CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 CONTROLLER In control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a given dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as output variables of the system which can be affected by adjusting certain input variables. For example, the heating system of a house can be equipped with a thermostat (controller) for sensing air temperature (output variable) which can turn on or off a furnace or heater when the air temperature becomes too low or too high. In an example, the thermostat is the controller and directs the activities of the heater. The heater is the processor that warms the air inside the house to the desired temperature (set point). The air temperature reading inside the house is the feedback. And finally, the house is the environment in which the heating system operates. The notion of controllers can be extended to more complex systems. In the natural world, individual organisms also appear to be equipped with controllers that assure the homeostasis necessary for survival of each individual. Both human-made and natural systems exhibit collective behaviors amongst individuals in which the controllers seek some form of equilibrium. As conventional controllers we can count a controllers known for years now, such as P, PI, PD, PID, Otto-Smith, all their different types and realizations, and other controller types2. It is a characteristic of all conventional controllers that one has to know a mathematical model of the process in order to design a controller. Unconventional controllers utilize a new approaches to the controller design in which knowledge of a mathematical model of a process generally is not required. Examples of unconventional controller are a fuzzy controller and neuro or neuro-fuzzy controllers. Many industrial processes are nonlinear and thus complicate to describe mathematically. However, it is known that a good many nonlinear processes can satisfactory controlled using PID controllers providing that controller parameters are tuned well. Practical experience shows that this type of control has a lot of sense since it is simple and based on 3 basic behavior [1]

types: proportional (P), integrative (I) and derivative (D). Instead of using a small number of complex controllers, a larger number of simple PID controllers is used to control simpler processes in an industrial assembly in order to automates the certain more complex process. PID controller and its different types such as P, PI and PD controllers are today a basic building blocks in control of various processes. In spite their simplicity, they can be used to solve even a very complex control problems, especially when combined with different functional blocks, filters (compensators or correction blocks), selectors etc. A continuous development of new control algorithms insure that the time of PID controller has not past and that this basic algorithm will have its part to play in process control in foreseeable future. It can be expected that it will be a backbone of many complex control systems.

1.2 FRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROL Fractional order control or (FOC) is a field of control theory that uses the fractional order integrator as part of the control system design toolkit. The fundamental advantage of FOC is that the fractional order integrator weights history using a function that decays with a power-law tail. The effect is that the effects of all time are computed for each iteration of the control algorithm. This creates a 'distribution of time constants,' the upshot of which is there is no particular time constant, or resonance frequency, for the system .In fact, the fractional integral operator is different from any integer-order

rational transfer function GI(s), in the sense that it is a non-local operator that possesses an infinite memory and takes into account the whole history of its input signal. Fractional order control shows promise in many controlled environments that suffer from the classical problems of overshoot and resonance, as well as time diffuse applications such as thermal dissipation and chemical mixing. Fractional calculus is a branch of mathematical analysis that studies the possibility of taking real number powers or complex number powers of the differentiation operator.

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and the integration operator J. (Usually J is used instead of I to avoid confusion with other I-like glyphs and identities.) In this context the term powers refers to iterative application or composition, in the same sense that f 2(x) = f(f(x)) For example, one may ask the question of meaningfully interpreting

As a square root of the differentiation operator (an operator half iterate), i.e., an expression for some operator that when applied twice to a function will have the same effect as differentiation. More generally, one can look at the question of defining for real-number values of a in such a way that when a takes an integer value n, the usual power of n-fold differentiation is recovered for n > 0, and the nth power of J when n < 0.The motivation behind this extension to the differential operator is that the semi group of powers Da will form a continuous semi group with parameter a, inside which the original discrete semi group of Dn for integer n can be recovered as a subgroup. Continuous semi groups are prevalent in mathematics, and have an interesting theory. Notice here that fraction is then a misnomer for the exponent a, since it need not be rational; the use of the term fractional calculus is merely conventional.

