272 A
q)display all employees with their department names SQL>
ENAME
DNAME
------------------------------ ------------------------------
smith allen ward jones martin blake clark scott king turner adams ENAME
research sales sales research sales accounting sales research accounting sales research DNAME
------------------------------ -----------------------------james ford miller 14 rows selected. sales research accounting
q) display all employees whose departments are sales and research SQL>
ENAME
DNAME
------------------------------ ------------------------------
smith allen ward jones martin blake clark scott king turner adams ENAME
research research research research research research research research research research research DNAME
------------------------------ -----------------------------james ford miller allen ward martin clark turner james 20 rows selected. research research research sales sales sales sales sales sales
SELF JOIN
q)display employees names and his manager names SQL>
ENAME
ENAME
---------- ---------ford scott james turner mortein ward allen miller clark blake johns ENAME johns johns blake blake blake blake blake clark king king king ENAME
---------- ---------smith ford
12 rows selected.
q)display those employees whose salary is greater than his manager salary SQL>
ENAME
ENAME
SAL
SAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ford scott mortein johns johns blake 3300 3300 7371 3272 3272 2695
q) display employee names,his managers name and his department SQL>
ENAME
ENAME
DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------ford scott james turner mortein ward allen miller clark blake johns ENAME johns johns blake blake blake blake blake clark king king king research research sales research sales sales sales accounting sales sales research DNAME
ENAME
---------- ---------- ---------smith ford research
12 rows selected.
q) display employee names,his managers name , his department and his managers department SQL>
ENAME
ENAME
DNAME
DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ford ford ford ford scott scott scott scott james james james ENAME johns johns johns johns johns johns johns johns blake blake blake research accounting research research research sales research operations research accounting research research research sales research operations sales sales sales accounting research sales DNAME DNAME
ENAME
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------james turner turner blake blake blake sales operations
research accounting research research
turner turner mortein mortein mortein mortein ward ward
blake blake blake blake blake blake blake blake
research sales research operations sales sales sales sales sales sales accounting research sales operations accounting research
ENAME
ENAME
DNAME
DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ward ward allen allen allen allen miller miller miller miller clark blake blake blake blake blake blake clark clark clark clark king sales sales sales sales sales sales sales operations accounting research sales operations
accounting accounting accounting research accounting sales accounting operations sales accounting
ENAME
ENAME
DNAME
DNAME
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
clark clark clark blake blake blake blake johns johns johns johns
king king king king king king king king king king king
sales sales sales sales sales sales sales
research sales operations accounting research sales operations
research accounting research research research sales research operations DNAME DNAME
ENAME
ENAME
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------smith smith smith smith ford ford ford ford research accounting research research research sales research operations
48 rows selected.
SUBQUERIES
Multi row SQL>
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MANAGER HIRE
SAL COMMISSION
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------DEPTNO ---------- ---------7566 johns 20 7654 mortein 30 7782 clark 30 EMPNO ENAME JOB MANAGER HIRE SAL COMMISSION manager 7839 09-AUG-81 3135 salesman 7698 28-SEP-81 7371 1400 manager 7839 02-APR-81 3272 AGE
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------DEPTNO ---------- ---------7788 scott 20 7839 king 10 7902 ford 20 Multiple row SQL> analyst 7566 03-DEC-81 3300 president 17-NOV-81 5500 analyst 7566 19-APR-87 3300 AGE
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MANAGER HIRE
SAL COMMISSION
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
DEPTNO ---------- ---------7839 king 10
AGE
president
17-NOV-81
5500
Correlated row SQL>
DEPTNO ---------30 20
PL/SQL
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL. PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of programming languages. It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90s to enhance the capabilities of SQL.
The PL/SQL Engine: Oracle uses a PL/SQL engine to processes the PL/SQL statements. A PL/SQL code can be stored in the client system (client-side) or in the database (server-side). About This PL SQL Programming tutorial This Oracle PL SQL tutorial teaches you the basics of programming in PL/SQL with appropriate examples. You can use this tutorial as your guide or reference while programming with PL SQL. I will be making this Oracle PL SQL programming tutorial as often as possible to share my knowledge in PL SQL and help you in learning PL SQL better. Even though the programming concepts discussed in this tutorial is specific to Oracle PL SQL. The concepts like cursors, functions and stored procedures can be used in other database systems like Sybase , Microsoft SQL server etc, with some change in syntax. This tutorial will be growing regularly; let us know if any topic related to PL SQL needs to be added or you can also share your knowledge on PL SQL with us. Lets share our knowledge about PL SQL with others. A Simple PL/SQL Block: Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements which from a PL/SQL block. A PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:

The Declaration section (optional). The Execution section (mandatory). The Exception (or Error) Handling section (optional).
Declaration Section: The Declaration section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword DECLARE. This section is optional and is used to declare any placeholders like variables, constants, records and cursors, which are used to manipulate data in the execution section. Placeholders may be any of Variables, Constants and Records, which stores data temporarily. Cursors are also declared in this section.
Execution Section: The Execution section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword BEGIN and ends with END. This is a mandatory section and is the section where the program logic is written to perform any task. The programmatic constructs like loops, conditional statement and SQL statements form the part of execution section. Exception Section:
The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be handled in this section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that cannot be handled, the Block terminates abruptly with errors. Every statement in the above three sections must end with a semicolon ; . PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL blocks. Comments can be used to document code. This is how a sample PL/SQL Block looks. DECLARE Variable declaration BEGIN Program Execution EXCEPTION Exception handling END;
Advantages of PL/SQL
These are the advantages of PL/SQL.
Block Structures: PL SQL consists of blocks of code, which can be nested within each other. Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical module. PL/SQL Blocks can be stored in the database and reused. Procedural Language Capability: PL SQL consists of procedural language constructs such as conditional statements (if else statements) and loops like (FOR loops). Better Performance: PL SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single block, thereby reducing network traffic. Error Handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively during the execution of a PL/SQL program. Once an exception is caught, specific actions can be taken depending upon the type of the exception or it can be displayed to the user with a message.
PL/SQL Placeholders Placeholders are temporary storage area. Placeholders can be any of Variables, Constants and Records. Oracle defines placeholders to store data temporarily, which are used to manipulate data during the execution of a PL SQL block. Depending on the kind of data you want to store, you can define placeholders with a name and a datatype. Few of the datatypes used to define placeholders are as given below. Number (n,m) , Char (n) , Varchar2 (n) , Date , Long , Long raw, Raw, Blob, Clob, Nclob, Bfile
PL/SQL Variables These are placeholders that store the values that can change through the PL/SQL Block. The General Syntax to declare a variable is: variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];

