Viscosity From Wi ipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Viscosity

(disambiguation).Viscosity The substance above has lower viscosity than the substance below Common symbol(s): ?, SI unit: Pas = g/(sm) Derivations from other quantities: = Gt Continuum mechanics Laws[show] Solid mechanics[show] Fluid mechanics[hide] Fluids Fluid statics Fluid dynamics Navier Sto es equations Bernoulli's principle Viscosity: Newtonian Non-Newtonian Liquids Liquid pressure Buoyancy Archimedes' principle Principle of floatation Pascal's principle Surface tension Capillarity Gases Atmosphere Atmosphere of Earth Atmospheric pressure Barometer Boyle's law Charle s's law Gay-Lussac's law Combined gas law Buoyancy of Air Plasma Rheology[show] Scientists[show] v t e Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by e ither shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), v iscosity is "thic ness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thic ", having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).[1] Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity felsic magma will cr eate a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, wh ile low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. With the exception of superfluids, all real fluids have some resistance to stres s and therefore are viscous. A fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is nown as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. In common usage, a liquid with the vi scosity less than water is nown as a mobile liquid, while a substance with a vi scosity substantially greater than water is simply called a viscous liquid. Discussion definitions Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flo w. Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of layers with differing velocities within them. Formally, viscosity (represented by the symbol ? "eta") is the ratio of the shea ring stress (F/A) to the velocity gradient (?vx/?z or dvx/dz) in a fluid.? = ? ? F ? ? ?

? ? ? ? ? ? A

?vx or F dvx ?z

? ? = ? ? ? A

dz

The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation, states that the resulting shear of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its viscosity. The similarity to Newton's second law of motion (F = ma) should be apparent.F = ? ?vx or F = ? dvx A ?z A dz ? F ?t = dt m ?v or F = ? m dv

The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal second [Pa s], which has no special name. Despite its self-proclaimed title as an international system, the International System of Units has had very little international impact on viscosity. The pasc al second is rarely used in scientific and technical publications today. The mos t common unit of viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter [dyne s/cm2] , which is given the name poise [P] after the French physiologist Jean Louis Poi seuille (1799-1869). Ten poise equal one pascal second [Pa s] ma ing the centipo ise [cP] and millipascal second [mPa s] identical. 1 pascal second = 10 poise = 1,000 millipascal second 1 centipoise = 1 millipascal second There are actually two quantities that are called viscosity. The quantity define d above is sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute viscosity, or simple vis cosity to distinguish it from the other quantity, but is usually just called vis cosity. The other quantity called inematic viscosity (represented by the symbol ? "nu") is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to its density.? = ? ? Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid under the infl uence of gravity. It is frequently measured using a device called a capillary vi scometer basically a graduated can with a narrow tube at the bottom. When two fl uids of equal volume are placed in identical capillary viscometers and allowed t o flow under the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid ta es longer than a less viscous fluid to flow through the tube. Capillary viscometers are discussed in m ore detail later in this section. The SI unit of inematic viscosity is the square meter per second [m2/s], which has no special name. This unit is so large that it is rarely used. A more common unit of inematic viscosity is the square centimeter per second [cm2/s], which is given the name sto es [St] after the Irish mathematician and physicist George Gabriel Sto es (1819-1903). Even this unit is also a bit too large and so the m ost common unit is probably the square millimeter per second [mm2/s] or centisto es [cSt]. 1 m2/s = 10,000 cm2/s [sto es] = 1,000,000 mm2/s [centisto es] 1 cm2/s = 1 sto es