Fractional differential equations are a generalization of differential equations . The application of fractional calculus in control led to the adaptation of the fractional calculus concepts to frequency based methods. The frequency response and the transient response of the non-integrate and its application to control systems was introduced by Manabe [1963], and more recently in ( Barbosa et.at.2003). Podlubny (Podlubny, 1999) proposed a generalization of the PID controller, namely the PI D controller, involving an integrator of order and a differentiator of order . He also demonstrated the better response of this type of controller, in comparison with the classical PID controller, when used for the fractional order system. The extension of derivation and integration orders from integer to non-integer number provides a more flexible tunning strategy and therefore it is easier to achieving the requirements with respect to classical controllers. through the application of fractional calculus. Fractional-order Systems and Controls details the use of fractional calculus (calculus of non-integer order) in the description [3]

and modeling of systems, and in a range of control design and practical applications. The use of fractional calculus can improve and generalize well-established control methods and strategies. Many different FOC schemes are presented for control and dynamic systems problems. These extend to the challenging control engineering design problems of robust and nonlinear control. Practical material relating to a wide variety of applications including, among others, mechatronics, civil engineering, irrigation and water management, and biological systems is also provided. All the control schemes and applications are presented in the monograph with either system simulation results or real experimental results, or both.

1.3 THE FOPID CONTROLLER A PID controller is a generic control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. The PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired set point by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly .The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate are parameters :the proportional (Kp), the integral (Ki) and derivative (Kd) time constants. The proportional gain determines the reaction to the current error ,the integral determines there action based on the sumo frequenters or sand the derivative determines the reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.. There a local object so reprocesses that we want to control are generally fractional (for example, the voltage current relation of a semi infinite lossy RC line). However, for many of them the fractionality is very low. In general, the integer order approximation of the fractional systems can cause significant differences between mathematical model and real system. The main reason for using integer order models was the absence of solution methods for FDEs. PID controllers belong to dominating industrial controllers and therefore are objects of steady effort for improvement soft their quality and robustness.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The project report mainly focuses upon the simple yet severe issue of the fractional control of the PID controller, focusing on the technical knowhow of the problem and the method of control by means of various control schemes. The idea of this concept is basically taken from our text books . Apart from this there are several papers which have been the guiding stones for the successful completion of this project work. A fair amount of research that has been done on this topic. In order to keep the research comprehensive, yet manageable the following sources have been primarily consulted from IEEE Scholary articles. IEEE transactions on automatic control IEEE conference publications. IEEE mechatronics and automation Although not every paper in the above publication are cited, its believed that those that are, give a fair indication of the progress made so far in this area . According to SCHLEGEL MILO S, CECH MARTIN University of West Bohemia in
Pilsen,

Department of Cybernetics, Pilsen, CZ

in the paper THE FRACTIONAL-

ORDER PID CONTROLLER OUTPERFORMS THE CLASSICAL ONE Over the years, the PID controller becomes one of the most popular industrial controllers thanks to its simplicity and the ability to tune a few parameters automatically. The boom of the fractional calculus in the last decades showed new possibilities for process identification (Charef and Sun [1992], Cech and Schlegel [2006]) and controller synthesis (Podlubny [1999]). In this area, the fractional-orderPID controller (FPID) arises from the classical one after considering integrator and derivator of arbitrary real order. Moreover, these two parameters still have a clear physical interpretation. The generalized fractional order operators are also linear, so the same methods and rules as for the frequency domain linear control system design can be applied. In linear system theory, the overall quality of the control loop can be evaluated especially in the frequency domain - gain and phase [5]

margins, limitations on sensitivity functions, proper bandwidth, low frequency disturbance dumping, etc. To proceed with these design specifications, the robustness regions method for a classical PID controller with filtered derivative part was presented in the authors previous work Schlegel and Cech [2004b]. It is based on classical Dpartition method (Shafei and Shenton[1997]). This method allows robust design for several process models as well. Hovewer, it may be difficult to fulfill all design specifications because of lower flexibility of the classical PID controller. The aim of this paper is to present the generalized robustness regions method for a FPID controller with filtered derivative part. It is shown that the FPID controller as a natural generalization of the classical one can fulfill stricter contradictory design specifications simultaneously. In this paper, all aspects and features of FPID controller will be outlined only in frequency domain. According to Ali Akbar Jalali, Shabnam Khosravi: in the paper