variable_name is the name of the variable. datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype. NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable. value or DEFAULT valueis also an optional specification, where you can initialize a variable. Each variable declaration is a separate statement and must be terminated by a semicolon.
For example, if you want to store the current salary of an employee, you can use a variable. DECLARE salary number (6); * salary is a variable of datatype number and of length 6. When a variable is specified as NOT NULL, you must initialize the variable when it is declared. For example: The below example declares two variables, one of which is a not null. DECLARE salary number(4); dept varchar2(10) NOT NULL := HR Dept; The value of a variable can change in the execution or exception section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values to variables in the two ways given below. 1) We can directly assign values to variables. The General Syntax is: variable_name:= value; 2) We can assign values to variables directly from the database columns by using a SELECT.. INTO statement. The General Syntax is:
SELECT column_name INTO variable_name FROM table_name [WHERE condition]; Example: The below program will get the salary of an employee with id '1116' and display it on the screen. DECLARE var_salary number(6); var_emp_id number(6) = 1116; BEGIN SELECT salary INTO var_salary FROM employee WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id; dbms_output.put_line(var_salary); dbms_output.put_line('The employee ' || var_emp_id || ' has salary ' || var_salary); END; NOTE: The backward slash '/' in the above program indicates to execute the above PL/SQL Block. Scope of Variables PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e, the Execution section of an outer block can contain inner blocks. Therefore, a variable which is accessible to an outer Block is also accessible to all nested inner Blocks. The variables declared in the inner blocks are not accessible to outer blocks. Based on their declaration we can classify variables into two types.
Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot be referenced by outside Blocks. Global variables - These are declared in a outer block and can be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
For Example: In the below example we are creating two variables in the outer block and assigning thier product to the third variable created in the inner block. The variable 'var_mult' is declared in the inner block, so cannot be accessed in the outer block i.e. it cannot be accessed after line 11. The variables 'var_num1' and 'var_num2' can be accessed anywhere in the block. 1> DECLARE 2> var_num1 number; 3> var_num2 number; 4> BEGIN 5> var_num1 := 100; 6> var_num2 := 200; 7> DECLARE 8> var_mult number; 9> BEGIN 10> var_mult := var_num1 * var_num2; 11> END; 12> END; 13> / PL/SQL Constants As the name implies a constant is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged throughout the program. A constant is a user-defined literal value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual value. For example: If you want to write a program which will increase the salary of the employees by 25%, you can declare a constant and use it throughout the program. Next time when you want to increase the salary again you can change the value of the constant which will be easier than changing the actual value throughout the program.
The General Syntax to declare a constant is: constant_name CONSTANT datatype := VALUE;

constant_name is the name of the constant i.e. similar to a variable name. The word CONSTANT is a reserved word and ensures that the value does not change. VALUE - It is a value which must be assigned to a constant when it is declared. You cannot assign a value later.
For example, to declare salary_increase, you can write code as follows: DECLARE salary_increase CONSTANT number (3) := 10; You must assign a value to a constant at the time you declare it. If you do not assign a value to a constant while declaring it and try to assign a value in the execution section, you will get a error. If you execute the below Pl/SQL block you will get error. DECLARE salary_increase CONSTANT number(3); BEGIN salary_increase := 100; dbms_output.put_line (salary_increase); END;
PL/SQL Records
Records: Records are another type of datatypes which oracle allows to be defined as a placeholder. Records are composite datatypes, which means it is a combination of different scalar datatypes like char, varchar, number etc. Each scalar data types in the record holds a value. A record can be visualized as a row of data. It can contain all the contents of a row. Declaring a record:
To declare a record, you must first define a composite datatype; then declare a record for that type. The General Syntax to define a composite datatype is: TYPE record_type_name IS RECORD (first_col_name column_datatype, second_col_name column_datatype, ...);

