ARME Vol-1 No-2 PDF

An International Peer-Reviewed Journal on Mechanical Engineering
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Asian Review of Mechanical Engineering
Journals Division
THE RESEARCH
P U B L I C A T I O N
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ISSN 2249 - 6289
Vol. 1 No. 2
July - December 2012
Asian Review of
Mechanical Engineering
A R M E
Special Issue
AFTMME 12
Special Issue

Published from the Proceeding of International Conference

on

Advancements and Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and
Materials Engineering

AFTMME12

October 5 - 7, 2012

Editors
Dr. Buta Singh Sidhu
Dr. H.S. Bains
Dr. Hazoor Singh Sidhu
Er. Pardeep Kumar Jindal
Er. Sukhpal Singh Chatha
Er. Rakesh Bhatia
Er. Harish Garg

Organized by
Punjab Technical University
Jalandhar -Kapurthala Highway
Kapurthala,
Punjab 144 601, India

In collaboration with

Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
Preface
It is our immense pleasure to publish the papers of International conference on Advancements and
Futuristic Trends in Mechanical and Materials Engineering (October 5-7, 2012) organized by Punjab
Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar.
The world of engineering is rapidly changing and the growth of technological know-how has been
catalytic in the recent achievements and the ones to come in the near future. The success of engineers and our
profession depends on how well we can adapt to these changes. Futuristic trends in mechanical engineering
are the need of the hour. The parameters that determine the standard of achievement are precision, quality,
efficiency, economy, reliability and acceptability. This conference provides a common platform to the
mechanical engineers in the emerging interdisciplinary areas and recent technologies to meet the future
challenges. The contributed papers have been selected through a peer review process by the distinguished
experts. A word of thanks to our team, who has worked hard day in and out in compiling and publishing the
proceedings of this conference. We are greatly indebted DST, DRDO and CSIR without whose assistance; it
would not have been possible to organize such a resourceful event.
A special thanks to all the individuals and institutions who contributed to the success of the conference,
the authors for submitting papers as well as the sponsors for their generous financial, and logistical support.
Editors
PATRON
Dr. Rajneesh Arora (Vice-Chancellor)
CONVENER
Dr. Buta Singh Sidhu (Dean Academics)
CO-CONVENER
Dr. H.S. Bains (Registrar)
ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Dr. Hazoor Singh (Associate Prof., YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Pardeep Jindal (Assistant Prof., YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
CO-ORGANIZING SECRETARY
Er. Sukhpal Singh Chatha (AP, YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Rakesh Bhatia (AP, YCoE, Talwandi Sabo)
Er. Harish Kumar Garg (AP, GZSCET, Bathinda)
EVENT CO - ORDINATOR
Ms. Madhu Midha (Asstt. Librarian)
LOCAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr. Nachhattar Singh Advisor to VC
Dr. H. S. Bains Registrar
Dr. A. P. Singh Dean, Student Affairs
Dr. R. P. Bhardwaj Director, Recruitment
Mr. S. K. Mishra Director, Finance
Dr. Balkar Singh Director, Secrecy
CONFERENCE COMMITTEE
Dr. Satya Prakash
Emeritus Professor,
Department of Material and Metallurgy Engineering,
IIT, Roorkee, Uttrakhand,India
Prof. Raman Singh,
Director
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering,
Monash University - Clayton Campus,
(Melbourne), Vic 3800, Australia
Prof. Mousa S. Mohsen
Editor-in-Chief,
Jordan Journal of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering,
Hashemite University,Zarqa, Jordan
Dr. Md. Aminul Islam
Professor of Materials & Metallurgical Engg.,
Bangladesh University of Engg. & Tech.,
Dhaka -1000, Bangladesh
Dr. Manoj Gupta
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
National University of Singapore,
Singapore - 119260
Dr. R. Arulmani
ESSO-KTT Project,
Singapore
Prof. B. Ben-Nissan
Faculty of Science, University of Technology,
Sydney, Broadway 2007,
NSW, Australia
Prof. M Gwyn Hocking
Professor in Material Chemistry,
Imperial College London,
United Kingdom
Dr. A.S.W. Kurny
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology,
Dhaka-1000,
Bangladesh
Dr. Shantanu Bhowmik
Senior Scientist, Singapore Institute of
Manufacturing Technology,
Singapore - 638075
International Advisory Board
Dr. Pardeep Kumar
Professor,
Department of Mech. Engg.,
IIT Roorkee, Uttrakhand, India
Dr. Subhash Chander
Department of Mech. Engg., NIT,
Jalandhar,
Punjab,
India
Dr. S.P. Singh
Professor,
Department of Mech. Engg,
IIT Delhi,
India
Dr. RajnishTyagi
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh,
IIT Kanpur, India
Dr. Harpreet Singh
Department of Mech. Engg,
IIT Ropar,
Punjab, India
Dr. D.S. Hira
Vice-Chancellor,
GKU, Talwandi Sabo, Punjab, India
Dr. Sunil Panday
Director,
SLIET, Longowal,
Punjab, India
Dr. Kulwant Singh
Dept. of Mech.Engg.,
SLIET, Longowal,
Punjab, India
Dr. A.S. Khanna
Professor,
Department.of Metallurgical Engg. & Material Sci.,
IIT Bombay, India
Dr. S.K. Roy
Professor,
Department of Metallurgical Engineering &
Material Science,IIT Kharagpur, India
Asian Review of Mechanical Engineering
Volume 1 Number 2 July - December 2012
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Title
Page No.
1. A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of 01
Manufacturing Imperfections
Arshad Javed, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
2. Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-Borate Glasses 06
Gurinder Pal Singh, Parvinder Kaur, Simranpreet Kaur, Deepawali Arora and D.P. Singh
3. Performance Comparison of Single and Double Layer Microchannel Using 09
Liquid Metal Coolants: A Numerical Study

Deewakar Sharma, Harry Garg and P.P. Bajpai
4. The Thermodynamic Study of Turbocharger Pressure Ratio and Ambient Temperature 18
Variation on Exergy Destruction Estimation of Homogeneous Charge Compression
Ignition Engine Cogeneration System

Shailesh Kumar Trivedi and Abid Haleem
5. Experimental Investigations of Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical Spark Machining 24
(TW-ECSM) of Borosilicate Glass
Basanta Kumar Bhuyan and Vinod Yadava
6. Performance Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled by Biodiesel of 30
Jatropha Oil and Soybean Oil