1 mm2/s = 1 centisto es factors affecting viscosity Viscosity is first and foremost a function of material. The viscosity of water a t 20 ? is 1.0020 millipascal seconds (which is conveniently close to one by coin cidence alone). Most ordinary liquids have viscosities on the order of 1 to 1000 mPa s, while gases have viscosities on the order of 1 to 10 Pa s. Pastes, gels, emulsions, and other complex liquids are harder to summarize. Some fats li e but ter or margarine are so viscous that they seem more li e soft solids than li e f lowing liquids. Molten glass is extremely viscous and approaches infinite viscos ity as it solidifies. Since this process is not as well defined as true freezing , some believe (incorrectly) that glass may still flow even after it has complet ely cooled, but this is not the case. At ordinary temperatures, glasses are as s olid as true solids. From everyday experience, it should be common nowledge that viscosity varies wi th temperature. Honey and syrups can be made to flow more readily when heated. E ngine oil and hydraulic fluids thic en appreciably on cold days and significantl y affect the performance of cars and other machinery during the winter months. I n general, the viscosity of a simple liquid decreases with increasing temperatur e (and vice versa). As temperature increases, the average speed of the molecules in a liquid increases and the amount of time they spend "in contact" with their nearest neighbors decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the average interm olecular forces decrease. The exact manner in which the two quantities vary is n onlinear and changes abruptly when the liquid changes phase. Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under extreme pressur e often experience an increase in viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompre ssible, an increase in pressure doesn't really bring the molecules significantly closer together. Simple models of molecular interactions won't wor to explain this behavior and, to my nowledge, there is no generally accepted more complex model that does. The liquid phase is probably the least well understood of all t he phases of matter. While liquids get runnier as they get hotter, gases get thic er. (If one can ima gine a "thic " gas.) The viscosity of gases increases as temperature increases a nd is approximately proportional to the square root of temperature. This is due to the increase in the frequency of intermolecular collisions at higher temperat ures. Since most of the time the molecules in a gas are flying freely through th e void, anything that increases the number of times one molecule is in contact w ith another will decrease the ability of the molecules as a whole to engage in t he coordinated movement. The more these molecules collide with one another, the more disorganized their motion becomes. Physical models, advanced beyond the sco pe of this boo , have been around for nearly a century that adequately explain t he temperature dependence of viscosity in gases. Newer models do a better job th an the older models. They also agree with the observation that the viscosity of gases is roughly independent of pressure and density. The gaseous phase is proba bly the best understood of all the phases of matter. Since viscosity is so dependent on temperature, hout it.Viscosities of Selected Materials (note simple liquids T (?) ? (mPa s) alcohol, ethyl (grain) 20 1.1 alcohol, isopropyl 20 2.4 alcohol, methyl (wood) 20 0.59 blood 37 3 4 nitrogen ethylene glycol 25 16.1 oxygen ethylene glycol 100 1.98 freon 11 (propellant) -25 0.74 ? (Pa s) it shouldn't never be stated wit the different unit prefixes) gases T (?) ? ( Pa s) air 15 17.9 hydrogen 0 8.42 helium (gas) 0 18.6 0 16.7 0 18.1 complex materials T (?)

25 40 20 40 20 40 20 20 20 20 20 20 25 100

?? 69 40 102 233 125 200 319 40.4 2.75

26

syrup, corn 25 syrup, maple 20 tar 20 vegetable shortening

motor oil Motor oil is li e every other fluid in that its viscosity varies with temperatur e and pressure. Since the conditions under which most automobiles will be operat ed can be anticipated, the behavior of motor oil can be specified in advance. In the United States, the organization that sets the standards for performance of motor oils is the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The SAE numbering schem e describes the behavior of motor oils under low and high temperature conditions conditions that correspond to starting and operating temperatures. The first nu mber, which is always followed by the letter W, describes the low temperature be havior of the oil at start up while the second number describes the high tempera ture behavior of the oil after the engine has been running for some time. Lower SAE numbers describe oils that are meant to be used under lower temperatures. Oi ls with low SAE numbers are generally less viscous or runnier than oils with hig h SAE numbers, which tend to be thic er.Viscosity Grades for Motor Oils: Low Tem perature Specifications dynamic viscosity (mPa s) sae prefix cran ing maximum temperature (?) pumping maximum temperature (?) 0W 6,200 -35 60,000 -40 5W 6,600 -30 60,000 -35 10W 7,000 -25 60,000 -30 15W 7,000 -20 60,000 -25 20W 9,500 -15 60,000 -20

freon 11 (propellant) freon 11 (propellant) freon 12 (refrigerant) freon 12 (refrigerant) freon 12 (refrigerant) glycerin 20 glycerin 40 helium (liquid) 4 K mercury 15 1.55 mil 25 3 oil, vegetable, canola oil, vegetable, canola oil, vegetable, corn oil, vegetable, corn oil, vegetable, olive 10 25 oil, vegetable, olive oil, vegetable, soybean oil, vegetable, soybean oil, machine, light 1200 oil, machine, heavy oil, motor, SAE 20 oil, motor, SAE 30 oil, motor, SAE 40 propylene glycol propylene glycol water 0 1.79 water 20 1.00 water 40 0.65 water 100 0.28