record_type_name it is the name of the composite type you want to define. first_col_name, second_col_name, etc.,- it is the names the fields/columns within the record. column_datatype defines the scalar datatype of the fields.
There are different ways you can declare the datatype of the fields. 1) You can declare the field in the same way as you declare the fieds while creating the table. 2) If a field is based on a column from database table, you can define the field_type as follows: col_name table_name.column_name%type; By declaring the field datatype in the above method, the datatype of the column is dynamically applied to the field. This method is useful when you are altering the column specification of the table, because you do not need to change the code again. NOTE: You can use also %type to declare variables and constants. The General Syntax to declare a record of a uer-defined datatype is: record_name record_type_name; The following code shows how to declare a record called employee_rec based on a user-defined type. DECLARE TYPE employee_type IS RECORD (employee_id number(5), employee_first_name varchar2(25),
employee_last_name employee.last_name%type, employee_dept employee.dept%type); employee_salary employee.salary%type; employee_rec employee_type; If all the fields of a record are based on the columns of a table, we can declare the record as follows: record_name table_name%ROWTYPE; For example, the above declaration of employee_rec can as follows: DECLARE employee_rec employee%ROWTYPE; The advantages of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE are: 1) You do not need to explicitly declare variables for all the columns in a table. 2) If you alter the column specification in the database table, you do not need to update the code. The disadvantage of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE is: 1) When u create a record as a ROWTYPE, fields will be created for all the columns in the table and memory will be used to create the datatype for all the fields. So use ROWTYPE only when you are using all the columns of the table in the program. NOTE: When you are creating a record, you are just creating a datatype, similar to creating a variable. You need to assign values to the record to use them.
The following table consolidates the different ways in which you can define and declare a pl/sql record. Usage Syntax TYPE record_type_name IS RECORD (column_name1 datatype, column_name2 datatype, ...); Define a composite datatype, where each field is scalar.
col_name table_name.column_name%type; record_name record_type_name; record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;
Dynamically define the datatype of a column based on a database column. Declare a record based on a user-defined type. Dynamically declare a record based on an entire row of a table. Each column in the table corresponds to a field in the record.
Passing Values To and From a Record When you assign values to a record, you actually assign values to the fields within it. The General Syntax to assign a value to a column within a record direclty is: record_name.col_name := value; If you used %ROWTYPE to declare a record, you can assign values as shown: record_name.column_name := value; We can assign values to records using SELECT Statements as shown: SELECT col1, col2 INTO record_name.col_name1, record_name.col_name2 FROM table_name [WHERE clause]; If %ROWTYPE is used to declare a record then you can directly assign values to the whole record instead of each columns separately. In this case, you must SELECT all the columns from the table into the record as shown: SELECT * INTO record_name FROM table_name [WHERE clause]; Lets see how we can get values from a record. The General Syntax to retrieve a value from a specific field into another variable is: var_name := record_name.col_name;
The following table consolidates the different ways you can assign values to and from a record: Syntax record_name.col_name := value; Usage To directly assign a value to a specific column of a record. record_name.column_name := value; To directly assign a value to a specific column of a record, if the record is declared using %ROWTYPE. SELECT col1, col2 INTO record_name.col_name1, To assign values to each field of a record_name.col_name2 FROM table_name record from the database table. [WHERE clause]; SELECT * INTO record_name FROM table_name To assign a value to all fields in the [WHERE clause]; record from a database table. variable_name := record_name.col_name; To get a value from a record column and assigning it to a variable. Conditional Statements in PL/SQL As the name implies, PL/SQL supports programming language features like conditional statements, iterative statements. The programming constructs are similar to how you use in programming languages like Java and C++. In this section I will provide you syntax of how to use conditional statements in PL/SQL programming. IF THEN ELSE STATEMENT 1) IF condition THEN statement 1; ELSE statement 2; END IF;
2) IF condition 1
THEN statement 1; statement 2; ELSIF condtion2 THEN statement 3; ELSE statement 4; END IF
3) IF condition 1 THEN statement 1; statement 2; ELSIF condtion2 THEN statement 3; ELSE statement 4; END IF;
4) IF condition1 THEN ELSE
IF condition2 THEN statement1; END IF; ELSIF condition3 THEN statement2; END IF; Iterative Statements in PL/SQL An iterative control Statements are used when we want to repeat the execution of one or more statements for specified number of times. These are similar to those in There are three types of loops in PL/SQL: Simple Loop While Loop For Loop 1) Simple Loop A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before the loop terminates. An EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, otherwise the loop will get into an infinite number of iterations. When the EXIT condition is satisfied the process exits from the loop. The General Syntax to write a Simple Loop is: LOOP statements; EXIT; {or EXIT WHEN condition;} END LOOP; These are the important steps to be followed while using Simple Loop. 1) Initialise a variable before the loop body. 2) Increment the variable in the loop.
3) Use a EXIT WHEN statement to exit from the Loop. If you use a EXIT statement without WHEN condition, the statements in the loop is executed only once. 2) While Loop A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a condition is true. The condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues until the condition becomes false. The General Syntax to write a WHILE LOOP is: WHILE <condition> LOOP statements; END LOOP; Important steps to follow when executing a while loop: 1) Initialise a variable before the loop body. 2) Increment the variable in the loop. 3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in while loops but it's not done oftenly. 3) FOR Loop A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a predetermined number of times. Iteration occurs between the start and end integer values given. The counter is always incremented by 1. The loop exits when the counter reachs the value of the end integer. The General Syntax to write a FOR LOOP is: FOR counter IN val1..val2 LOOP statements; END LOOP;

val1 - Start integer value. val2 - End integer value.
Important steps to follow when executing a while loop: 1) The counter variable is implicitly declared in the declaration section, so it's not necessary to declare it explicity. 2) The counter variable is incremented by 1 and does not need to be incremented explicitly.
3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in FOR loops but it's not done oftenly.
CURSORS
CURSORS
A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a SQL statement is executed. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is called the active set. There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
IMPLICIT CURSORS:
These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns just one row is executed. The status of the cursor for each of these attributes are defined in the below table: Attributes %FOUND Return Value Example The return value is TRUE, if the DML SQL%FOUND statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at least one row and if SELECT .INTO statement return at least one row. The return value is FALSE, if DML statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect row and if SELECT.INTO statement do not return a row. %NOTFOUND The return value is FALSE, if DML statements SQL%NOTFOUND like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE at least one row and if SELECT .INTO statement return at least one row. The return value is TRUE, if a DML statement like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect even one row and if SELECT .INTO statement does not return a row. %ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the SQL%ROWCOUNT DML operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, SELECT
For Example: Consider the PL/SQL Block that uses implicit cursor attributes as shown below: DECLARE var_rows number(5); BEGIN UPDATE employee SET salary = salary + 1000; IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated'); ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT; dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated'); END IF; END; In the above PL/SQL Block, the salaries of all the employees in the employee table are updated. If none of the employees salary are updated we get a message 'None of the salaries where updated'. Else we get a message like for example, 'Salaries for 1000 employees are updated' if there are 1000 rows in employee table.
EXPLICIT CURSORS:
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row. An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row. We can provide a suitable name for the cursor.
The General Syntax for creating a cursor is as given below: CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

cursor_name A suitable name for the cursor. select_statement A select query which returns multiple rows.
HOW TO USE EXPLICIT CURSOR? There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.

DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section. OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section. FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the Execution Section. CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL Block.
1) Declaring a Cursor in the Declaration Section: DECLARE CURSOR emp_cur IS SELECT * FROM emp_tbl WHERE salary > 5000; In the above example we are creating a cursor emp_cur on a query which returns the records of all the employees with salary greater than 5000. Here emp_tbl in the table which contains records of all the employees. 2) Accessing the records in the cursor: Once the cursor is created in the declaration section we can access the cursor in the execution section of the PL/SQL program.
HOW TO ACCESS AN EXPLICIT CURSOR? These are the three steps in accessing the cursor.
1) Open the cursor. 2) Fetch the records in the cursor one at a time. 3) Close the cursor. General Syntax to open a cursor is: OPEN cursor_name; General Syntax to fetch records from a cursor is: FETCH cursor_name INTO record_name; OR FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;
General Syntax to close a cursor is: CLOSE cursor_name; When a cursor is opened, the first row becomes the current row. When the data is fetched it is copied to the record or variables and the logical pointer moves to the next row and it becomes the current row. On every fetch statement, the pointer moves to the next row. If you want to fetch after the last row, the program will throw an error. When there is more than one row in a cursor we can use loops along with explicit cursor attributes to fetch all the records.
POINTS TO REMEMBER WHILE FETCHING A ROW: We can fetch the rows in a cursor to a PL/SQL Record or a list of variables created in the PL/SQL Block. If you are fetching a cursor to a PL/SQL Record, the record should have the same structure as the cursor. If you are fetching a cursor to a list of variables, the variables should be listed in the same order in the fetch statement as the columns are present in the cursor.
General Form of using an explicit cursor is: DECLARE
variables; records; create a cursor; BEGIN OPEN cursor; FETCH cursor; Process the records; CLOSE cursor; END; Lets look at the example below Example 1: 1> DECLARE 2> emp_rec emp%rowtype; 3> CURSOR emp_cur IS 4> SELECT * 5> FROM emp 6> WHERE salary > 10; 7> BEGIN 8> OPEN emp_cur; 9> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec; 10> dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.first_name || ' ' || emp_rec.last_name);
11> CLOSE emp_cur; 12> END;
In the above example, We are creating a record emp_rec of the same structure as of table emp in line no 2. We can also create a record with a cursor by replacing the table name with the cursor name. We are declaring a cursor emp_cur from a select query in line no 3 - 6. We are opening the cursor in the execution section in line no 8. We are fetching the cursor to the record in line no 9. We are displaying the first_name and last_name of the employee in the record emp_rec in line no 10. We are closing the cursor in line no 11.
WHAT ARE EXPLICIT CURSOR ATTRIBUTES? Oracle provides some attributes known as Explicit Cursor Attributes to control the data processing while using cursors. We use these attributes to avoid errors while accessing cursors through OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE Statements.
WHEN DOES AN ERROR OCCUR WHILE ACCESSING AN EXPLICIT CURSOR? a) When we try to open a cursor which is not closed in the previous operation. b) When we try to fetch a cursor after the last operation.
These are the attributes available to check the status of an explicit cursor. Attributes
%FOUND
Return values
Example
TRUE, if fetch statement returns at least Cursor_name%FOUND one row. FALSE, if fetch statement doesnt return a row.
%NOTFOUND
TRUE, , if fetch statement doesnt return a Cursor_name%NOTFOUND row. FALSE, if fetch statement returns at least one row.
%ROWCOUNT
%ISOPEN
The number of rows fetched by the fetch Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT statement If no row is returned, the PL/SQL statement returns an error. TRUE, if the cursor is already open in the Cursor_name%ISNAME program FALSE, if the cursor is not opened in the program.
USING LOOPS WITH EXPLICIT CURSORS:

Oracle provides three types of cursors namely SIMPLE LOOP, WHILE LOOP and FOR LOOP. These loops can be used to process multiple rows in the cursor.
CURSOR WITH A SIMPLE LOOP:
1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 5> BEGIN 6> IF NOT emp_cur%ISOPEN THEN 7> OPEN emp_cur;
8> END IF; 9> LOOP 10> 11> 12> 13> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec; EXIT WHEN emp_cur%NOTFOUND; dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
14> END LOOP; 15> END; 16> /
In the above example we are using two cursor attributes %ISOPEN and %NOTFOUND. In line no 6, we are using the cursor attribute %ISOPEN to check if the cursor is open, if the condition is true the program does not open the cursor again, it directly moves to line no 9. In line no 11, we are using the cursor attribute %NOTFOUND to check whether the fetch returned any row. If there is no rows found the program would exit, a condition which exists when you fetch the cursor after the last row, if there is a row found the program continues. We can use %FOUND in place of %NOTFOUND and vice versa. If we do so, we need to reverse the logic of the program. So use these attributes in appropriate instances.
CURSOR WITH A WHILE LOOP:
Lets modify the above program to use while loop. 1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 5> BEGIN 6> IF NOT sales_cur%ISOPEN THEN 7> OPEN sales_cur;
8> END IF; 9> FETCH sales_cur INTO sales_rec; 10> WHILE sales_cur%FOUND THEN 11> LOOP 12> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name
13>
|| ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
15> FETCH sales_cur INTO sales_rec; 16> END LOOP; 17> END; 18> / In the above example, in line no 10 we are using %FOUND to evaluate if the first fetch statement in line no 9 returned a row, if true the program moves into the while loop. In the loop we use fetch statement again (line no 15) to process the next row. If the fetch statement is not executed once before the while loop the while condition will return false in the first instance and the while loop is skipped. In the loop, before fetching the record again, always process the record retrieved by the first fetch statement, else you will skip the first row.
CURSOR WITH A FOR LOOP:
When using FOR LOOP you need not declare a record or variables to store the cursor values, need not open, fetch and close the cursor. These functions are accomplished by the FOR LOOP automatically.
General Syntax for using FOR LOOP: FOR record_name IN cusror_name LOOP process the row... END LOOP; Lets use the above example to learn how to use for loops in cursors. 1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR emp_cur IS 3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl; 4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
5> BEGIN 6> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur 7> LOOP 8> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name 9> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
10> END LOOP; 11>END; 12> / In the above example, when the FOR loop is processed a record emp_rec of structure emp_cur gets created, the cursor is opened, the rows are fetched to the record emp_rec and the cursor is closed after the last row is processed. By using FOR Loop in your program, you can reduce the number of lines in the program.
STORED PROCEDURES
WHAT IS A STORED PROCEDURE?