Tuning of FOPID

Controller Using Taylor Series Expansion For many decades, proportional-integralderivative(PID) controllers have been very popular in industries for process control applications. The popularity and widespread use of PID controllers are attributed primarily to their simplicity and performance characteristics. Owing to the paramount importance of PID controllers, continuous efforts are being made to improve their quality and robustness [1], [2].An elegant way of enhancing the performance of PID controllers is to use fractional order controller where the integral and derivative

operators have noninteger orders. Podlubny proposed the concept of fractional order control in 1999 [3]. In FOPID controller, despite of the proportional, integral and derivative constants, there are two more adjustable parameters: the power of s in integral and derivative operators, respectively. Therefore this type of controllers is generalizations of PIDs and consequently has a wider scope of design, while retaining the advantages of classical ones. Several methods have been reported for FOPID design. Accoring to Dingyu Xue and Chunna Zhao and YangQuan Chen in the paper Fractional Order PID Control of A DC-Motor with Elastic Shaft: A Case Study There is an increasing interest in dynamic systems of non integer orders. Extending derivatives and integrals from integer orders to non integer orders has a firm and long standing [6]

theoretical foundation. For example, Leibniz mentioned this concept in a letter to L_Hospital over three hundred years ago and the earliest more or less systematic studies have been made in the beginning and middle of the 19th century by Liouville , Riemann and Holmgren [1]. In the literature, people often use the term fractional order calculus, or fractional order dynamic system where fractional actually means non-integer .As far as the complete references of the project is concerned, papers comparing and contrasting the performance are available as a reckoner.

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CHAPTER 3
CONTROL THEORY
3.1 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS In control theory there are two basic types of control. These are feedback and feedforward. The input to a feedback controller is the same as what it is trying to control the controlled variable is "fed back" into the controller. The thermostat of a house is an example of a feedback controller. This controller relies on measuring the controlled variable, in this case the temperature of the house, and then adjusting the output, whether or not the heater is on. However, feedback control usually results in intermediate periods where the controlled variable is not at the desired set-point. With the thermostat example, if the door of the house were opened on a cold day, the house would cool down. After it fell below the desired temperature (set-point), the heater would kick on, but there would be a period when the house was colder than desired. Feed-forward control can avoid the slowness of feedback control. With feed-forward control, the disturbances are measured and accounted for before they have time to affect the system. In the house example, a feed-forward system may measure the fact that the door is opened and automatically turn on the heater before the house can get too cold. The difficulty with feed-forward control is that the effect of the disturbances on the system must be accurately predicted, and there must not be any unmeasured disturbances. For instance, if a window were opened that was not being measured, the feed-forwardcontrolled thermostat might still let the house cool down. To achieve the benefits of feedback control (controlling unknown disturbances and not having to know exactly how a system will respond to disturbances) and the benefits of feed-forward control (responding to disturbances before they can affect the system), there are combination's of feedback and feed-forward that can be used. Some examples of where feedback and feed-forward control can be used together are dead-time compensation, and inverse response compensation. Dead-time compensation is used to control devices that take a long time to show any change to a change in input, for example, change in composition of flow through a long pipe. A dead-time compensation control uses an element (also called a Smith predictor) to predict how changes made now by the controller will affect [8]

the controlled variable in the future. The controlled variable is also measured and used in feedback control. Inverse response compensation involves controlling systems where a change at first affects the measured variable one way but later affects it in the opposite way. An example would be eating candy. At first it will give you lots of energy, but later you will be very tired. As can be imagined, it is difficult to control this system with feedback alone, therefore a predictive feed-forward element is necessary to predict the reverse effect that a change will have in the future. '''

3.2 CHOICE OF THE CONTROLLER TYPE

3.2.1 On-off controller On-off controller is the simplest controller and it has some important advantages. It is economical, simple to design and it does not require any parameter tuning. If oscillations will hamper the operation of the system and if controller parameter tuning is to be avoided, on-off controller is a good solution. In addition, if actuators work in only two modes (on and off), then it is almost always only controller that can be used with such actuators. That is a reason why on-off controllers are often used in home appliances (refrigerators, washers etc.) and in process industry when control quality requirements are not high (temperature control in buildings etc.). Additional advantage of on-off controllers is that they in general do not require any maintenance.

3.2.2 P controller When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state error. Stable system do not have a problems when large gain is used. Such systems are systems with one energy storage (1st order capacitive systems). If constant steady state error can be accepted with such processes, than P controller can be used. Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor will give measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not too great anyway. Example of such system is liquid level control in tanks when exact approximate level of liquid suffice for the proper plant operation. Also, in cascade control sometime it is not important if there is an error inside inner loop, so P controller can a good solution in such cases. Derivative mode is not required [9]

if the process itself is fast or if the control system as whole does not have to be fast in response. Processes of 1st order react immediately on the reference signal change, so it is not necessary to predict error (introduce D mode) or compensate for the steady state error (introduce I mode) if it is possible to achieve satisfactory steady state error using only P controller.