0 +25 -15 0 +15 1420 280 0.00333

0.54 0.42 ?? ?? 0.20

caul 20 1000 glass, room temperature glass, strain point glass, annealing point glass, softening glass, wor ing 103 glass, melting 102 honey 20 10 etchup 20 50 lard 20 1000 57 molasses 20 33 mustard 25 70 65 peanut butter 20 31 sour cream 25 84 syrup, chocolate

1018 1021 1013.6 1012.4 106.6

5 150 250 100 20 2 3 2 3 30,000 20

25W

13,000 -10

60,000 -15

Viscosity Grades for Motor Oils: HighTemperature Specifications sae suffix inematic viscosity (mm2/s) low shear rate at 100 ? dynamic viscosity (mPa s) high shear rate at 150 ? 20 5.6 9.3 >2.6 30 9.3 12.5 >2.9 40 12.5 16.3 >2.9* 40 12.5 16.3 >3.7** 50 16.3 21.9 >3.7 60 21.9 26.1 >3.7 * 0W-40, 5W-40, 10W-40 ** 15W-40, 20W-40, 25W-40 Source: Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), December 1999 For example, 10W-40 oil would have a viscosity no greater than 7,000 mPa s in a cold engine cran case even if its temperature should drop to -25 ? on a cold win ter night and a viscosity no less than 2.9 mPa s in the high pressure parts of a n engine very near the point of overheating (150 ?). capillary viscometer The the mathematical expression describing the flow of fluids in circular tubes was determined by the French physician and physiologist Jean Louis Marie Poiseui lle (1799 1869). Since it was also discovered independently by the German hydrauli c engineer Gotthilf Hagen (1797 1884), it should be properly nown as the Hagen-Po iseuille equation, but it is usually just called Poiseuille's equation. I will n ot derive it here. (Please don't as me to.) For non-turbulent, non-pulsatile fl uid flow through a uniform straight pipe, the volume flow rate (f) is directly proportional to the pressure difference (?P) between the ends of the tu be, inversely proportional to the length (l) of the tube, inversely proportional to the viscosity (?) of the fluid, and proportional to the fourth power of the radius (r4) of the tube. f = p?Pr4 8?l

The mathematical expression describing the viscous drag force on a sphere was de termined by the British physicist George Gabriel Sto es (1819 1903). I will not de rive it here. (Once again, don't as .) R = 6p?rv The formula for the buoyant force on a sphere is accredited to the Gree enginee r Archimedes a. .a. ???? ?d?? (287 212 BCE), but equations weren't invented bac the n. B = ?fluidgVdisplaced The formula for weight had to be invented by someone, but I don't now who. W = mg = ?objectgVobject

capillary viscometer falling sphere

eep writing

Solve for viscosity if that's what you want to 8fl

now.? =

p?Pr4

Let's combine all these things together for a sphere falling in a fluid. Weight goes down, buoyancy goes up, drag goes up. After awhile, the sphere will fall wi th constant velocity. When it does, all these forces cancel. When a sphere is fa lling through a fluid it is completely submerged, so there is only one volume to tal about the volume of a sphere. Let's wor through this.B + R = W ?fluidgV + 6p?rv = ?objectgV 6p?rv = (?object - ?fluid)gV 6p?rv = ??g 4 pr3 3 And here we are.? = 9v 2??gr2

Drop a sphere into a liquid. If you now the size and density of the sphere and the density of the liquid, you can determine the viscosity of the liquid. If you don't now the density of the fluid you can determine the inematic viscosity. If you don't now the density of the sphere, but you now its mass and radius, w ell then you do now its density. Why are you tal ing to me? Go bac several cha pters and get yourself some education. Should I write more? non-newtonian fluids Newton's equation relates shear stress and velocity gradient by means of a quant ity called viscosity. A newtonian fluid is one in which the viscosity is just a number. A non-newtonian fluid is one in which the viscosity is a function some m echanical variable li e shear stress or time. (Non-newtonian fluids that change over time are said to have a memory.) Some gels and pastes behave li e a fluid when wor ed or agitated and then settle into a nearly solid state when at rest. Such materials are examples of shear-th inning fluids. House paint is a shear-thinning fluid and it's a good thing, too. Brushing, rolling, or spraying are means of temporarily applying shear stress. This reduces the paint's viscosity to the point where it can now flow out of the applicator and onto the wall or ceiling. Once this shear stress is removed the paint returns to its resting viscosity, which is so large that an appropriately thin layer behaves more li e a solid than a liquid and the paint does not run or drip. Thin about what it would be li e to paint with water or honey for compar ison. The former is always too runny and the latter is always too stic y. Toothpaste is another example of a material whose viscosity decreases under stre ss. Toothpaste behaves li e a solid while it sits at rest inside the tube. It wi ll not flow out spontaneously when the cap is removed, but it will flow out when you put the squeeze on it. Now it ceases to behave li e a solid and starts to a ct li e a very thic liquid. when it lands on your toothbrush, the stress is rel eased and the toothpaste returns to a solid (or at least a semisolid) state. You do not have to worry about it flowing off the brush as you raise it to your mou th. Shear-thinning fluids can be classified into one of three general groups. A mate rial that has a viscosity that decreases under shear stress but stays constant o ver time is said to be pseudoplastic. A material that has a viscosity that decre ases under shear stress and then continues to decrease with time is said to be t hixotropic. If the transition from high viscosity (or nearly semisolid) to low v iscosity (or essentially liquid) ta es place only after the shear stress exceeds some minimum value, the material is said to be a bingham plastic.