A stored procedure or in simple a proc is a named PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific task. This is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. A procedure has a header and a body. The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or variables passed to the procedure. The body consists or declaration section,
execution section and exception section similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an anonymous PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage. We can pass parameters to procedures in three ways. IN-parameters OUT-parameters IN OUT-parameters
A procedure may or may not return any value. General Syntax to create a procedure is: CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters] IS Declaration section BEGIN Execution section EXCEPTION Exception section END; IS - marks the beginning of the body of the procedure and is similar to DECLARE in anonymous PL/SQL Blocks. The code between IS and BEGIN forms the Declaration section. The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicate they are optional. By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure is created if no other procedure with the same name exists or the existing procedure is replaced with the current code. The below example creates a procedure employer details which gives the details of the employee. 1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE employer details 2> IS 3> CURSOR emp_cur IS 4> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl;
5> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype; 6> BEGIN 7> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur 8> LOOP 9> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ||emp_cur.last_name 10> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
11> END LOOP; 12>END; 13> /
HOW TO EXECUTE A STORED PROCEDURE?

There are two ways to execute a procedure. 1) From the SQL prompt. EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name; 2) Within another procedure simply use the procedure name. procedure_name; In the examples given above, we are using backward slash / at the end of the program. This indicates the oracle engine that the PL/SQL program has ended and it can begin processing the statements.
PL/SQL FUNCTIONS
WHAT IS A FUNCTION IN PL/SQL?

A function is a named PL/SQL Block which is similar to a procedure. The major difference between a procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, but a procedure may or may not return a value. The General Syntax to create a function is: CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [parameters] RETURN return_datatype; IS Declaration_section BEGIN Execution_section Return return_variable; EXCEPTION exception section Return return_variable; END;
Return Type:
1) The header section defines the return type of the function. The return datatype can be any of the oracle datatype like varchar, number etc. 2) The execution and exception section both should return a value which is of the datatype defined in the header section. For example, lets create a function called ''employer_details_func' similar to the one created in stored proc
1> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION employer_details_func 2> RETURN VARCHAR(20); 3> IS 5> emp_name VARCHAR(20); 6> BEGIN 7> 8> 9> SELECT first_name INTO emp_name FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = '100'; RETURN emp_name;
10> END; 11> / In the example we are retrieving the first_name of employee with empID 100 to variable emp_name. The return type of the function is VARCHAR which is declared in line no 2. The function returns the 'emp_name' which is of type VARCHAR as the return value in line no 9.
HOW TO EXECUTE A PL/SQL FUNCTION?

A function can be executed in the following ways. 1) Since a function returns a value we can assign it to a variable. employee_name:= employer_details_func; If employee_name is of datatype varchar we can store the name of the employee by assigning the return type of the function to it. 2) As a part of a SELECT statement SELECT employer_details_func FROM dual; 3) In a PL/SQL Statements like, dbms_output.put_line(employer_details_func); This line displays the value returned by the function.
PARAMETERS IN PROCEDURE AND FUNCTIONS

HOW TO PASS PARAMETERS TO PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS IN PL/SQL ? In PL/SQL, we can pass parameters to procedures and functions in three ways. 1) IN type parameter: These types of parameters are used to send values to stored procedures.
2) OUT type parameter: These types of parameters are used to get values from stored procedures. This is similar to a return type in functions.
3) IN OUT parameter: These types of parameters are used to send values and get values from stored procedures. NOTE: If a parameter is not explicitly defined a parameter type, then by default it is an IN type parameter.
1) IN PARAMETER: This is similar to passing parameters in programming languages. We can pass values to the stored procedure through these parameters or variables. This type of parameter is a read only parameter. We can assign the value of IN type parameter to a variable or use it in a query, but we cannot change its value inside the procedure. The General syntax to pass a IN parameter is CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name ( param_name1 IN datatype, param_name12 IN datatype ... )

param_name1, param_name2... are unique parameter names. datatype - defines the datatype of the variable. IN - is optional, by default it is a IN type parameter.
2) OUT PARAMETER: The OUT parameters are used to send the OUTPUT from a procedure or a function. This is a write-only parameter i.e., we cannot pass values to OUT parameters while executing the stored procedure, but we can assign values to OUT parameter inside the stored procedure and the calling program can receive this output value.
The General syntax to create an OUT parameter is CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc2 (param_name OUT datatype) The parameter should be explicitly declared as OUT parameter.
3) IN OUT PARAMETER: The IN OUT parameter allows us to pass values into a procedure and get output values from the procedure. This parameter is used if the value of the IN parameter can be changed in the calling program. By using IN OUT parameter we can pass values into a parameter and return a value to the calling program using the same parameter. But this is possible only if the value passed to the procedure and output value have a same datatype. This parameter is used if the value of the parameter will be changed in the procedure. The General syntax to create an IN OUT parameter is CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc3 (param_name IN OUT datatype) The below examples show how to create stored procedures using the above three types of parameters.
Example1: USING IN AND OUT PARAMETER: Lets create a procedure which gets the name of the employee when the employee id is passed. 1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_name (id IN NUMBER, emp_name OUT NUMBER) 2> IS 3> BEGIN 4> SELECT first name INTO emp_name 5> FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = id; 6> END;
7> / We can call the procedure emp_name in this way from a PL/SQL Block. 1> DECLARE 2> empName varchar(20); 3> CURSOR id_cur SELECT id FROM emp_id; 4> BEGIN 5> FOR emp_rec in id_cur 6> LOOP 7> emp_name(emp_rec.id, empName); 8> dbms_output.put_line ('The employee ' || empName || ' has id ' || emp-rec.id); 9> END LOOP; 10> END; 11> / In the above PL/SQL Block In line no 3; we are creating a cursor id_cur which contains the employee id. In line no 7; we are calling the procedure emp_name, we are passing the id as IN parameter and empName as OUT parameter. In line no 8; we are displaying the id and the employee name which we got from the procedure emp_name. Example 2: USING IN OUT PARAMETER IN PROCEDURES: 1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_salary_increase 2> (emp_id IN emptbl.empID%type, salary_inc IN OUT emptbl.salary%type) 3> IS 4> tmp_sal number;
5> BEGIN 6> SELECT salary 7> INTO tmp_sal
8> FROM emp_tbl 9> WHERE empID = emp_id; 10> IF tmp_sal between 10000 and 20000 THEN 11> salary_inout:= tmp_sal * 1.2;
12> ELSIF tmp_sal between 20000 and 30000 THEN 13> salary_inout:= tmp_sal * 1.3;
14> ELSIF tmp_sal > 30000 THEN 15> salary_inout:= tmp_sal * 1.4;
16> END IF; 17> END; 18> / The below PL/SQL block shows how to execute the above 'emp_salary_increase' procedure. 1> DECLARE 2> CURSOR updated_sal is 3> SELECT empID, salary 4> FROM emp_tbl; 5> pre_sal number; 6> BEGIN 7> FOR emp_rec IN updated_sal LOOP 8> pre_sal:= emp_rec.salary;
9> 10> 11>
emp_salary_increase (emp_rec.empID, emp_rec.salary); dbms_output.put_line ('The salary of ' || emp_rec.empID || ' increased from '|| pre_sal || ' to '||emp_rec.salary);
12> END LOOP; 13> END; 14> /
EXCEPTION HANDLING
WHAT IS EXCEPTION HANDLING?

PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the Exceptions which occur in a PL/SQL Block known as exception Handling. Using Exception Handling we can test the code and avoid it from exiting abruptly. When an exception occurs a messages which explains its cause is recieved. PL/SQL Exception message consists of three parts. Type of Exception An Error Code A message
By Handling the exceptions we can ensure a PL/SQL block does not exit abruptly.
STRUCTURE OF EXCEPTION HANDLING:

The General Syntax for coding the exception section DECLARE Declaration section BEGIN Exception section EXCEPTION WHEN ex_name1 THEN -Error handling statements WHEN ex_name2 THEN -Error handling statements WHEN Others THEN -Error handling statements
END; General PL/SQL statements can be used in the Exception Block.
When an exception is raised, Oracle searches for an appropriate exception handler in the exception section. For example in the above example, if the error raised is 'ex_name1 ', then the error is handled according to the statements under it. Since, it is not possible to determine all the possible runtime errors during testing fo the code, the 'WHEN Others' exception is used to manage the exceptions that are not explicitly handled. Only one exception can be raised in a Block and the control does not return to the Execution Section after the error is handled.
If there are nested PL/SQL blocks like this. DELCARE Declaration section BEGIN DECLARE Declaration section BEGIN Execution section EXCEPTION Exception section END; EXCEPTION Exception section END; In the above case, if the exception is raised in the inner block it should be handled in the exception block of the inner PL/SQL block else the control moves to the Exception block of the
next upper PL/SQL Block. If none of the blocks handle the exception the program ends abruptly with an error.
TYPES OF EXCEPTION:
There are 3 types of Exceptions. Named System Exceptions Unnamed System Exceptions User-defined Exceptions
NAMED SYSTEM EXCEPTIONS:
System exceptions are automatically raised by Oracle, when a program violates a RDBMS rule. There are some system exceptions which are raised frequently, so they are pre-defined and given a name in Oracle which are known as Named System Exceptions. For example: NO_DATA_FOUND and ZERO_DIVIDE are called Named System exceptions. Named system exceptions are: Not Declared explicitly, Raised implicitly when a predefined Oracle error occurs, Caught by referencing the standard name within an exception-handling routine. Reason Error Number
Exception Name
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN When you open a cursor that is already ORA-06511 open. INVALID_CURSOR When you perform an invalid operation on ORA-01001 a cursor like closing a cursor, fetch data from a cursor that is not opened. NO_DATA_FOUND When a SELECT...INTO clause does not ORA-01403 return any row from a table.
TOO_MANY_ROWS
When you SELECT or fetch more than one ORA-01422 row into a record or variable. When you attempt to divide a number by ORA-01476 zero.
ZERO_DIVIDE
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception is raised in a proc, we can write a code to handle the exception as given below. BEGIN Execution section EXCEPTION WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN dbms_output.put_line ('A SELECT...INTO did not return any row.'); END;
UNNAMED SYSTEM EXCEPTIONS:
Those system exception for which oracle does not provide a name is known as unnamed system exception. These exception do not occur frequently. These Exceptions have a code and an associated message. There are two ways to handle unnamed system exceptions: o By using the WHEN OTHERS exception handler, or o By associating the exception code to a name and using it as a named exception. We can assign a name to unnamed system exceptions using a Pragma called EXCEPTION_INIT.
EXCEPTION_INIT will associate a predefined Oracle error number to a programmer defined exception name. Steps to be followed to use unnamed system exceptions are
They are raised implicitly. If they are not handled in WHEN Others they must be handled explicitly. To handle the exception explicitly, they must be declared using Pragma EXCEPTION_INIT as given above and handled referencing the user-defined exception name in the exception section.
The general syntax to declare unnamed system exception using EXCEPTION_INIT is: DECLARE exception_name EXCEPTION; PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (exception_name, Err_code); BEGIN Execution section EXCEPTION WHEN exception_name THEN handle the exception END; For Example: Lets consider the product table and order_items table from sql joins. Here product_id is a primary key in product table and a foreign key in order_items table. If we try to delete a product_id from the product table when it has child records in order_id table an exception will be thrown with oracle code number -2292. We can provide a name to this exception and handle it in the exception section as given below. DECLARE Child_rec_exception EXCEPTION; PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (Child_rec_exception, -2292); BEGIN
Delete FROM product where product_id= 104; EXCEPTION WHEN Child_rec_exception THEN Dbms_output.put_line('Child records are present for this product_id.'); END; / USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS
Apart from system exceptions we can explicitly define exceptions based on business rules. These are known as user-defined exceptions. Steps to be followed to use user-defined exceptions: o They should be explicitly declared in the declaration section. o They should be explicitly raised in the Execution Section. o They should be handled by referencing the user-defined exception name in the exception section. For Example: Lets consider the product table and order_items table from sql joins to explain user-defined exception. Lets create a business rule that if the total no of units of any particular product sold is more than 20, then it is a huge quantity and a special discount should be provided. DECLARE huge_quantity EXCEPTION; CURSOR product_quantity is SELECT p.product_name as name, sum(o.total_units) as units FROM order_tems o, product p WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id; quantity order_tems.total_units%type; up_limit CONSTANT order_tems.total_units%type := 20;