3.2.3 PD controller It is well known that thermal processes with good thermal insulation act almost as integrators. Since insulation is good and thermal losses are small, the most significant part of the energy that is led to the system is used temperature rise. Those processes allow18for large gains so that integral mode in the controller is not needed. These processes can be described as different connections of thermal energy storages. Thermal energy is shifted from one storage into another. In general, with such processes there is present a process dynamics with large inertia. Since dynamics is slow, derivative mode is required for control of such processes. Integral mode would only already slow dynamics make more slowly. The other reason for using PPD controllers in such systems is that is possible to measure temperature with low level of noise in the measured signal. PD controller is often used in control of moving objects such are flying and underwater vehicles, ships, rockets etc. One of the reason is in stabilizing effect of PD controller on sudden changes in heading variable y(t). Often a "rate gyro" for velocity measurement is used as sensor of heading change of moving object.

3.2.4 PI controller PI controllers are the most often type used today in industry. A control without D mode is used when: fast response of the system is not required large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the process there is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive) there are large transport delays in the system

If there are large transport delays present in the controlled process, error prediction is required. However, D mode cannot be used for prediction because [10]

every information is delayed till the moment when a change in controlled variable is recorded. In such cases it is better to predict the output signal using mathematical model of the process in broader sense (process + actuator). The controller structures that can be used are, for example, Otto-Smith predictor (controller)

3.2.5 PID controller Derivative mode improves stability of the system and enables increase in gain K and decrease in integral time constant Ti, which increases speed of the controller response. PID controller is used when dealing with higher order capacitive processes (processes with more than one energy storage) when their dynamic is not simillar to the dynamics of an integrator (like in many thermal processes). PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the control of mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when stability and precise reference following are required. Conventional autopilot are for the most part PID type controllers.

3.3 PID CONTROLLERS A PID controller is a simple three-term controller. The letters P, I and D stand for: I P - Proportional I I - Integral I D - Derivative The transfer function of the most basic form of PID controller, as we use in general, is C(s) = KP +KI/s+ KDs =Kds2 + Kps + Ki/s Where KP = Proportional gain, KI = Integral gain and KD = Derivative gain. PID (proportional |integral| derivative) control-lers are well-known and widely used because they are simple, effective, robust, and easily tuned. An important contribution for this last characteristic was the development of several tuning rules fortuning the parameters of such controllers from some simple response of the plant [11]

A PID controller operates on the error in a feedback system and does the following : A PID controller calculates a term proportional to the error-P term. A PID controller calculates a term proportional to the integral of the error-I term, A PID controller calculates a term proportional to the derivative of the error-D term, The three terms P, I and D terms are added together to produce a control signal that is applied to the system being controlled.PID Controllers are everywhere! Due to its simplicity and excellent if not optimal performance in many applications, PID controllers are used in more than 95% of closed-loop industrial processes.1 It can be tuned by operators without extensive background in Controls, unlike many other modern controllers that are much more complex but often provide only marginal improvement. In fact, most PID controllers are tuned on-site. Although we are learning all the theories in to design the controller, the lengthy calculations for an initial guess of PID parameters can often be circumvented if we\know a few useful tuning rules. This is especially useful when the system is unknown. Derivative mode improves stability of the system and enables increase in gain K and decrease in integral time constant Ti, which increases speed of the controller response. PID controller is used when dealing with higher order capacitive processes (processes with more than one energy storage) when their dynamic is not similar to the dynamics of an integrator (like in many thermal processes). PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the control of mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when stability and precise reference following are required. Conventional autopilot are for the most part PID type controllers. While it is true that there are a great many control systems that use one or two of these techniques and function perfectly well within their scope of requirements, the most useful way to use these techniques is within the scope of a three term controller i.e. proportional, integral and derivative control. This is more commonly known as PID control. We will now examine how a single control system can make use of all three techniques to achieve the required control of the target (eg speed). This topic is notoriously mathematical in most of the rigorous explanations of the subject which can exclude a great many practical engineers who were not born again mathematicians. [12]