Ashish Malik and Parlad Kumar
7. Machining Study of TI-6AL-4V Using PVD Coated TiAlN Inserts 34
Narasimhulu Andriya, Venkateswara Rao P and Sudarsan Ghosh
8. Investigation of the Structure and Mechanical Properties of 41
Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloy
A. Chandrashekar, B. S. Ajay Kumar, V. Anandkumar and P. Raghothama Rao
9. Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electro-Discharge 45
Diamond Surface Grinding Process
Shyam Sunder and Vinod Yadava
10. Enhancing Wear Resistance of Low Alloy Steel Applicable on 51
Excavator Bucket Teeth Via Hardfacing
Shivali Singla, Amardeep Singh Kang and Jasmaninder Singh Grewal
11. Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder 55
Ashish Singla, Manish Garg, Dharmpal Deepak and V. K. Gupta
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of
Manufacturing Imperfections
Arshad Javed*, A. K. Sengar and B.K. Rout
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani 333 031, India
*Corresponding Author E-mail: arshadjaved@bits-pilani.ac.in
Abstract - Use of appropriate methods to capture
manufacturing imperfection at the conceptual stage is a major
challenge for the designer and researchers in industry.
Imperfections are observed in almost all type of in macro,
micro and nano-machining domain of manufacturing process.
These imperfections lead to undesirable performance in
application phase. In the present work, a simulation based
approach to handle manufacturing imperfection is
implemented using image processing operators. This method
simulates the image of the component due to manufacturing
imperfections. The usage of these image processing operators
facilitates a realistic simulation of manufacturing errors, in
macro, micro, and nano domain manufacturing. The
simulated image is further processed for its structural
properties i.e. maximum deflection, reactions, Von Mises
stress, and change in amount of material, corresponding to its
intended application. In order to generate these results based
on modified image of beam, the concept of "Solid Isotropic
Material with Penalization"(SIMP) is utilized along with 2-D
finite element routine. An example of a simple cantilever beam
is selected to illustrate the proposed methodology, and the
results are analyzed. The present work discusses a simple and
easy method to predict the behavior of designed component
prior to its manufacturing.
Keywords: Manufacturing imperfection, Nano-fabrication,
Micro-fabrication, FEM, Image processing, SIMP
I. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing errors and imperfection are a common
part of any product or component. Imperfections emerged
out by various means. One of the approach is to use a very
accurate process, where cost and effort increases
exponentially. Other approach is to reduce the
consequences of manufacturing imperfection, by
performance simulation prior to application. By simulating
the performance, the parameters of boundary can be
adjusted to get the intended results. The imperfections are
observed at macro level and also spread across the domain
of micro and nano scales. At this level, the manufacturing
errors lead to imperfections of the components, which
change the property of the component drastically. Thus, the
required performance cannot be achieved [1-4]. In such
scenario, it is very difficult to produce a precise component.
Hence, consideration of imperfection becomes a vital issue.
Present work focuses on the simulation issue of geometric
imperfection of a structural component. The manufacturing
processes considered are, milling for macro, etching for
micro and electron beam lithography and laser
micromachining for nano domain. To carry out simulation
process, image processing operators i.e. dilate and erode are
used [5, 6]. Presently, researchers are using these operators
for the simulation of geometric imperfections [7], however,
the application is limited. In order to use the image
processing operators efficiently, it is necessary to know its
corresponding effect on the property of the structural
component. To fulfill this requirement, the concept of solid
isotropic material with penalization (SIMP) is applied.
SIMP is a methodology to optimize the topology of a
structural component as well as synthesizing a compliant
mechanism even at nano level [8, 9]. SIMP applies a
particular approach to get the details of structural property
of any arbitrary shape using the image of structural
component. Based on image processing operator and SIMP,
the simulations are carried out and effects on the structural
component are recorded. The objective of this work is to
explore the behavior of the property of a structural
component, over the variation of image processing
operators. A methodology is proposed to fulfill the
objective. It can be applied to any type of shape of structural
component. It will help the designer and practitioners to set
a particular value of image processing operator to simulate a
real time geometric imperfection.
The manuscript is organized in following manner. In
section two, the details of the image processing operators is
presented. The approach of SIMP is given in section three.
The overall methodology to apply the simulation process is
discussed in section four. The details of selected problem
and its simulation results are discussed in section five and
six respectively. Finally conclusion is drawn.
1 ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
2
II. IMAGE PROCESSING OPERATORS
Image processing operators are used for single
processing of the original image. There are several image
processing operators available to modify or process an
image into desired form. From vast ranges of operators, two
specific operators are selected i.e. Dilate and Erode, for
binary image. This selection is based on their capability to
simulate the actual manufacturing imperfections [7].
Dilation (Dilate) allows the image boundary of empty
(white) region to expand in filled (black) portion. This
makes the total area of empty region to increase. Erosion
(Erode) allows the filled image boundary to expand in the
empty region. Thus, the total area cover by filled region of
the image increases. The effect of Dilate and Erode can be
observed in Fig. 1. These operators simulate the
imperfections corresponding to milling, etching, electron
beam lithography, and laser micromachining. The
operators can be tailored by the proper selection of the
structuring element (SE) that decides exactly how the
object will be dilated or eroded. Based on the suitability to
simulate the manufacturing imperfection few are chosen in
the present work. These SEs are line, disk, square, and ball
(Table I).
III. SOLID ISOTROPIC MATERIAL WITH
PENALIZATION (SIMP)
In the present work, the structural property of the
component is computed using SIMP approach, associated
with finite element method (FEM). In this section, a brief
detail of SIMP is presented. Initially, Bendsoe and Kikuchi
[10] developed a homogenization approach, which is the
basis of the present state of art in SIMP. The problem is
worked out in a descritized approach, where the whole
design domain is considered element wise. Each element is
assigned a density parameter, which expresses the
existence of material or no material. Strictly speaking,
this design parameter is the material presence expressed in
fractional values for the each element and it is constant
within each element. The value of density parameter is
relaxed in a continuous interval from zero to one, by
inclusion of gray elements. Physically, the gray elements
Fig.1 (a) Original image (b) Dilated image(c) Eroded image
are equivalent to an intermediate state between solid or
void. The assumed intermediate states are purely
mathematical and it cannot be implemented at
manufacturing level. To make it feasible, density
parameters are penalized using a power-law approach that
produces an approximate discrete solution. A very high
penalization turns the density parameter near to one or zero
that represents empty or solid condition. Usually
penalization power is taken as three. This technique is
termed as SIMP [11].
In the present work, the SIMP is used in a reversed way.
Here the process starts with a given density value, which is
generated from the simulation of image. The stepwise
methodology of this process is given in next section.
IV. SIMP METHODOLOGY
The proposed methodology is implemented by creating
a MATLAB code. The steps of this process are summarized
below.
Step 1. Selection of a structural component (beam).
Step 2. A black and white image of the beam is created,
where black represents the presence of material.
Step 3. Image is modified using Dilate or Erode
operators. It represents the manufacturing
imperfection.
Step 4. The modified image is read and a matrix of its
corresponding pixel values is generated.
Step 5. The values of the pixel matrix are normalized
between zero to one. Gray elements are
represented by intermediate values.
Step 6. The elements of the pixel matrix, which are
having values equal to zero, are assigned a min
value (0.001). It makes valid operations of
matrixes while applying FEM. The resultant
matrix is called as "density matrix".
Step 7. Different modulus of elasticity values are
generated for each element of density matrix. It is
carried our using power law approach of SIMP.
Step 8. The values of modified elasticity values for the
elements are preceded for FEM based routine.
Step 9. Using FEM, the values of reaction on beam-
supports, nodal deflection, and Von-Mises stress
are computed.
V. EXAMPLE
In the present work, a cantilever beam shown in Fig. 2 is
selected for the application of proposed methodology. The
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012
3
length of the beam is 20 mm, width is 4 mm and the
thickness if 1 mm. The beam is having internal curves. The
modulus of elasticity and the Poisson's ratio are selected as
200 GPa and 0.3 respectively. At the lower right end of the
beam, a load of 10 N is applied as shown in Fig. 3. The
simulations are performed on this beam, and the results are
provided in the next section.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As per the methodology given in section four, the
simulations are carried out. The Dilate and Erode operators
are set for few SEs which are given in Table I.
TABLE I STRUCTURING ELEMENT TYPES SELECTION FOR SIMULATION
The actual image of beam (Fig.2) is dilated and eroded,
for each SE values. Simulated images are shown in Fig.4. In
these images, the effect of dilation (Fig. 4(a)), and erosion
(Fig. 4(b)) can be seen with respect to its SE number. In
dilation, the amount of material of beam is reduced, while in
erosion, the amount of material of beam is increased. The
variation in the material of beam i.e. mass fraction, is
controlled by the SE parameters. The SE parameters are
tuned to produce a particular amount of variation, which are
referred from the actual case of imperfections [12]. The
variation of mass fraction from the actual one, can be

Fig. 2 Dimensions of selected beam, in mm
Fig. 3 The corresponding black and white image of the cantilever beam
SE No. Type
1