message VARCHAR2(50); BEGIN FOR product_rec in product_quantity LOOP quantity := product_rec.units; IF quantity > up_limit THEN message := 'The number of units of product ' || product_rec.name || ' is more than 20. Special discounts should be provided. Rest of the records are skipped. ' RAISE huge_quantity; ELSIF quantity < up_limit THEN v_message:= 'The number of unit is below the discount limit.'; END IF; dbms_output.put_line (message); END LOOP; EXCEPTION WHEN huge_quantity THEN dbms_output.put_line (message); END; /
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR ( ):
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is a built-in procedure in oracle which is used to display the user-defined error messages along with the error number whose range is in between 20000 and -20999. Whenever a message is displayed using RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR, all previous transactions which are not committed within the PL/SQL Block are rolled back automatically (i.e. change due to INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements). RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR raises an exception but does not handle it. RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is used for the following reasons o to create a unique id for an user-defined exception. o to make the user-defined exception look like an Oracle error. The General Syntax to use this procedure is:
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (ERROR_NUMBER,ERROR_MESSAGE)
The Error number must be between -20000 and -20999 The Error_message is the message you want to display when the error occurs.
Steps to be followed to use RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR procedure: Declare a user-defined exception in the declaration section. Raise the user-defined exception based on a specific business rule in the execution section. Finally, catch the exception and link the exception to a user-defined error number in RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR. we can display a error message using
Using the above example RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR. DECLARE huge_quantity EXCEPTION; CURSOR product_quantity is
SELECT p.product_name as name, sum(o.total_units) as units FROM order_tems o, product p
WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id; quantity order_tems.total_units%type; up_limit CONSTANT order_tems.total_units%type := 20; message VARCHAR2(50); BEGIN FOR product_rec in product_quantity LOOP quantity := product_rec.units; IF quantity > up_limit THEN RAISE huge_quantity; ELSIF quantity < up_limit THEN message:= 'The number of unit is below the discount limit.'; END IF; Dbms_output.put_line (message); END LOOP; EXCEPTION WHEN huge_quantity THEN raise_application_error(-2100, 'The number of unit is above the discount limit.'); END;
TRIGGERS
WHAT IS A TRIGGER?
A trigger is a pl/sql block structure which is fired when a DML statements like Insert, Delete, Update is executed on a database table. A trigger is triggered automatically when an associated DML statement is executed.
Syntax of Triggers The Syntax for creating a trigger is: CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} [OF col_name] ON table_name [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] [FOR EACH ROW] WHEN (condition) BEGIN --- sql statements END;
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name - This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing trigger with the same name.
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } - This clause indicates at what time should the trigger get fired. i.e., for example: before or after updating a table. INSTEAD OF is used to create a trigger on a view. before and after cannot be used to create a trigger on a view.
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} - This clause determines the triggering event. More than one triggering events can be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger gets fired at all the specified triggering event.
[OF col_name] - This clause is used with update triggers. This clause is used when you want to trigger an event only when a specific column is updated.
[ON table_name] - This clause identifies the name of the table or view to which the trigger is associated.
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] - This clause is used to reference the old and new values of the data being changed. By default, you reference the values as :old.column_name or :new.column_name. The reference names can also be changed from old (or new) to any other user-defined name. You cannot reference old values when inserting a record, or new values when deleting a record, because they do not exist.
[FOR EACH ROW] - This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when each row gets affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire sql statement is executed(i.e., statement level Trigger).
WHEN (condition) - This clause is valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired only for rows that satisfy the condition specified.
For Example: The price of a product changes constantly. It is important to maintain the history of the prices of the products. We can create a trigger to update the 'product_price_history' table when the price of the product is updated in the 'product' table.
1) Create the 'product' table and 'product_price_history' table CREATE TABLE product_price_history (product_id number(5), product_name varchar2(32), supplier_name varchar2(32), unit_price number(7,2) );
CREATE TABLE product (product_id number(5), product_name varchar2(32), supplier_name varchar2(32), unit_price number(7,2) );
2) Create the price_history_trigger and execute it. CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER price_history_trigger BEFORE UPDATE OF unit_price ON product FOR EACH ROW BEGIN INSERT INTO product_price_history VALUES (:old.product_id, :old.product_name,
:old.supplier_name, :old.unit_price); END; /
3) Lets update the price of a product. UPDATE PRODUCT SET unit_price = 800 WHERE product_id = 100 Once the above update query is executed, the trigger fires and updates the 'product_price_history' table.
4)If you ROLLBACK the transaction before committing to the database, the data inserted to the table is also rolled back.
TYPES OF PL/SQL TRIGGERS:

There are two types of triggers based on the which level it is triggered. Row level trigger - An event is triggered for each row updated, inserted or deleted. Statement level trigger - An event is triggered for each sql statement executed.
PL/SQL TRIGGER EXECUTION HIERARCHY:

The following hierarchy is followed when a trigger is fired. BEFORE statement trigger fires first. Next BEFORE row level trigger fires, once for each row affected. Then AFTER row level trigger fires once for each affected row. This events will alternates between BEFORE and AFTER row level triggers. Finally the AFTER statement level trigger fires.
For Example: Let's create a table 'product_check' which we can use to store messages when triggers are fired. CREATE TABLE product (Message varchar2(50), Current_Date number(32) ); Let's create a BEFORE and AFTER statement and row level triggers for the product table.
1) BEFORE UPDATE, Statement Level: This trigger will insert a record into the table 'product_check' before a sql update statement is executed, at the statement level. CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER Before_Update_Stat_product BEFORE UPDATE ON product Begin INSERT INTO product_check Values('Before update, statement level', sysdate); END; /
2) BEFORE UPDATE, Row Level: This trigger will insert a record into the table 'product_check' before each row is updated. CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER Before_Upddate_Row_product BEFORE
UPDATE ON product FOR EACH ROW BEGIN INSERT INTO product_check Values('Before update row level', sysdate); END; /
3) AFTER UPDATE, Statement Level: This trigger will insert a record into the table 'product_check' after a sql update statement is executed, at the statement level. CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER After_Update_Stat_product AFTER UPDATE ON product BEGIN INSERT INTO product_check Values ('After update, statement level', sysdate); End; /
4) AFTER UPDATE, Row Level: This trigger will insert a record into the table 'product_check' after each row is updated. CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER After_Update_Row_product AFTER
insert On product FOR EACH ROW BEGIN INSERT INTO product_check Values('After update, Row level', sysdate); END; / Now lets execute a update statement on table product. UPDATE PRODUCT SET unit_price = 800 WHERE product_id in (100,101); Lets check the data in 'product_check' table to see the order in which the trigger is fired. SELECT * FROM product_check; Output: Message Current_Date
-----------------------------------------------------------Before update, Before update, After update, Before update, After update, After update, statement level statement level row level Row level row level Row level 26-Nov-2008 26-Nov-2008 26-Nov-2008 26-Nov-2008 26-Nov-2008 26-Nov-2008
The above result shows 'before update' and 'after update' row level events have occurred twice, since two records were updated. But 'before update' and 'after update' statement level events are fired only once per sql statement. The above rules apply similarly for INSERT and DELETE statements.
HOW TO KNOW INFORMATION ABOUT TRIGGERS:

We can use the data dictionary view 'USER_TRIGGERS' to obtain information about any trigger.
The below statement shows the structure of the view 'USER_TRIGGERS' DESC USER_TRIGGERS; NAME Type
-------------------------------------------------------TRIGGER_NAME TRIGGER_TYPE TRIGGER_EVENT TABLE_OWNER BASE_OBJECT_TYPE TABLE_NAME COLUMN_NAME REFERENCING_NAMES WHEN_CLAUSE STATUS DESCRIPTION ACTION_TYPE TRIGGER_BODY VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(16) VARCHAR2(75) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(16) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(4000) VARCHAR2(128) VARCHAR2(4000) VARCHAR2(8) VARCHAR2(4000) VARCHAR2(11) LONG
This view stores information about header and body of the trigger. SELECT * FROM user_triggers WHERE trigger_name = 'Before_Update_Stat_product'; The above sql query 'Before_Update_Stat_product'. provides the header and body of the trigger
You can drop a trigger using the following command. DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;
CYCLIC CASCADING IN A TRIGGER:

This is an undesirable situation where more than one trigger enter into an infinite loop. while creating a trigger we should ensure the such a situation does not exist. The below example shows how Trigger's can enter into cyclic cascading. Let's consider we have two tables 'abc' and 'xyz'. Two triggers are created. The INSERT Trigger, trigger A on table 'abc' issues an UPDATE on table 'xyz'. The UPDATE Trigger, trigger B on table 'xyz' issues an INSERT on table 'abc'.
In such a situation, when there is a row inserted in table 'abc', trigger A fires and will update table 'xyz'. When the table 'xyz' is updated, trigger B fires and will insert a row in table 'abc'. This cyclic situation continues and will enter into a infinite loop, which will crash the database.

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STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

DATA TYPES IN ORACLE:

SQL> connect Enter user-name: system Enter password: Connected.

Data Definition Language (DDL)

ACCOUNT TABLE SQL>

DESCRIBE It gives the description of the table SQL>

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------

ACCNO NAME DOJ BAL

NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) DATE NUMBER(20)

TO SEE THE CONTENTS OF TABLE:

DEPT TABLE SQL>

Table created. SQL>

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------

DEPTNO DNAME LOCATION SQL>

NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(30)

EMP101 TABLE SQL>

Table created. SQL> Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

NUMBER(20) VARCHAR2(30) VARCHAR2(30) NUMBER(20) DATE NUMBER(30) NUMBER(30) NUMBER(20)

salesman 7698 salesman 7698 manager 7839

salesman 7698 clerk clerk analyst clerk 7788 7698

7566 03-DEC-81 7782 23-JAN-82

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Control Language (DCL)

---------- ---------30 20 30 30 20 1760 3300 1045 1375 800

1650 1430 3272 2695 5500 3135 SAL

---------- ---------20 1210

12 rows selected. SQL>

DEPNO ENAME ---------- -----------------------------30 clark 20 scott 20 adams 14 rows selected.

SQL> select * from account101;

SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED PRICE AGE

CHANGING DATATYPE OF A FIELD

Table altered. SQL> desc customer101; Name Null? Type

UPDATING A COLUMN (ENTERNING VALUES INTO EXTRA ADDED COLUMN)

Table altered. SQL> select * from customer101; ID NAME PURCHASED AGE

1 row updated. SQL> select * from customer101;

SAL+COMMISION ------------800 2060

ADDITION OF COLOUMNS WITH NULL VALUES

SAL+NVL(COMMISION,0) -------------------800 2060 1875 3272 2775 2695

ADDITION + COLUMN ALIASING

NETSAL ---------800 2060 1875 3272 2775 2695

3135 3300 5500 3300 1210 NETSAL ---------1045 3300 1430

1650 1760 2695 3135 3272

1650 300 0 0 0 SAL COMMISION

1430 3300 5500 1760

0 0 0 300 SAL COMMISION

------------------------------ ------- ---------CUSTOMER101 EMPL101 TABLE TABLE

DEP101 STUD101 ACC101 EMP101 6 rows selected.

TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------

manager 0 salesman 1400 manager 2695 0 JOB 10 30 20

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

7839 09-JUL-81 EMPNO ENAME

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO

---------- ------------------------------ -----------------------------MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMISION DEPNO