We feel that this can be avoided, especially initially, in favour of a feel for what is going on. If maths is your forte then perhaps later sections will be of more interest. For the purposes of simplicity we will stay with the car speed control system example where the accelerator pedal is the control input and the car speed is the target output. The above statement contains a lot of concepts !!. By feedback we are saying that some function of the output (speed) error is used to correct the input (accelerator) control. i.e. a part of the output is fed back to the input. Because this feedback is intended to reduce the error in the output we call it negative feedback. This should be obvious when you consider what would happened if positive feedback was used. i.e. to correct a slight increase in speed, you pressed the accelerator further..in no time you would be going rather fast. In fact we will see later that the accidental occurrence of positive feedback constitutes a loss of control, or instability, of the system. In the above statement we also note that there are proportional elements of each of the P,I and D elements. Put simply there are three constants that determine how much of each type are added together to give a resulting correction to the accelerator pedal. The bigger the constant , the more the control pedal reacts to a change of that nature in the speed. For example a large number multiplying the derivative part of the feedback will make the car speed very responsive to sudden changes in speed. This may help control the speed but you might find the ride a bit jumpy. A small number for this will mean that other elements, like proportional feedback, may become more needed to correct speed fluctuations. Sudden drops in speed may take a bit longer to correct in this case, but the ride should be a bit smoother ! What we need is an optimum choice for these constants in order for the speed to be controlled accurately enough for our purposes without other aspects of the system being adversely affected. This process of choosing the numbers is referred to as tuning the PID control system.

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3.3.1 PID Controller structure

u = KPe + KI Z edt + KD de/dt In this fig, we assume the controller is used in a closed-loop unity feedback system. The variable e denotes the tracking error, which is sent to the PID controller. The control signal from the controller to the plant is equal to the proportional gain (Kp) times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (Ki ) times the integral of the error plus the derivative gain (Kd) times the derivative of the error .The PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today, more than95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control.PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing.. PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the bread and butter t t of control engineering. It is an important component in every control engineers tool box.PID controllers have survived many changes in [14]

technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a dramatic in fluenceon the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on microprocessors . This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.

Different responses of a PID controller Proportion Response The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point and the process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The proportional gain (Kc ) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will increase the speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If Kc is increased further, the oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control.

Figure : Block diagram of a basic PID control algorithm.

Integral Response The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small error term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the process variable and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when integral [15]

action saturates a controller without the controller driving the error signal toward zero.

Derivative Response The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is increasing rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter will cause the control system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed of the overall control system response. Most practical control systems use very small derivative time (Td), because the Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable 3.3.2 How do the PID parameters affect system dynamics? They are: Rise Time: the time it takes for the plant output y to rise beyond 90% of the desired level for the first time. Overshoot: how much the the peak level is higher than the steady state, normalized against the steady state. Settling Time: the time it takes for the system to converge to its steady state. Steady-state Error: the difference between the steady-state output and the desired output.

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3.3.3 How do the PID parameters affect system dynamics? The effects of increasing each of the controller parameters KP, KI and KD can be as

Response

Rise Time

Overshoot

Settling Time

S-S ERROR

KP

Decrease

Increase

ND

Decrease

KI

Decrease

Increase

Increase

Eliminate

KD

ND

Decrease Decrease

ND

ND: No definite trend. Minor change

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CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS

4.1 MOTOR AND GEAR The first example plant is a motor driving a gear train, with the output position of the gear train being monitored by a potentiometer or some other position reading device. You might see this kind of mechanism driving a carriage on a printer, or a throttle mechanism in an automobile cruise control system, or almost any other moderately precise position controller. Figure shows a diagram of such a system. The motor is driven by a voltage that is commanded by software. The motor output is geared down to drive the actual mechanism. The position of this final drive is measured by the potentiometer. A DC motor driven by a voltage wants to go at a constant speed that is proportional to the applied voltage. Usually the motor armature has some resistance that limits its ability to accelerate, so the motor will have some delay between the change in input voltage and the resulting change in speed. The gear train takes the movement of the motor and multiplies it by a constant. Finally, the potentiometer measures the position of the output shaft.

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4.2 PRECISION ACTUATOR It is sometimes necessary to control the position of something very precisely. A precise positioning system can be built using a freely moving mechanical stage , a speaker coil (a coil and magnet arrangement), and a non-contact position transducer. You might expect to see this sort of mechanism stabilizing an element of an optical system, or locating some other piece of equipment or sensor. Figure shows such a system. Software commands the current in the coil. This current sets up a magnetic field that exerts a force on the magnet. The magnet is attached to the stage, which moves with an acceleration proportional to the coil current. Finally, the stage position is monitored by an on contact position transducer. With this arrangement, the force on the magnet is in dependent of the stage motion. Fortunately this isolates the stage from external effects. Unfortunately the resulting system is very slippery, and can be a challenge to control. In addition, the electrical requirements to build a good current-output amplifier and noncontact transducer interface can be challenging. You can expect that if you are doing a project like this you are a member of a fairly talented team (or youre working on a short-lived project).

