Idea of Evolution in the history of science and philosophy

Evolution from the Latin evolutio "to unroll like a scroll" Anaximander The first animals lived in water and animals that live on land were generated from them Anaximenes Animal species transform one into another Empedocles Complex organisms are formed as a result of accidental unity of separate of more simple organisms . Only perfect units of organisms are able to survive Aristotle arranged all the organism in one scale of nature, placing them according to their complexity of structure and function (from the very simple to the most complex). Organisms are imperfect but they contain inner forces which move them towards a more complex state. Middle Ages: All the organisms and species were created as complete and unchangeable Carl Von Linne (Linnaeus) The founder of natural history. The system of nature Classification of all the known organisms Linnaeus begun with the species organizing them into genera then arranging analogies genera to form families and related families to form orders and classes He chooses the structure of the reproductive organs of the flower as the basis for grouping the higher plants. For animals, he relied upon teeths and toes as the basic characteristics of mammals. He used the shape of the beak as the basis for birds classification Linnaeus supported the idea of creationism: God created all the species but having done so, does not interfere with the details of nature and that varieties are formed through hybridization Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 1829)Philosophy of Zoology The theory of adaptation or soft inheritance (Lamarckism) Organisms can pass on to their offspring traits through their habits. Use of an organ reinforces it, disuse leads to obliteration. The characteristics acquired by use and disuse, can be inherited (August Weismann in 1880 experimentally rejected the inheritance of acquired characteristics) Organisms possess the inner drive for self improvement All living organisms were endowed with a vital forces that draw them to evolve toward a greater capacity a force driving animals from simple to complex forms a force adapting animals to their local environments and differentiating them from each other Lamarck was the first to ignite the idea of species changing ability with idea of progressive evolution The environment gives rise to changes in animals G.L.L. Buffon the 18th century French philosopher and naturalist Buffon brought the idea of evolution into the realm of science He developed a concept of the "unity of type," a precursor of Comparative Anatomy What most people referred to as species were really just well-marked varieties, modified from an original form by environmental factors (lions, tigers, leopards and house cats might all have a common ancestor) Buffon considered the similarities between humans and apes, but ultimately rejected the possibility of a common descent The paradox of Buffon: He was not an evolutionist, yet he was the father of evolutionism Charles Lyell (1834-1934) an English geologist The Principles of Geology The study of the geological formations The relative ages of deposits can be estimated by means of the proportion of living and extinct mollusk Geological processes and scientific laws that operate today also operated in the past This means that all physical features of the earth surface were not created in presents forms but they were formed over the long periods of time, by the slow geological processes Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) an Anglican clergyman and economist Population increases in size geometrically If man multiplies more rapidly than his food supply, competition for existence would result Wars, diseases serve as the inevitable and necessary breaks on the growth of human population

Charles Robert Darwin 1799- 1882 On the Origin of Species (1859)The descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871) The Premises of Natural Selection Overproduction organisms produce more offspring than can survive Variation heritable variation exists within populations of organisms Competition organisms compete with one another for the limited resources available to them Survival to reproduce individuals that posses the most favorable combination of characteristics are most likely to survive and reproduce Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 1884) Mendels discovery of laws of hereditary gave rise to the science of genetics and the theory of evolution came to be explained in combination with genetics Hugo Marie de Vries (1848-1945) Dutch botanist. A new species is formed not gradually under the effect of natural selection but suddenly through hereditary change Hugo de Vries named his principle of hereditary mutation Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866 1945) an American geneticist Morgan established the gene theory on the basis of Mendels law of hereditary and De Vries theory of mutation Wilhelm Johannsen gave the name gene to the element that Mendel and De Vries considered to be inherent within the body of living being and responsible for the manifestation of its characters In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick clarified that the gene is a molecular double helix structure called DNA On the basis of research of Morgan and other biologists, it became clear that mutation, through genetic change does not necessarily bring about a radical change Therefore, mutation theory and the Darwins theory of natural selection can be seen as not mutually incompatible The modern synthesis The group of genetics analyze genetic problems by using mathematical models: Theodosius Dobzhansky Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, Ernst Walter Mayr, George Gaylord Simpson These scientists synthesized Darwins theory of natural selection and de Vriess theory of mutation Mutation is not the primary cause of evolution Mutation provides the raw material for evolution Natural selection is the basic mechanism of evolution Evolution is a long lasting process based on the selectional and occasional mutation A molecular clock estimation (1980) The sequence of mitochondrial DNA in various human population were compared by a molecular clock method in an attempt to determine where and when modern Homo Sapiens were originated Two ways of using molecular data: To determine which of several existence species are most closely related To determine how long it has been since 2 organisms have a last common ancestor Neutral mutations are implied in molecular clock because natural selection has no effect on them The rate of molecular evolution is generally the same for different species All humans living today had a last common ancestor (Eve) who lived in Eastern Africa 140 000 years ago