Line 1
2

Line 2
3

Disk 1
4

Disk 2
5 Square 1
6 Square 2
7 Ball 1
8 Ball 2
observed in 5(a). It shows that for SE-4, the mass fraction is
having highest and lowest values. For SE-7, the mass
fraction is very near to the actual values. The deflection in
upward and downward direction can be observed from
Fig.5 (b) & (c) respectively. When the load is applied, the
curvature of the curved part of the beam is changed and the
nodes in that region will have the upward deflection. It can
be seen that, deflection in both cases are high for dilated
beam. It is due to the removal of material from the beam.
This relationship is not direct, as for dilated-SE-5 the
upward deflection is increased though the mass fraction is
higher for SE-4. For SE-7, the deflections are near to the
actual values in both cases. The downward deflection is
highest for dilated-SE-4, and lowest for eroded-SE-4.
Maximum reaction values at the fixed end of the beam are
also simulated for the selected beam, as shown in Fig. 5(d).
The reaction is highest for dilated-SE-1 and lowest for
eroded-SE-4. The reactions are almost equal to the actual
value at SE-7, in both cases. For the failure check, Von-
Mises stress is computed for each case of the beam, as
shown in Fig. 5(e). For dilated-SE-1, 3, 6, 7 & 8, it is
approaching to the actual value. It is highest for dilated-SE-
4, where the mass fraction is lowest. Apart from eroded-SE-
2 & 7, the Von-Mises stress values for all SEs are lower than
the actual values. The lowest value is observed at eroded-
SE-4, where the mass fraction is highest.
In these result, the effect of different SEs can be
observed. The highest and lowest effect is made by disc2
and ball1 SE, respectively. Hence, for a fine variation of
properties, ball1 SE should be used in simulation and for
coarse variation, disc2 SE should be used. It can be seen that
the values are in direct relationship with mass fraction,
leaving few cases. The reason for this may be the way in
which material is dilated or eroded from the beam. In
addition, the mirror image property of dilate and erode
operators can also be observed. The maximum variation of
the mass fraction is also same for the dilation and erosion,
i.e. around 9% of the actual value. The obtained values
depend on the topology of the beam. However, the
observation will be similar among the different properties.
The obtained results indicate that the method is beneficial to
simulate the manufacturing imperfections efficiently.
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of Manufacturing Imperfections
4
Fig. 4(a) Dilated images for SE numbers
Fig. 5(b) Variation of upward deflection
Fig. . 5(c) Variation of downward deflection
Fig. 5(d) Variation of maximum reaction
Fig. 4(b) Eroded images for SE numbers
Fig. 5(a) Variation of Mass fraction
5
Fig. 5(e) Variation of maximum Von-Mises stress
VII. CONCLUSION
In any manufacturing process, imperfections are
obvious. However, it is imperative to simulate the
imperfection before the actual process. In the present work,
the imperfection are simulated which are valid for
machining, etching, electron beam lithography, and laser
micromachining. In this simulation process, image-
processing operators are used along with SIMP method.
The variations among the different SEs are observed for a
selected cantilever beam problem. Their effects on beam
deflection, reaction, and Von-Mises stress are simulated
and analyzed. Present work will be helpful to the
practitioner to select a specific SE to simulate the
imperfections. This work can be extended for fine
examination of each SE in different topologies of structural
components.
REFERENCES
[1] Nicolae L. and Garcia E. (2005), Mechanics of Microelectro
mechanical Systems, New York, Kluwer Academic, pp. 343-381.
[2] Daniel R. K., Dominik V. S. and Robert H. B. (2004), Drastic
Enhancement of Nanoelectromechanical-System Fabrication Yield
Using Electron-Beam Deposition, Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 85,
pp. 157-159.
[3] Steve R. and Robert P. (2001), "A Review of Focused Ion Beam
Appl i cat i ons i n Mi crosyst em Technol ogy", Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, Vol. 11, pp. 287300.
[4] Hyunseok K., Chulki K., Minrui Y., Hyun-Seok K. and H. B. Robert
(2010), Local Etch Control for Fabricating Nanomechanical
Devices, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 108, pp. 1-3.
[5] William K. P. (2007), Digital Image Processing,
[6] Solomon, C. and Breckon, T. (2011), Fundamentals of digital image
processing: a practical approach with examples in Matlab,
Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
[7] Sigmund O. (2007), "Morphology-Based Black and White Filters for
Topology Optimization", Structural and Multidisciplinary
Optimization, Vol. 33, pp. 401-424.
[8] Javed A., Rout B. K. and Mittal R. K. (2007), "A Review on Design
and Synthesis of Compliant Mechanism for Microactuation",
Proceedings of 2nd ISSS National Conference on MEMS, micro
sensors, smart materials, structures and systems, Pilani, India, pp. 1-
10.
[9] Elesin Y., Wang F., Andkjr J., Jensen J.S. and Sigmund O. (2012),
Topology optimization of nano-photonic systems, Integrated
Photonics Research, Silicon and Nanophotonics (IPRSN), Theory,
Modeling & Simulations I: Numerical Methods (IM2B), Colorado
Springs, Colorado.
[10] Bendse M. P. and Kikuchi N. (1988), "Generating Optimal
Topologies in Structural Design using a Homogenization Method,
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 71,
pp. 197-224.
[11] Bendse M. P. and Sigmund O. (2003), Topology Optimization:
Theory, Methods and Applications, Berlin, Springer, 2003, pp. 2-68.
[12] Sigmund O. (2009), "Manufacturing Tolerant Topology
Optimization, Vol. 25, pp. 227-239.
John Wiley & Sons.
Acta Mechanica Sinica,
A FEM and Image Processing Based Method for Simulation of Manufacturing Imperfections
Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-
Borate Glasses
Gurinder Pal Singh, Parvinder Kaur, Simranpreet Kaur, Deepawali Arora and D.P. Singh
Department of Physics, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143 005, India
E-mail: gp1806@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - Glass samples of compositions xAl O -(30- )
2 3 x
Li CO 70B O with x varying from 0 to 8% mole fraction are
2 3 2 3
prepared by melt quench technique. Decrease in the band gap
from 3.12 to 2.91 eV for lithium borate glasses with an increase
in the Al O content has been observed and discussed. The
2 3
FTIR spectral studies have pointed out the conversion of
structural units of BO to BO . Due to the formation of BO and
3 4 4
AlO units, changes in the atomic structure with Al O
6 2 3
composition are observed and discussed.
Keywords: X-ray diffraction, Optical properties, FTIR
I. INTRODUCTION
The study of oxide glasses has received considerable
attention due to their structural peculiarities [1]. These
glasses have wide applications in the fields of electronics,
nuclear and solar energy technologies and acoustic-optic
devices [2]. In addition, they are often used as dielectric and
insulating materials and it is known that borate glass
constitutes a good shield against IR radiation . It is well
known that the main structural units of the borate network
which are [BO ] triangles and [BO ] tetrahedral, may form
3
different super -structural units; boroxol and meta-borate
rings, meta-borate chains, penta-borate,tri-borate, diborate
and pyro-borate [3].
The addition of alkali oxides can improve many
properties of borate glasses as well as modify, even improve
their preparation conditions. Lithium is an important alkali
cation and Al O is an important modifier. Glasses based on
2 3
the lithium aluminum system have attracted considerable
interest in recent years due to their significant applications
in science and industry. Borate glasses containing Lithium
have been extensively studied due to their technological
applications as solid electrolyte in electro chemical devices
such as batteries [4]. Alkali borate glasses are highly useful
mat er i al s f or vacuum ul t r a vi ol et opt i cs and
semiconductors lithography owing to the presence of stable
glass forming range and transparency from the near UV to
the middle infrared region [5].
4
Another oxide, Al O cannot form a glass by itself. It can
2 3
form glass once it is added with another suitable oxides and
it will take part in the formation of the glass structural unit.
Alkali free alumina lead borate glasses are very stable
against devitrification possess high mechanical strength,
toughness, moisture resistant and excellent electrical
properties. Due to this these glasses have application in
battery sealing and microelectronic packing [6-8]. The
addition of an Al O is anticipated to enhance the chemical
2 3
durability of the glasses while simultaneously increasing
the glass transition temperature and reducing the thermal
expansion coefficient [9-11].
The present work investigates the dominant role of
Al O on structural and optical properties in Li CO -B O
2 3 2 3 2 3
glass system. The structural properties are studied by using
XRD (x-ray diffraction), Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques. The optical properties of
glasses are determined by using UV-visible spectroscopy
measurements.
II. EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL
A. Sample Preparation
Glass samples xAl O -(30-x)Li CO 70B O with x
2 3 2 3 2 3
varying from 2 to 10 mol % are prepared by the
conventional melt quench technique. The raw materials of
Lithium Carbonate (Li CO ), Aluminium Oxide (Al O ) and
2 3 2 3
Boric oxide (B O ) of appropriate amounts are mixed
2 3
together and melted in silica crucible at temperature range
of 1100 C for 60 minutes until a bubble free liquid was
formed. The melt is then poured in to preheated steel mould
and annealed at temperature of 380 C for 1 hour to avoid
breaking of the samples by residual internal strains. The
obtained samples are grinded with different grade of silica
carbide and polished with cerium oxide in order to obtain
maximum ? atness. The nominal composition of the
prepared glasses is given in the Table I.
The amorphous/crystalline nature of the samples is
confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) study using
(Shimadzu, Japan) X-ray diffractometer at the scanning
rate of 2 degree/min and 2 varied from 1070.
ARME Vol.1 No.2 July - December 2012 6
The Optical Absorption spectra of polished samples are
recorded at room temperature by using UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer) in the range from 200-
800 nm.
The infrared transmission spectra of the glasses are
measured at room temperature in the wave number range
-1
4004000 cm by a Fourier Transform computerized infra-
red spectrometer type (Thermo Nicolet 380 spectrometer).
The prepared glasses are mixed in the form of ? ne powder
with KBr in the ratio 1:100 mg glass powder: KBr,
respectively. The weighed mixtures are then subjected to a
2
pressure of 150 kg/ cm to produce homogeneous pellets.
The infrared transmission measurements are measured
immediately after preparing the pellets.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. X-Ray Diffraction
The x-ray diffraction pattern (Fig. 1) does not reveal any
crystalline phase in Al O -Li CO B O glass samples
2 3 2 3 2 3
which indicate the amorphous nature of the samples.
TABLE I NOMINAL COMPOSITION (MOLE %), AND BAND GAP OF
GLASSES
B. FTIR
The infrared transmittance spectra of glasses in the
-1
4004000 cm region shown (Fig.2) has large, medium,
weak and broad peaks.
According to literature survey, the borate spectra are
divided into following three regions [12-14].The regions
are;
-1
(a) 600-800 cm for the B-O-B vibrations
-1
(b) 800-1200 cm for BO groups
4
-1
(c) 1200-1600 cm for BO groups
3
-1
There is another band from 2300-4000 cm , which is
due to hydrogen bonding in OH group [15].
-1
1. The band centered at 699 cm has been assigned to B-O-
B bending vibration of BO and [BO ] groups [16]. Its
3 4
Intensity increases with the increase in contents of
aluminum contents, which is due to presence of [AlO ]
6
group of aluminium in glass network [16].
-1
2. In sample A1, the band observed at 1024 cm is due to
B-O bond stretching of [BO ] groups [15].
4
3. This band is shifting towards the lower wave number
-1
(from 1024 to 981 cm ) side in sample A5 with the
increase in the percentage of Al O . Also, its intensity
2 3
increases with the increase in contents of Al O , which is
2 3
due to increase in tetrahedral [BO ] groups in the borate
4
network [15].
Glass
Code
Al
2
O
3
Li
2
CO
3