Materials that thic en when wor ed or agitated are called shear-thic ening fluid s. An example that is often shown in science classrooms is a paste made of corns tarch and water (mixed in the correct proportions). The resulting bizarre goo be haves li e a liquid when squeezed slowly and an elastic solid when squeezed rapi dly. Ambitious science demonstrators have filled tan s with the stuff and then r un across it. As long as they move quic ly the surface acts li e a bloc of soli d rubber, but the instant they stop moving the paste behaves li e a liquid and t he demonstrator winds up ta ing a cornstarch bath. The shear-thic ening behavior ma es it a difficult bath to get out of. The harder you wor to get out, the ha rder the material pulls bac on you. The only way to escape is to move slowly. Materials that turn nearly solid under stress are more than just a curiosity. Th ey're ideal candidates for body armor and protective sports padding. A bulletpro of vest or a neepad made of of shear-thic ening material would be supple and yi elding to the mild stresses of ordinary body motions, but would turn roc hard i n response to the traumatic stress imposed by a weapon or a fall to the ground. Shear-thic ening fluids are are also divided into two groups: those with a timedependent viscosity (memory materials) and those with a time-independent viscosi ty (non-memory materials). If the increase in viscosity increases over time, the material is said to be rheopectic. If the increase is roughly directly proporti onal to the shear stress and does not change over time, the material is said to be dilatant.Classes of Nonlinear Fluids with Examples and Applications shear-thinning shear-thic ening time-dependent (memory materials) thixotropic etchup, honey, wet clay soils, synovial fluid rheopectic printer's in time-independent (non-memory materials) pseudoplastic styling gel, paint dilatant cornstarch paste, silly putty, liquid armor, viscous coupling fluids with a yield stress bingham plastic toothpaste, drilling mud, printing in , blood, molten chocolate d.n.a. With a bit of adjustment, Newton's equation can be written as a power law (also nown as the Ostwald-de Waele equation) that encompasses the two simpler forms o f non-newtonian behavior those without a memory: the pseudoplastics and the dila ntants.F = K ? ? dvx ? ? n A dz Where ? the viscosity is replaced with K the flow consistency index [Pa mn] and the velocity gradient is raised to some power n called the flow behavior index [ dimensionless]. This last quantity is determined by the nature of the fluid.n < 1 n = 1 n > 1 pseudoplastic newtonian dilatant A different modification to Newton's equation is needed to handle bingham plasti cs.F = K + ? dvx A dz In this linear equation (also nown as the Bingham relation) K is the yield stre ss [Pa]. The value of this quantity separates bingham plastics from newtonian fl

uids.K < 0 impossible viscoelasticity

K = 0 K > 0 newtonian

bingham plastic

When a force (F) is applied to an object, one of four things can happen. It could accelerate as a whole, in which case Newton's second law of motion appl ies F = m a This term is not interesting to us right now. We've already discussed this ind of behavior to death in earlier chapters. I get it, mass (m) is resistance to a cceleration (a), the second derivative of position (x). Let's move on to somethi ng new. It could flow li e a fluid, which could be described by this relationship F = b v This is the simplified model where drag is directly proportional to speed (v), the first derivative of position (x). We used this in terminal velocity problems just because it gave differential equations that were easy to solve. We also us ed it in the damped harmonic oscillator, again because it gave differential equa tions that were easy to solve (relatively easy, anyway). The proportionality con stant (b) is often called the damping factor. It could deform li e a solid F = x This is Hoo e's law. The proportionality constant ( ) is famously called the sp ring constant. Position (x) is not the part of any derivative nor is it raised t o any power.