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4.3 TEMPERATURE CONTROL The third example plant use is a heater. Figure shows a diagram of an example system. The vessel is heated by an electric heater, and the temperature of its contents is sensed by a temperature-sensing device. Thermal systems tend to have very complex responses. Im going to ignore quite a bit of detail and give a very approximate model. Unless your performance requirements are severe, an accurate model isnt necessary. The response tends to settle out to a constant temperature for a given drive, but it can take a great deal of time doing it. Also, without lots of insulation, thermal systems tend to be very sensitive to outside effects.

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CHAPTER 5
TOPOLOGY OF PID CONTROLLERS
Problem of topology (structure) of controller arises when: designing control system (defining structure and controller parameters) tuning parameters of the given controller

There are a number of different PID controller structures. Different manufacturers design controllers in different manner. However, two topologies are the most often case: parallel (non-interactive) serial (interactive)

Parallel structure is most often in textbooks, so it is often called "ideal" or " textbook type". This non-interactive structure because proportional, integral and derivative mode are independent on each other.Parallel structure is still very rare in the market. The reason for that is mostly historical. First controllers were pneumatic and it was very difficult to build parallel structure using pneumatic components. 5.1 PARALLEL PID TOPOLOGY A parallel connection of proportional, derivative and integral element is called parallel or non-interactive structure of PID controller. Parallel structure is shown in Fig.

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5.2NONINTERACTIVE"DERIVATIVE OF OUTPUT CONTROLLER FORM" Because of possible discontinuity (step change) in reference signal that are transferred into error signal and result in impulse traveling through derivative channel and thus cause large control signals u PID, it is more suitable in practical implementation to use derivative of output controller form. It is even more suitable controller structure if there exist sensors that give that information, such tachometers in electromechanical servo systems or "rate gyro" in mobile objects control. If PI-D structure (Fig. below) is used discontinuity in r(t) will be still transferred through proportional into control signal u PID, but it will not have so strong effect as if it was amplified by derivative element.

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CHAPTER 6
PID TUNING
Before Tuning Tuning - Consider process characteristic Select control method P, PI, PD or PID Select tuning method Open-Loop, Closed-Loop or Trial and Error Roughly tuning ( Tuning criteria ) Fine tuning Understood in the control philosophy Understood in hardware and controlled environment What is target of tuning?

6.1 SEVERAL TUNING TECHNIQUES INCLUDE: Ziegler-Nichols Method Cohen-coon closed loop method

There are three general approaches for tuning of controllers: One quarter decay ratio: we choose min settling time, min largest error and so on. It provides multiple solutions. Time integral performance: this approach realize on mathematical model means transfer function of the process. it is time consuming. Semi-emperical rules: it s the approach has been least in practice.

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6.1.1 Ziegler and Nichols: They conducted numerous experiments and proposed rules for determining values of KP, KI and KD based on the transient step response of a plant. They proposed more than one methods, but we will limit ourselves to whats known as the first method of ZieglerNichols in this tutorial. The ZieglerNichols tuning method is a heuristic method of tuning a PID controller. It was developed by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. It is performed by setting the I (integral) and D (derivative) gains to zero. The "P" (proportional) gain, Kp is then increased (from zero) until it reaches the ultimate gain Ku, at which the output of the control loop oscillates with a constant amplitude. Ku and the oscillation period Tu are used to set the P, I, and D gains depending on the type of controller used:
ZieglerNichols method[1]

Control Type

Kp

Ki

Kd

Ku / 2

PI

Ku / 2.2

1.2Kp / Tu

classic PID[2]

0.60Ku

2Kp / Tu

KpTu / 8

Pessen Integral Rule[2]

0.7Ku

2.5Kp / Tu

0.15KpTu

some overshoot[2]

0.33Ku

2Kp / Tu

KpTu / 3

no overshoot[2]

0.2Ku

2Kp / Tu

KpTu / 3

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6.1.2 COHEN -COON Method: This method is the most popular of imperical tuning methods known as the process reaction curve method developed by cohen-coon.the major problem with cc parameters is that they tend not to be very robust, i.e a small change in the process parameters can cause the close loop system to become unstable. It applies to plants with neither integrators nor dominant complex-conjugate poles, whose unit-step response resemble an S-shaped curve with no overshoot. This S-shaped curve is called the reaction curve. Using the reaction curve method

The S-shaped reaction curve can be characterized by two constants, delay time L and time constant T, which are determined by drawing a tangent line at the inflection point of the curve and finding the intersections of the tangent line with the time axis and the steady-state level line.