B
2
O
3

Band Gap

A1 0 30 70

2.91

A2 2 28 70 2.95
A3 4 26 70 3.00
A4 6 24 70 3.08
A5 8 22 70 3.12

10 20 30 40 50 60
Sample-A5
Sample-A3
Sample-A1
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
a
.
u
.
]
2?[degree]
Fig. 1 XRD of glass samples
Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of Al O -Li CO B O
2 3 2 3 2 3
glass with varying concentration of Al O
2 3

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
[
a
.
u
.
]
Wave Number (cm
-1
)
981
997
997
1024
1024
679
679
679
692
699
1376
1349
1382
1349
1349
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
7
Structural and Optical Investigation of Aluminium-Lithium-Borate Glasses
4. As the concentration of Al O increases shifting of band
2 3
-1
arises (from 1024 to 981 cm ) which is due to presence
of [AlO ] units of aluminium. This is attributed to
6
combined presence of aluminium [AlO ] group and
6
tetrahedral [BO ] groups of borate [16].
4
-1
5. The band in the region 1200-1500 cm , centered at 1382
-1
cm is due to B-O stretching of [BO ] groups in ortho and
3
meta-borate units [17].
C. Optical Band Gap
1. The plots between (h) and energy (h) of glasses are

used to determine the optical band gap as shown in fig.3.
2. The optical band gap energy value E , decreases with
opt
an increase of tungsten oxide and lithium oxide
contents.
3. It indicates that a compact structure is formed.
4. With the addition of aluminium at the expense of lithium
content, a large number of oxygen ions become
available in the glass network and changes it from
trigonal [BO ] to tetrahedral [BO ] which results in
3 4
compact the network [17].
5. The gradual increase in the concentration of aluminium
ions cause to increase in tetrahedral group [AlO ] units
6
[17].
6. Formation of [AlO ] has shifted the absorption edge to
6
the lower energy that leads to a significant shrinkage in
the band gap. This change in band gap shows that the
aluminum enters the glass structure as network
modifier [18].

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
A5
A4 A2
A3
A1
(
?
h
?
)
1
/
2
Energy(eV)
Fig. 3 Optical band gap of Al O -Li CO B O
2 3 2 3 2 3
glasses with varying concentration of Al O
2 3
IV. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, with the increasing contents of Al O
2 3
against the decreasing Li CO and fixing the B O leads to
2 3 2 3
the compaction of glass network due to the formation of
tetrahedral [BO ] units of borate and [AlO ] unit of
4 6
aluminium. In this way it has been observed that it decreases
the optical band gap energy. The FTIR study shows the
incorporation of [BO ], [BO ] and [AlO ] units as network
3 4 6
modifiers with B-O-B vibration in glasses network. It has
also been observed that Al O content helps in converting
2 3
[BO ] group to [BO ] units. This reveals that aluminium
3 4
ions also enter the glass structure as a network modifier.
REFERENCES
[1] R K Brow, D r Tallant and G L Turner, J. Amer Cerm. Soc., 80 (1997),
pp. 239.
[2] G. Pal Singh, Simranpreet Kaur, Parvinder Kaur, Sunil Kumar and
D.P. Singh, Physica B, 406 (2011), pp.1890.
[3] E.I.Kamitsos, A.P. Patsis and G.D.Chryssikos, J. Non-Cryst. Solids,
152 (1993), pp. 246.
[4] J F MacDowell , J. Amer Cerm. Soc., 73 (1990), pp. 2287.
[5] V V Golubkov and E A Porai Koshits, Sov J. Glass Phys Chem., 17
(1991), pp. 458.
[6] Monika Arora, S. Baccaro, G. Sharma, D. Singh, K. S. Thind, D. P.
Singh, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research
Section B Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 267 (2009),
pp. 817-820.
[7] A.B. Corradi, V. Cannillo, M. Montorsi, C. Siligardi, J. Mater. Sci. 41
(2006), pp. 1573.
[8] M.S. Reddy, G.N. Raju, G. Nagarjuna, N. Veeraiah, J. Alloys Compd,
pp. 438 (2007) 41.
[9] S.R. Elliott, Section 3, Physics of Amorphous Materials, Longman
Science and Technology, Essex (1984), pp. 53133.
[10] K. Arai, H. Namikawa, K. Kumata, T. Honda, Y. Ishii, T. Handa, J.
Appl. Phys. 59 (1986), pp. 34303436.
[11] S. Tanabe, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 259 (1999) pp.19.
[12] E.I. Kamitsos, M. A. Karakassides, G. D. Chryssikos, J. Phys. Chem.,
90 (19) (1986), pp. 4528.
[13] E.I.Kamitsos, A.P. Patsis, G.D.Chryssikos, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 152
(1993), pp. 246-57.
[14] J. Krogh-Moe, J.Non-Cryst. Solids, 1 (1969) pp. 269.
[15] R.D Husung, R H Doremus, J. Mater Res. 5(10) (1990), pp. 2209-
2217.
[16] L.Stoch, M.Sroda, J. Mol. Struct.511-512 (1999), pp. 77.
[17] M.S. Gaafar, N.S Abd El-Aal, O.W. Gerges, G.El-Amir, J. Alloy
Compd. 475(1-2) (2009), pp. 535-542.
[18] G. Pal Singh, D.P. Singh, Physica B 406(3) (2011), pp. 640-644.
[19] G. Pal Singh and D.P. Singh, Physica B, 406 (2011), pp. 3402.
8
Gurinder Pal Singh, Parvinder Kaur,
Simranpreet Kaur, Deepawali Arora and D.P. Singh
Performance Comparison of Single and Double Layer
Microchannel Using Liquid Metal Coolants: A Numerical Study
1 * 2 2
Deewakar Sharma , Harry Garg and P.P. Bajpai
1,2
Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh -160 030, India
* Corresponding Author E-mail: deewakar_edu@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - With increase in demand for new cooling solutions,
double layer configuration of microchannels has been
extensively studied. Recently liquid metals have also been
proposed to further improve cooling owing to their high
thermal conductivity. However, their advantages with double
layer system are yet to be explored. A comparative study is
made between single and double layer microchannel using
liquid metals (liquid gallium) as the cooling medium. The type
of configuration (counter or parallel) best suited is analysed
and the results are compared with single layer for four
different lengths. The cross-sectional area of single layer is
such that it has same flow area as that of double layer
microchannel. The performance of both is compared under
the conditions of same flow rate and pump power. It is judged
on the basis of maximum temperature attained and minimal
temperature variations at the heated surface. It is observed
that with liquid metal (gallium) as coolants, the double layer
arrangement doesn't prove much advantageous and better
results can be obtained using single layer. Results also favour
liquid metals for small lengths of microchannels showing their
favourability for miniaturized cooling systems.
Keywords: Conjugate heat Transfer, Double layer, Liquid
metals, Single layer
I. INTRODUCTION
With recent developments in field of microelectronics
and ever increasing demand for higher computational speed
and superior performance, power density levels have
increased several manifolds. The peak power consumption
in high performance desktop applications is expected to
touch the 198 W mark by 2015[1] and expected dissipation
of heat flux in next generation microprocessors and
2
microelectronic components is over 1000W/cm [2].
Consequently, dissipation of large amount of heat within a
small space has increased temperature levels. To ensure
consistent operating parameters and reliability of the
circuits, there is a need to maintain operating temperatures
within certain limits. The conventional cooling systems
such as air cooling, heat pipes, thermoelectric cooling etc.
are either incompatible with new microelectronic
components or seem to have reached their practical limit.
This has motivated researchers to come with several
solutions which have been summarized in , according to
their heat removal capacity. Among these, of the coolant
temperature at entrance and exit. As a result, large
temperature gradients prevail in substrate which over a
period degrade the performance and reduce the components
reliability. Several solutions have been proposed to
overcome this problem. The concept of flexible
microchannel heat sink, which utilized flexible soft seals to
enhance heat transfer, was proposed by Khaled and Vafai
and has been discussed in detail in their work [13, 14].
A significant amount of work has also been done
regarding flow pattern to reduce such gradients. The liquid
cooling using microchannel have caught most of the
attention owing to their several advantages such as their
direct integration on the substrate (electronic chip) which
can reduce thermal contact (internal) resistance almost to
zero. Moreover, reduced hydraulic diameters allow for
significantly high values of heat transfer coefficients, of the
3 2
order 10 W/m .
Tuckerman and Pease were the pioneers who introduced
the concept of microchannel cooling. They demonstrated
that with microchannels 50 m wide and 300 m deep, very
-6 2
small thermal resistance (9x10 K/ (W/m )) is possible with
2
power density of 790 W/cm . Following this, significant
contributions have come up in this field with investigations
related to hydraulic and thermal performance of
microchannels which can be classified as experimental and
numerical [5-8]. Several review articles have also been
published pertaining to geometrical, experimental and
numerical reviews[9-12]. Despite several advantages, heat
dissipation within small region results in significant
variation early work of Missaggia and Walpole presented
single layer counter flow heat sink in which flow of water
took in opposite directions in adjacent channels which
reduced on chip temperature variations. A novel concept of
double layer microchannel was proposed by Vafai and Zhu
[16] which mainly addressed the issue of reducing
temperature gradients and variations at the heated surface.
It consisted of two layers of heat sink in which flow of
9
coolant (water) in opposite directions aided in reducing
temperature variations at the heated surface. Following
this, substantial research has been done in this field to
further investigate and explore the advantages of such kind
of system. The concept of double layer microchannel has
been further extended to stacked microchannels[17,18] .
Majority of the work discussed so far was carried out
using water as cooling medium or similar high Prandtl
number fluids. Recently, use of liquid metals with low
melting point for cooling of high power density devices has
been proposed by Liu and Zhou [19]. All such possible
liquids have been reviewed in detail by Kunquan and Liu
[20] amongst which liquid gallium and its alloys were
considered most suitable owing to their overall superior
thermo-physical properties. These can be summarized as
high thermal conductivity, low melting point, non-toxic
nature, boiling point higher than 2200C eliminating power
density as a limiting factor etc. The experimental study of
Miner and Ghoshal [21] showed that heat transfer
2
coefficients of the order 10W/cm /K are achievable using
68 20 12
gallium alloy,Ga In Sn . Further, experiments performed
by Li et al [22]. under different flow and heat dissipation
rates using liquid gallium showed that temperature drop in
o o
case of liquid gallium was 46.7 C against 51.9 C with water.
The need for smaller radiator size was also observed when
using liquid gallium as cooling medium.
Whereas high thermal conductivity of liquid metals is
advantage on one hand, their low specific heat is a
disadvantage which may cause higher temperature
difference at fluid inlet and exit. The difference in thermo-
physical properties of liquid metals as compared to high
Prandtl number fluids has motivated the current study to
compare the performances of double layer and single layer
microchannels. Further, investigating the performance
dependence of double layer microchannel on type of fluid
was also a propelling factor for this work.
In this study, the performance of single and double layer
microchannel is compared using conjugate heat transfer
analysis using liquid gallium as the cooling medium. Since
the temperature gradients are expected to be in all the
directions, a three dimensional model is adopted in the
present work. To see if there is any effect of length on the
performance, four different lengths have been considered.
For sake of brevity SL, DLCF, DLPF is used throughout
representing single layer, double layer counter flow and
double layer parallel flow configurations respectively.
II. ANALYSIS
In this section, various aspects related to analysis are
described briefly. These include experimental units
( comput at i onal domai n) , boundar y condi t i ons,
assumptions etc.
A. Computational Model
Single and double layer microchannel heat sink (parallel
and counter configurations depicted using arrows) along
with the coordinate system is shown in Fig.1 (a-b)
respectively. These also represent computational domains
under study.
The cross section of the geometry used in this analysis is
same as used by Vafai and Zhu[16] . For comparing both the
systems, total flow area (inlet cross sectional area) of SL is
same as that of DL system. Only one half of both the type of
heat sinks has been included in the computational domain
owing to symmetry conditions. 'H ' and 'W ' represent
ch,DL ch
the height and width of each channel of DL respectively.
'H ' and 'W' denote the total height and width of the
total,DL
computational domain, respectively. 'W' is the thickness of
s
solid region while 'L , L , L and L ' represent four different
1 2 3 4
lengths considered for analysis. For SL system, 'H ' and
ch,SL
'H ' denote channel height and computational height
total,SL
respectively. Rest of the dimensions are same as that of DL
heat sink. Table 1 summarizes all the dimensions. These are
also represented pictorially in Fig. 2.
10