F = f That symbol f ma es it loo li e we're discussing friction. In fluids (non-newt onian fluids, to be specific) a term li e this is associated with yield stress. Position (x) is not involved in any way. Put everything together and admit that acceleration and velocity are derivatives of position.F = m d2x + b dx + x + f dt2 dt This differential equation summarizes the possible behaviors of an object. The i nteresting thing is that it mixes up the behaviors of fluids and solids. The mor e interesting thing is that there are occasions when both behaviors will be pres ent in one thing. Materials that both flow li e fluids and deform li e solids ar e said to be viscoelastic an obvious mash-up of viscosity and elasticity. The st udy of materials with fluid and solid properties is called rheology, which comes from the Gree verb to flow ??? (reo). eep writing

Viscosity is an internal property of a fluid that offers resistance to flow. For example, pushing a spoon with a small force moves it easily through a bowl of w ater, but the same force moves mashed potatoes very slowly. In fact, one of the major differences between styles of mashed potatoes is the viscosity of the star chy mass: some people li e their potatoes running and teeming with mil and butt er (they are fans of low-viscosity potatoes), while others li e their potatoes d

It could get stuc

rier and stic ier, so they almost crac rather than flow (these people are devot ed to high-viscosity potatoes). Viscosity is important in volcanology. The more fluid a magma, the more li ely it is to erupt. On the other hand, when more viscous (higher viscosity) lavas do erupt, they usually do so explosively. Viscosity also affects the shapes of lav a flows and the mountains they erupt from. The more viscous the magma, the fatte r the lava flow. Also, the more viscous the magmas a volcano erupts, the steeper the volcano. Thus, shield volcanoes li e we have in Hawai'i have gentle slopes (less than 10 degrees), while stratovolcanoes li e the Cascades in the northwest ern mainland are much steeper (roughly 25 degrees). As expected, hawaiian volcan oes erupt more fluid lavas (called basalt) than do the Cascade volcanoes, which erupt a lava called andesite. There are many ways to measure viscosity, including attaching a torque wrench t o a paddle and twisting it in a fluid, using a spring to push a rod into a fluid , and seeing how fast a fluid pours through a hole. This exercise uses one of th e oldest and easiest ways: we will simply see how fast a sphere falls through a fluid. The faster the sphere falls, the lower the viscosity. This ma es sense: i f the fluid has a high viscosity it strongly resists flow, so the sphere falls s lowly. If the fluid has a low viscosity, it offers less resistance to flow, so t he ball falls faster. The measurement involves determining the velocity of the falling sphere. This i s accomplished by dropping each sphere through a measured distance of fluid and measuring how long it ta es to traverse the distance. Thus, you now distance an d time, so you also now velocity, which is distance/time. The formula for determining the viscosity is impressive, decorated with Gree l etters and a squared term, but simply amounts to multiplying some numbers and th en dividing by some others:

delta p = difference in density between the sphere and the liquid g = acceleration of gravity a = radius of sphere v = velocity = d/t = (distance sphere falls)/(time of it ta es to fall) This equation ma es sense in that spheres that fall slowly have low velocities. This ma es the denominator small, so the answer (viscosity) is large. Viscosity is measured in units of Pa s (Pascal seconds), which is a unit of pressure time s a unit of time. This is not especially intuitive. How does it relate to flowin g liquids? One way of loo ing at it is to realize that pressure is force per squ are area. This ma es a little more sense: force applied to the fluid, acting for some length of time. [Note: the exercise uses ilograms, meters, and seconds, r ather than grams, centimeters, and seconds. Viscosity can be measured in g-cm-s, with the resulting unit called the poise; 10 poise = 1 Pa s. You may prefer tho se units to g-m-s because densities are the more familiar grams per cubic centi meters.] The measurement should be repeated many times to arrive at a good average value, and, most important, to observe the scatter in the results. This allows an asse ssment of the uncertainty in the measurement. Using spheres of different radii a nd densities and measuring the viscosities of at least two liquids gives a good idea of this unusual physical property and the power of an equation to predict b

ehavior. For example, if group A uses a marble (density of about 2800 g/m3) and group B uses a steel ball bearing (7800 g/m3), and both measure the viscosity of the same liquid, they will find that the velocities differ, but the viscositi es will be the same, within the error of measurement.