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6.2 PID TUNING ARCHITECTURE

P Controller mitigates error but initiates offset. I Controller mitigates offset but initiates overshoot. D Controller mitigates overshoot for optimization

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CHAPTER 7
METHODOLOGY
Fractional order pid types of controllers the orders of integral and derivative part , and respectively, are fractional. the purpose is to take advantage of these two parameters and fulfill additional specification of design, ensuring a robust performance of the controlled system with respect to gain variations and noise. these are considered as an alternate to solve some specific control problems

that arise in industrial applications. Here and are the fractional order of the integral and derivative parts of the controller. this kind of controller has five parameters to tune (Kp, Kd, Ki, ,),up to five design specification for the controlled system can be met, that is, two more than in case of conventional PID controller. its aim is to obtain a system robust to uncertainties of the plant model ,load disturbances ,and high frequency noise. Design specification: The parameters for formulating design problem are: phase margin and gain crossover frequency robustness to variation in gain of the plant high frequency noise rejection to ensure good output disturbance rejection steady state error cancelation

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7.1 Tuning of FOPID Controller Using Taylor Series Expansion

An elegant way of enhancing the performance of PID controllers is to use fractional order controllers where the integral and derivative operators have non-integer orders. Podlubny proposed the concept of fractional order control in 1999 . In FOPID controller, despite of the proportional, integral and derivative constants, there are two more adjustable parameters: the power of s in integral and derivative operators, respectively. Therefore this type of controllers is generalizations of PIDs and consequently has a wider scope of design, while retaining the advantages of classical ones. Several methods have been reported for FOPID design. Vinagre, Podlubny, Dorcak, Feliu proposed a

frequency domain approach based on expected crossover frequency and phase margin. Petras came up with a method based on the pole distribution of the characteristic equation in the complex plane . In recent years evolutionary algorithms are used for FOPID tuning. YICAO, LIANG, CAO , presented optimization of FOPID controller parameters based on Genetic Algorithm. A method based on Particle Swarm Optimization was proposed . In this a tuning method for FOPID controller is proposed. Suppose a standard and stable second order plant such that desired response is not available. Tuning FOPID controller by the proposed method results in desired closed loop response. The standard second order is considered for desired response. It is shown that the proposed method performs better than Genetic Algorithm in obtaining the desired response. With the emergence of fractional calculus, a natural question arises about what the Taylor Series expansion would be. Odibat and Shawagfeh answered this in 2007. By using the Caputo fractional derivative, limit as we approach , and indicating the

from the right, the fractional Taylor series can be written as

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PID and FOPID controllers are tuned by proposed method. Due to Table.2.the actual closed loop response under FOPID controller is very close to desired response rather than applying PID controller. For example the specification soft transient response, such as maximum overshoot , rise time, settling time and steady state error when using FOPID controller, are very close to desired transient specifications. Using PID controller results in a behavior in t=0, which is not appeared when applying FOPID controller. This behavior is because of existing a zero near the origin. Furthermore due to. Table. 2 the FOPID controller, which is tuned by proposed method, results in better performance rather than FOPID controller which is tuned by GA method. Data about specifications of desired closed-loop response are collected in Table1.

TABLE 1 SPECIFICATIONS OF DESIRED CLOSED-LOOP RESPONSE Maximum overshoot 4 Settling time 2 0.9 0 Rise time Steady state error

Table. 1. reports the maximum overshoot (in %), settling time and rise time (in second) and steady-state error(in %) for the closed-loop step response. Data about the performance of closed-loop system under FOPID and PID controllers against unit step, are collected in Table 2.

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TABLE 2 SUMMERY OF THE PERFORMANCE OF CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM UNDER FOPID AND PID CONTROLLER AGAINST UNIT STEP Different Maximum Settling time Rise time Steady state error

Controllers Overshoot

FOPID using proposed method

2.08

0.9

FOPID using GA method

4.5

5.3

1.26

PID using proposed method

1.08

0.86

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CHAPTER 8
ADVANTAGES
Three main advantages of introducing FOC to control design are: More adequate modeling of dynamic systems More clear-cut robust control design Reasonable implementation by approximation

Advantages of fractional PID Better for fractional systems Similar simplicity and compactness More general structure: added flexibility

In oscillatory system control, the tradeoff b/w stability margin, loss and vibration, suppression strength is a common problem By introducing FOC approach , control systems phase & gain responses can be easily offset to any desired amount. Design process experimental results demonstrate a clear-cut & effective robust control design is to FOC design method. On the contrary to FOC control design, the implementation of fractional order controllers is not such straight forward. Systems responses can be designed more flexibly .Tuning knob in FOC can be reduced significantly as compared to classical IOC approach. The best fractional order boundary controller are better than the best integer order boundary controller when the wave equation is time-fractional.