Fig. 1 Three dimensional computational domains
(a) Double Layer Microchannel (b) Single Layer Microchannel
The analysis is based on the following assumptions:
i. Steady state flow.
ii. Incompressible fluid.
iii. Laminar flow.
iv. Constant properties of both fluids and solid.
v. Effects of viscous dissipation are negligible.
TABLE I VARIOUS DIMENSIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS
Based on the above assumptions the governing
equations of mass, momentum and energy as applied to the
fluid region were:
Continuity:
Momentum:
Energy:
Fig. 2 Various Dimensions Used in analysis
Variable Dimension (in m)
W
ch
30
W
s
30
W 60
H
ch,DL
100
H
ch,SL
200
H
total,DL

260
H
total,SL

230
L
1

2000
L
2

4000
L
3

6000
L
4

8000
D
UC

75
D
LC

75
D
SL
92.3
where the variables prepresent fluid
velocity, viscosity, density and thermal diffusivity
respectively. 'P' and 'T' denote pressure and temperature
while the subscript 'f' denotes fluid. The following energy
equation was applied to solid region. Energy (for heat
transfer):
'T ' represents the temperature of solid region with
s
subscript's' representing solid region.
Further, hydraulic diameters (required to calculate
Reynolds Number) are calculated as:
i. Double Layer system
ii. Single layer system
Here 'a' and 'S', are the area and perimeter of the channel
respectively while subscripts UC,LC and SL denote upper
and lower channel of DL systems and SL respectively. The
hydraulic diameters are also tabulated in Table I.
The Reynolds number is defined as
where 'w ' is mean flow velocity of the fluid while 'D'
avg,f
denotes the hydraulic diameter of channel and other
subscripts have same meaning as described before.
B. Boundary Conditions
In any computational analysis, boundary conditions play
a significant role describing the type of analysis and nature
of equations that are being solved. The boundary conditions
as applied to computational domain in present study are
6 2
shown in Fig. 3. Uniform heat flux, q'' (=10 W/m ) is
applied at the base, at y = 0 m. The adiabatic conditions
were applied at the following faces:
i. Top surface as the heat sink cover is usually made of
poorly conducting material.
ii. The entrance and exit walls of the solid region
considering heat transfer due to fluid as dominant
factor.
11
Performance Comparison of Single and Double
Layer Microchannel Using Liquid Metal Coolants: A Numerical Study
iii. Outer wall of solid region owing to symmetry condition.
Uniform velocity and temperature conditions were
imposed at the inlet of both the systems. For DLCF, Z=0
represents inlet for lower channel and outflow for upper
channel while for DLPF it denotes former for both the
channels. For SL system, inlet conditions were imposed at
Z=0. Uniform pressure condition at the outlet was applied
in all cases. Continuity of temperature and heat flux as well
no slip condition was assumed at solid-liquid interface
while symmetry conditions were imposed on the plane X=0
in all the cases.
The solid region was assumed to be made of Silicon.
Table II lists all the material properties used in this present
o
study. Since melting point of gallium is 29.8 C ( 303 K)
[20], the inlet temperature was assumed to be 305 K and
thermo-physical properties of liquid gallium at 313 K were
used.
TABLE II PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
C. Solution Method and Grid Independence
The continuity, momentum, and energy equations were
solved using general purpose finite volume based
commercial code, FLUENT. The standard scheme for
pressure discretization, SIMPLE algorithm for pressure
Fig. 3 Boundary Conditions
Double Layer Single Layer
Material
Property
Silicon Liquid
Gallium
Density (kg-m
-3
)

2328 6088
a
Specific Heat (J-kg
-1
K
-1
)

705 400
b
Thermal Conductivity
(W-m
-1
K
-1
)

150 29
Viscosity ( Ns-m
-2
)

- .000187
c
a,c: from Ref. b: from Ref.
velocity coupling and the second order upwind scheme for
momentum and energy equations were used. For grid
independence, three grid sizes were tested separately for
each length using counter flow arrangement in case DL
system. In lieu of computational resources and time, further
refinement of grid was stopped when variation in results
upon further decrease in grid size was below 1%. Similar
procedure was adopted for SL system. For example, grid
size of '24x66x50' and '24x76x50' was used (in x x y x z
directions) for DL and SL system (L length).
1
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The performance of liquid gallium in counter and
parallel arrangement for DL and SL is compared for each
length. The range of flow rate considered for comparison
-8 3 -8 3
varies from 0.72x10 m /s to 3.6x10 m /s, which
corresponds to Reynolds number 147 to 732 for DL and 180
to 902 for SL. It is to be noted that flow rate mentioned here
is the total flow rate in DL microchannel (i.e. sum of flow
rate in upper and lower channel). The following
abbreviations have also been used extensively for the sake
of simplicity, 'PF' for parallel flow, 'CF' for counter flow,
'UC' for upper channel 'LC' for lower channel and L , L , L
1 2 3,
and L representing lengths of the microchannel as
4
described in Table I. The term flow rate has been used
instead of total flow. In addition, where results follow same
trend for all lengths, results pertaining to only two of the
lengths have been shown.
A. Comparison Based on Maximum Temperature Attained
at the Heated Surface
In this section the performance of both the systems is
evaluated on the basis of maximum temperature attained at
the heated surface. This forms one of the basic criteria in any
comparison as it is always desired to keep maximum
temperature as low as possible.
1. Maximum Temperature Versus Flow Rate
Fig. 4 (a-b) shows maximum temperature reached at
different flow rates for DLCF, DLPF and SL system for
lengths L and L considered in the study.
1 3
It is observed that for both the lengths and at all flow
rates, maximum temperature reached in DLCF is much
higher as compared to DLPF and SL system. This behaviour
of liquid gallium may be attributed to its low specific heat
which results in significant rise of temperature of liquid
gallium in DLCF. This is attributed to heat flow at inlet of LC
not only from base but also from UC and vice-versa in case
12

Here, 'T ' is maximum temperature attained at base and
max
this relation is defined for same flow rate. Similar relations
hold for parallel configuration.
The results shown are normalized (w.r.t absolute value)
for each category. It is to be noted that since, similar pattern
was observed in maximum temperature versus flow rate for
all four lengths, only one length is considered here for sake
of brevity. However the results for remaining lengths have
been tabulated in Table III. It is interesting to note that
superior performance between DLPF and SL system is flow
rate dependent. This is evident from negative values at low
flow rates which shows lower temperature attained in case
of DLPF. The same trend is followed for all four lengths as
can be seen from Table III. It can be deduced from the Fig. 5
and Table III that at low flow rates, performance of DLPF is
superior whereas with increase in flow rate, SL heat sink
system is more suitable.
Fig. 5 Difference between Maximum t
emperature attained in DLCF and DLPF w.r.t SL system
(Normalized) versus Flow Rate (L length)
2
of UC which doesn't happen in case of DLPF. This prevents
significant rise in temperature of coolant (liquid gallium). It
can also be seen that the difference between maximum
temperature attained at low and high flow rate is quite
significant for counter arrangement in comparison to DLPF
and SL configurations, especially for longer length. In other
words, rate of decrease of maximum temperature attained at
the base with flow rate is significantly higher for DLCF
whereas it tends to remain nearly same for other two
configurations under study. This is true for all the lengths
considered. This means the performance of DLCF is
significantly affected by flow rate. This may be explained as
follows. The temperature attained by liquid gallium at exit
decreases with increasing flow rates. This means flow of
heat from UC to LC and vice versa is lower thereby allowing
for more efficient heat transfer and distribution.
For further analysis of the results, difference between
maximum temperature attained for DLPF and DLCF w.r.t
SL system is depicted in Fig. 5 for L length. It is defined as:
2
Fig. 4 Maximum Temperature reached at the
base for all three configurations i.e.
SL,DLCF,DLPF for the following lengths (a) L (b) L
1 3
TABLE III NORMALIZED TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE OF
DL SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS W.R.T SL SYSTEM FOR L L AND L
1, 3 4

Flow
Rate x
10
3
[ml/h]
L
1
L
3
L
4
T

DLCF-SL

[K]

T

DLPF-
SL

[K]

T

DLCF-
SL

[K]

T

DLPF-
SL

[K]

T
DLCF-
SL
[K]
T
DLPF-SL
[K]
0.6
1 -1

1

-1

1 -1
1.2
0.70

0.73

0.62

0.66

0.63 0.67
1.8
0.41 0.81 0.37 0.70 0.38 0.66
2.4
0.25 0.78 0.23 0.68 0.23 0.64
3.0
0.16 0.76 0.15 0.62 0.15 0.59
13
Another important observation to note is that there is
first increase in normalized temperature difference
followed by its decrease at all the lengths. This shows that
after a certain flow rate, even though the performance of
single layer is superior, but its rate decreases beyond a
certain flow rate. However, this should not be of much
concern because at higher flow rates, the flow regime may
become turbulent requiring different analysis.
B. Thermal Resistance Versus Pump Power
In practical approach, the performance of heat sink is
limited by flow rate which depends on available pumping
power. Further, thermal resistance addresses the
performance more appropriately as it accounts for both heat
flux and maximum temperature rise. Hence, for further
understanding the phenomena of cooling using liquid
gallium (metals) in DL and SL systems and making the
analysis more relevant to practical systems, thermal
resistance versus pump power is shown in Fig. 6 (a-b) for
lengths L and L .
2 4
We define, thermal resistance as:
Similarly pump power can be defined as:
Here ' P' represents pressure drop while 'Q ' represents
F
the total flow rate. For sake of transience, only results
pertaining to DLPF are evaluated owing to its superior
performance as shown in previous section. Further, results
are shown only for L and L length. As seen from Fig.6
2 4
(a-b), SL offers lower thermal resistance at same pump
power for both the lengths.
This may be attributed to additional conduction
resistance due to base of upper channel. The base behaves
like a fin which has certain effectiveness which may reduce
overall effective area thereby increasing convective
resistance. Since the overall thermal resistance, in addition
to bulk fluid resistance, is affected by combination
convective and conduction resistances, dominance of latter
may explain the observed phenomena.
C. Comparison on the Basis of Minimum Temperature
Variations
The main idea of DL system as proposed by Vafai and
Zhu[16] was to minimize temperature variations along the
flow direction. This prevents thermal stresses to
accumulate over a period which may otherwise lead to
failure of the component. This aspect is also important for
higher reliability of the system. Hence it is important to
analyse whether such a system holds any advantage while
using liquid gallium (metals).
1. Minimum Temperature Variations Versus Flow Rate
Fig. 7 shows flow rate versus temperature variations for
L length for DLCF, DLPF and SL. For remaining lengths,
2
these are listed in Table IV.The temperature variation is
defined as:
It is observed that performance of DLPF is better at low
flow rate in terms of minimal temperature variations at the
base of heated surface. However, with increase in flow rate,
Fig. 6 Thermal Resistance versus Pump Power for lengths: (a) L (b) L
2 4
14

SL shows superior results as compared to DLPF at same
flow rate conditions as can be deduced from Table IV.
Moreover, there is increase in minimum flow rate beyond
which performance of SL is superior with length as can be
observed from Table IV. For example, at length L1, DLPF
-8 3
performs better up to flow rate 0.72x10 m /s whereas this
-8 3
increases to 1.44x10 m /s for the remaining lengths. It is to
be noted that the limits described here are due to values of
flow rates considered in this study. For exact limits, more
values of flow rates need to be considered.
In continuation of results from previous sections, it can
be seen that the performance of SL is superior both in terms
of maximum temperature attained at the base as well as
minimum temperature variations at the base at higher flow
rates.The difference being very minimal, which may also be
attributed to computational limit or error, creates the need to
investigate the performance of DLPF and SL further i.e. on
the basis of pump power.
2. Pump Power Versus Minimum Temperature Variations
As explained above, pumping power is one of the major
constraints in the area of microchannel applications. The
use of DL system was proposed to achieve minimum
temperature variations as compared to SL systems at the
cost of low pump power. This was possible in the studies in
Vafai and Zhu[16] and others due to high specific heat of
water which showed positive results for such a design,
especially in counter flow arrangement. However, for
liquid gallium (metals) the case may not be true as can be
deduced from above sections. Further insight in this regard
is found by considering Fig. 8 which depicts temperature
variations against pump power for DLPF and SL. For sake
of brevity only results corresponding to L and L length
2 4
have been shown while those of DLCF have been omitted
owing to its inferior performance.
Fig. 7 Tempertaure variations at heated surface (base) for Maximum
Temperature reached at the base for L length.
2
TABLE IV TEMPERATURE VARIATION
(T [K]) AT HEATED SURFACE FOR L , L AND L
1 3 4
Length

Flow

Rate

x 10
3

[ml-h
-1
]

L
1
(T [K])
DLCF DLPF SL
25.92 15.54 12.14 12.27
51.84 10.10 6.56 6.55
77.76 6.82 4.60 4.58
103.68 4.98 3.62 3.59
129.6 3.89 3.03 3.00
Length
Flow
Rate

x 10
3

[ml-h
-1
]

L
3
(T [K])
DLCF DLPF SL
25.92

131.63 39.51 39.65
51.84

80.84 20.24 20.24
77.76 50.16 13.72 13.71
103.68

33.47 10.46 10.44
129.6 23.92 8.51 8.48
Length

Flow

Rate

x 10
3

[ml-h
-1
]