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CHAPTER 9
LIMITATION OR DISADVANTAGES
The PID controller algorithm itself has some limitations. In practice most problems arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. One common problem is "integral windup". It might take too long for the output value to ramp up to the necessary value when the loop first starts up. Sometimes this can be fixed with a more aggressive differential term. Sometimes the loop has to be "preloaded" with a starting output. Another option is to disable the integral function until the measured variable has entered the proportional band. Some PID loops control a valve or similar mechanical device. Wear of the valve or device can be a major maintenance cost. In these cases, the PID loop may have a "dead band" to reduce the frequency of activation of the mechanical device. This is accomplished by designing the controller to hold its output steady if the change would be small (within the defined dead band range). The calculated output must leave the dead band before the actual output will change. Then, a new dead band will be established around the new output value. Another problem with the differential term is that small amounts of noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it is helpful to filter the measurements, with a running average, or a low-pass filter. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in most systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI controller. The proportional and differential terms can also produce undesirable results in systems subjected to instantaneous "step" inputs(such as when a computer changes the set point). To avoid this, some PID algorithms incorporate various schemes: Derivative of output Many industrial PID systems actually measure the differential of the output quantity, which is always continuous (i.e., never has a step function), and usually moves in the same direction as the error. Setpoint weighting Setpoint weighting uses several setpoints. The errors from the two setpoints are combined to reduce upsets. Some schemes

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slowly reduce the proportion of error from an "old" setpoint, and increase the proportion of error from a "new" setpoint. Other schemes have multiple setpoints controlled by different outside controllers. The error in the integral term must be the true control error to avoid steady-state control errors. These parameters do not affect the response to load disturbances and measurement noise. Digital implementations of a PID algorithm may have limitations owing to the sampling rate of the data, and the limits of internal calculation and precision. For example, very old programmable logic controller (PLC) systems may have used only 12 or 16 bits to represent internal variables. Additionally, some software implementations do not correctly handle internal overflow or extreme values, or may arbitrarily limit the values for the adjustable gain parameters. Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear. Problems with FOPID Realizations

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CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION
A design method for FOPID controller is proposed. This method is based on Taylor series of both actual and desired closed-loop transfer function. The design parameters of controller are used for matching the same order terms of both desired and actual closedloop response. FOPID controller has two design parameters, and , more than PID controller. Thus two more terms in Taylor series are used to match closed-loop response to desired response. This causes increasing accuracy in tracking the desired response rather than using PID controller. Furthermore the FOPID controller which is tuned by proposed method performs better than FOPID controller which is tuned by Genetic Algorithm. It can be concluded that that better performances can be obtained by the proposed method.

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CHAPTER 11
REFRENCES

Igor Podlubny, "Fractional-order systems and PID controllers ",IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol 44, No. 1, pp.208213, JANUARY 1999.

Deepyaman Maiti and Amit Konar IEEE Sponsored Conference on Computational Intelligence ,Control And Computer Vision In Robotics & Automation IEEE CICCRA 2008149Approximation of a Fractional Order

System by an Integer Order Model Using Particle Swarm Optimization Technique. YangQuanChen_,1UBIQUITOUSFRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROLS_Center Self-Organizing and Intelligent Systems(CSOIS), Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT84322-4160, USA. Dingyu Xue and Chunna Zhao Fractional Order PID Control of A DC-Motor with Elastic Shaft : A Case Study Duarte Vallerio , Jose Slada Costa TUNING-RULES FOR FRACTIONAL PID CONTROLLERSTechnical Univ. of Lisbon { Instituto Superior Tlecnico Department of Mechanical Engineering { GCARAv. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal WIKIPEDIA STEPPANOPALOUS CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL Concepcin A. Monje, Blas M. Vinagre, Vicente Feliu and Yang Quan Chen. ON AUTO-TUNING OF FRACTIONAL ORDER PI^\lambda D^\mu CONTROLLERS. ibid.

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