L
4
(T [K])
DLCF DLPF SL
25.92

226.29 53.20 53.34
51.84 141.57 27.08 27.08
77.76 87.09 18.29 18.27
103.68 57.48 13.88 13.86
129.6 40.60 11.24 11.22
Fig. 8 Pump Power versus Temperature variations
at base for lengths: (a) L (b) L
2 4
15
It is observed that SL channel is suitable in terms of
temperature uniformity at the base. Even though at low flow
rate conditions, performance of DLPF was better under same
evaluation criteria, lower hydraulic diameter in case of DL
system deteriorated its overall performance. Hence it can be
deduced that use of DL system may not prove advantageous
in case of liquid metals and creates a need to for an alternate
design. This also suggests while using liquid gallium (or
metals) as coolants, the complications and reliability aspects
practically linked with DL system will not be encountered.
This further supports use of liquid gallium (metals) as
cooling medium for compact systems as suggested in the
studies of Li [22].
IV. CONCLUSION
Three dimensional conjugate heat transfer analysis is
carried out to compare the performance of single and
double layer microchannel with liquid gallium as cooling
medium. Owing to different thermo-physical properties of
liquid metals especially high conductivity and low specific
heat, the performance of single layer microchannel system
is found to be superior as compared to double layer system.
Under the condition of same flow rate, single layer
configuration was favoured under both the evaluation
criteria i.e. maximum temperature at the base as well as
minimum temperature variations beyond certain flow rate
for all the lengths considered in the study. However,
comparison on the basis of same pump power showed that
the overall performance of single layer is superior in all
aspects. Since pump power is more realistic approach, it can
be concluded that under the conditions of same flow rate in
both the channels of DL system and equivalent total flow
rate in SL system, single layer heat sink is suitable while
using liquid gallium (metals) as cooling medium. This also
suggests that liquid gallium (or metals) is more suited for
compact and reliable systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Dr. Pawan Kapur, Director
CSIR-CSIO, for supporting their work. The authors also
express their gratitude to Mr. Vinod Karar (CSIR-CSIO)
and Mr. Sumer (IIT-Kanpur) for their valuable inputs and
suggestions.
Nomenclature
a Cross sectional area of microchannel
D Hydraulic diameter (m)
DLCF Double layer counter flow
DLPF Double layer parallel flow
H Height of each channel in double layer
ch,DL
microchannel (m)
H Height of channel in single layer microchannel
ch,SL
(m)
H Total height of computational domain in case of
total,DL
double layer microchannel (m)
H Total height of computational domain in case of
total,SL
single layer microchannel (m)
L Length of microchannel (m)
LC Lower channel
P Pressure (Pa)
PP Pump power (mW)
q'' Heat flux (W/m2)
Q Flow Rate
F
R Thermal Resistance (K/(W/m2))
th
Re Reynolds Number
S Cross sectional perimeter (m)
SL Single layer (microchannel)
T Temperature (K)
UC Upper channel
w Mean flow velocity in z direction
avg,f
W Total width of computational domain in double
and single layer microchannel systems (m)
W Width of solid region (substrate) (m)
s
W Width of microchannel (m)
ch
x,y,z coordinate system (m)
Subscripts
base base of microchannel (y= 0 m)
ch channel
ch,DL channel of double layer system
ch,SL channel of single layer system
f fluid
LC lower channel
max maximum
min minimum
s solid region
UC upper channel
1,2,3,4 lengths of microchannel (2000, 4000, 6000 and
8000 m respectively)
Greek Letters
thermal diffusivity
density
dynamic viscosity
delta (change in Pressure)
16

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[9] J. P. McHale and S. V. Garimella, "Heat transfer in trapezoidal
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17
The Thermodynamic Study of Turbocharger Pressure Ratio and
Ambient Temperature Variation on Exergy Destruction
Estimation of Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
Engine Cogeneration System
1* 2
1*
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi- 110 025
2
Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi - 110 025
E-mail of corresponding author: shailesh.trivedis@yahoo.com
Abstract - Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
(HCCI) technology is different from conventional combustion
technologies. It has the combination of lean and premixed fuel
air mixture and charge is compression ignited so it has multiple
ignition points throughout the combustion chamber thus
eliminating the high peak temperature inside the combustion
chamber. This new engine technology is helpful in production
of ultra low NO and particulate emissions. The use of lean and
X
unthrottled operation yields higher efficiency and better fuel
economy also. In this paper, a new HCCI engine combined
cycle cogeneration system is proposed and studied. The system
is equipped with turbocharger, fuel vaporizer, engine,
catalytic converter, different components of Organic Rankine
cycle (ORC) and further heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) for waste heat utilization from the exhaust gases to
obtain process heat. An exergy analysis is applied to the
different components of HCCI engine cogeneration system to
examine the thermodynamic losses in terms of exergy
destruction and the effect of ambient temperature and
turbocharger pressure ratio is obtained. The result shows a
ranking among the components of the system on the basis of
thermodynamic losses or the exergy destruction. This paper
shows how an exergy method can yield effect of ambient
conditions and design parameters values to reduce losses in
various components of HCCI engine cogeneration system.
Keywords: Cogeneration, Exergy analysis, Exergy destruction,
HCCI engine, Wet ethanol
I. INTRODUCTION
IC Engines have played a key role, both socially and
economically, in shaping the modern world. However in
recent decades, serious concerns have been raised with
regard to the environmental impact of exhaust and
particulate emission arising from operation of these
engines. In addition, concerns about world's finite oil
reserves have lead to rising fuel prices. These two factors
lead to massive pressure on vehicle manufacturer for
Research and development (R&D) to produce ever cleaner
and more efficient vehicles. R&D efforts always focus on
improving engine efficiency while meeting future national
and state emissions regulations through a combination of
combustion technologies that minimize in-cylinder
formation of emissions. In an effort to combine the benefits
of both SI and CI engines, homogeneous charge
compression ignition (HCCI) engines are being developed.
The start of ignition in HCCI engines is not directly initiated
by an external event such as the firing of a spark plug in SI
engines or the beginning of fuel injection in standard diesel
engines; instead HCCI relies solely on the fuel auto ignition
process to control the combustion [1].
II. RECENT AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
The ultimate intention of emission legislation to drive
technologies to the position where realistic reasonably
priced in close proximity to zero emission with satisfactory
performance becomes a reality. Recent progresses in
conventional SI and CI engine technology have allowed
huge improvement in emission and fuel consumption. The
adoption of three way catalytic converter in SI gasoline
engine has considerably reduced the emission of carbon
monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbon (HC), and oxides of
nitrogen (NO ). High speed direct injection (HSDI) diesel
X
engines and stratified charge gasoline direct injection
(GDI) engines permit lean combustion by managing fuel
flow rate. Therefore these approaches achieve significant
reduction in fuel consumption. Alternative Technologies
such as fuel cells and electric vehicles that have been
introduced in the market come with associated problems.
These include high cost, changes required to the fuelling
infrastructure and lack of development to support these
technologies.
18
An alternative combustion technology commonly
known as homogeneous charge compression ignition has
emerged and it has the potential to achieve high efficiency
and very negligible NO and virtually no smoke emissions.
X
It has the abilities to meet current and future emission
legislation, without the need for expensive exhaust gas
treatment systems. In fact HCCI combustion is a new
combustion process in reciprocating internal combustion
engines. In 1979, the most recognized original work in lean
combustion process for IC engine i.e. HCCI was reported
by Onishi et al [2]. They discussed HCCI combustion and
called it active thermo atmospheric combustion (ATAC).
They applied it on 2 stroke gasoline engine with lean
mixture at part load operation and consequently achieved
improved fuel economy and reduced exhaust emissions
along with lower noise and vibration. Noguchi et al (1979)
[3] Studied a gasoline engine combustion by observation of
intermediate reactive products during combustion. They
observed that the air fuel mixture burns in the reaction zone
with flame front as it propagates across the combustion
chamber and it has a clear separation between burned
charge and unburned charge where as in the case of
homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine,
all the charge is consumed simultaneously as the charge
auto ignites and it has multiple ignition points. However
this combustion process is at a lower rate. These works
were motivated by their desire to control the irregular
combustion caused by auto ignition of cylinder charge to
obtain stable lean burn combustion of 2- stroke gasoline
engines. Thring R.H. (1989) [1] introduced the
terminology homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI) for this type of combustion process and it was
further adopted by many researcher of present time to
describe such combustion process in both gasoline and
diesel engine. He suggested that the passenger car engine
can run on HCCI mode at idle and light load operation to
obtain fuel economy and smooth operation while switching
to conventional gasoline engine operation at full power for
good specific power output. Olsson and Johnsson (2001)
[4] used a modified 12 liter six cylinder, turbo diesel engine
mainly used in truck application for study of HCCI engine.
They achieved HCCI combustion over a large speed and
load range by employing combination of isooctane and
heptane through a close loop control, as well as turbo
charging, high compression ratio and intake air heating.
The technology of HCCI is attractive as there is no need for
huge modifications to the existing hardware of IC engines
and its fuelling system and it further considerably reduces
NOx emissions.
A. Ethanol in HCCI Engine
Recently a lot of research is being carried out for the use
of alternate fuels in HCCI engine. Mach et al (2009) [5]
investigated 4-cylinder 1.9 liter engine running in HCCI
mode fuelled with wet ethanol. They investigated the effect
of ethanol water fraction on the engine's operating limits,
exhaust emission, intake temperature and heat release rates.
Saisirirat et al (2011) [6] investigated the auto ignition and
combustion characteristics in HCCI using ethanol/n-
heptane mixture with varying alcohol percentage up to 57%
by volume. Diesel engine fuelled with alcohol/n-heptane
blend was used at constant equivalence ratio of 0.3, with
0
intake temperature at 80 C operating at 1500 rpm. Wu et al
(2011) [7] investigated the reduction in smoke and NO of a
X
partial HCCI engine using premixed gasoline and ethanol as
a fuel. The experiments were conducted under different
engine speed of 1200, 1500 and 1800 rpm and at different
loads. The result shows the successful operation of HCCI
engine with ethanol resulting good efficiency and
effectively reduced emissions.
Exergy analysis of wet ethanol fuelled HCCI engine for
cogeneration application is very much missing in the
literature. Therefore in order to meet out the simultaneous
demand of power and thermal energy from a sustainable
fuel in efficient and environment friendly manner, an
exergy analysis of wet ethanol fuelled engine in HCCI mode
for cogeneration of power and heat has been carried out in
this research paper. Magnitude of exergy destruction in
various components of the cogeneration cycle has been
evaluated and discussed.
III. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
A schematic diagram of the wet ethanol operated HCCI
engine cogeneration system is shown in Figure 1. This
schematic is adopted from Frias et al [8] and modified for
cogeneration application. Ambient air enters the
compressor which delivers air at high pressure and
temperature followed by the regenerator, this raises the air
temperature. Next liquid ethanol in water is injected into the
vaporizer, where it evaporates and mixes with air. The
evaporation process in the vaporizer produces a
homogeneous mixture of ethanol, water vapor and air,
which then enters the HCCI engine. The ethanol water air
mixture inducted into the cylinder heats up as it mixes with
residual gases within the cylinder. After combustion,
exhaust gases enter the catalytic converter at a higher
temperature and exit the converter at further higher
temperature due to heat release from conversion of
19
The Thermodynamic Study of Turbocharger Pressure Ratio and Ambient Temperature Variation on Exergy
Destruction Estimation of Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine Cogeneration System
unburned fuel, hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide
(CO) which were not reacted in the engine combustion
chamber. Gases from catalytic converter at higher
temperature flow into the turbine, generating power that
drives the turbocharger compressor. After circulating
through turbine, the exhaust gases exchange heat with the
intake air in the regenerator and then leave the regenerator
system at ambient pressure and higher temperature. These
exhaust gases at higher temperature are assumed to be
routed through the evaporator where heat transfer occurs
between the exhaust stream and the organic working fluid
(R113). In this study a counter flow heat exchanger
(evaporator) configuration is considered to maximize heat
transfer between the engine exhaust gases and the organic
fluid. Thermodynamically this is preferred configuration
because the temperature difference between the hot fluid
and the cold fluid is minimized, thereby reducing the exergy
destruction.
The heated organic vapor is then expanded in the
turbine, heat is rejected to the ambient in the condenser, and
the cooled working fluid is pumped with pump, back in to
the evaporator. Heat of hot exhaust gas is utilized in the heat
recovery steam generator to generate steam and hence to
produce the process heat.

12
Steamto process
15
16
Compressor

6
Air 1

Air

Air

Fuel vaporizer

Wet
ethanol

HCCI
engine
Turbine

Catalytic converter
2

3

5, Air, steam, fuel
4

7

8

Exhaust

Regenerator

HW
Pump
11

13
14
Organic
Rankine Cycle

Turbine
Evaporator

9

CW
Condenser
10

17
Process

R113 Vapor

Condensate
return
Heat
recovery
steam
generator
Fig. 1 The schematic diagram of wet ethanol operated HCCI engine cogeneration system with organic Rankine cycle and process steam.
(Adopted from Frias et al [8] and modified for cogeneration application)
20

A. Exergy Destruction Model
Development of exergy destruction model shows the
analyst how the performance of a system departs from the
ideal limit and to what extent each component contributes to
this departure, and what can be done to design better (less
irreversible) systems. The general exergetic balance
applied to a fixed control volume is given by Moran and
Shapiro [9]
[1]
where is the heat transfer rate to the system, W the
mechanical power produced by the system, the
irreversibility rate or exergy destruction, and is the flow
exergy associated with the stream of matter.
[2]
where h & s represent the specific enthalpy and
0 0
specific entropy at dead state respectively.
0 1
. . .
0
.
= +

D
out
out
out
in
in
in
j
j
E e m e m W
T
T
Q
j
Q
.
D
E
e
))] ( ) (( [
0 0 0
s s T h h m e
i i
i
i
=
TABLE I EFFECT OF VARIATION OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURE ON EXERGY DESTRUCTION

IN DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF THE WET ETHANOL OPERATED HCCI ENGINE COGENERATION SYSTEM FOR PR=3, C=80% =79%
TABLE II EFFECT OF VARIATION OF TURBOCHARGER PRESSURE RATIO ON EXERGY DESTRUCTION IN DIFFERENT
COMPONENTS OF THE WET ETHANOL OPERATED HCCI ENGINE COGENERATION SYSTEM FOR T0=300 K, C=80%, =79%
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cogeneration is applied to the wet ethanol operated
HCCI engine system to enhance the system overall
efficiency and to reduce the emissions. The exergy
destruction or thermodynamic losses in each component,
and the exergy efficiency of the cogeneration cycle have
also been investigated under the exergy balance approach.
The properties of ethanol, organic fluid (R113) and related
details are taken from Heywood [10] and Perry's chemical
engineers hand book [11]. Processes in the engine are
typical polytropic compression and expansion and near
constant volume combustion as Otto cycle [Osborne et al
(2003)] [12]. Equations used for evaluating performance
parameters have been referred from Trivedi et al (2010) [13]
and Khaliq et al (2011) [14]. Fuel used is 35% ethanol in
water mixture which improves the energy balance of
ethanol production and it can efficiently run HCCI engine.
[Frias et al (2007)] [8].

Amb.
Temp.
T
0
(K)

E
D,
Turbo.
comp.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Regenator
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Fuel Vap.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
HCCI Engine
(kJ/kg)
E
D,Cat.
Conv.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Turbo
Turbine
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
HRSG
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
Turbine
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Condenser
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
Pump
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Cogen.
HRSG
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Exergy
lost to
Env.
(kJ/kg)
290 23.540 75.732 67.018 2815.001 126.849 19.719 20.122 3.422 15.130 0.421 17.408 30.788
295 24.022 74.037 66.006 2816.315 127.341 19.984 21.739 3.747 14.189 0.461 17.708 28.858
300 24.509 72.409 65.003 2817.591 127.673 20.242 23.460 4.088 12.886 0.503 18.008 27.028
305 25.003 70.528 64.029 2818.818 127.796 20.490 25.425 4.472 11.517 0.551 18.308 25.298
310 25.503 68.957 62.984 2820.056 128.041 20.743 27.328 4.836 9.491 0.596 18.609 23.666

Pr.
Ratio
Pr

E
D,
Turbo.
comp.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Regenator
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Fuel Vap.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
HCCI Engine
(kJ/kg)
E
D,Cat.
Conv.
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Turbo
Turbine
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
HRSG
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
Turbine
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Condenser
(kJ/kg)
E
D, ORC
Pump
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Cogen.
HRSG
(kJ/kg)
E
D,
Exergy
lost to
Env.
(kJ/kg)
2.50 20.235 89.504 76.701 2814.00 128.144 14.652 22.663 3.926 12.373 0.483 18.008 27.028
2.75 22.454 80.246 70.546 2815.884 127.805 17.526 23.038 4.002 12.615 0.493 18.008 27.028
3.00 24.509 72.409 65.003 2817.591 127.673 20.242 23.460 4.088 12.886 0.503 18.008 27.028
3.25 26.428 65.580 60.095 2819.070 127.273 22.797 24.088 4.215 13.285 0.519 18.008 27.028
3.50 28.230 59.105 55.595 2820.433 127.026 25.229 24.932 4.383 13.816 0.540 18.008 27.028
21
Table I & II reveals the exergy destruction in each
component of wet ethanol operated HCCI engine
cogeneration system. This exergy study shows that the
maximum exergy is destroyed in the HCCI engine which is
2817.591kJ/kg at mean operating conditions. Exergy
destruction in Heat transfer processes e.g. regenerator and
fuel vaporizer accounts for about 72.409kJ/kg and
65.003kJ/kg respectively at mean conditions. The exergy
destruction in catalytic converter is 127.673kJ/kg. The
exergy destruction in HCCI engine and catalytic converter
is high because the effect of chemical exergy in these
components predominates over the effect of physical
Figure 2 clearly indicates that cogeneration system has a
good thermal performance with first and second law
efficiencies of 46.47% and 38.5% respectively for the mean
operating conditions of T =300K, Pr=3, =80%. Thus the
0 C
recovery of waste heat is considerably increasing the
system efficiency. That is why various engineering
applications throughout the world are considering
cogeneration system for improving efficiency.
V. CONCLUSION
In this article, the thermodynamic analysis of the wet
ethanol operated HCCI engine cogeneration system is
performed. The exergy analysis is aimed to evaluate the
exergy destruction in each component as well as the
exergetic efficiencies. The fuel used is 35% ethanol in water
mixture and this blend is directly formed in the process of
ethanol production from biomass. This study further
explores the use of wet ethanol as a fuel for HCCI engines
exergy. Exergy destruction in ORC evaporator, ORC
turbine, ORC condenser, pump and cogeneration heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) is very less compared to
main HCCI engine components. It indicates that the exergy
analysis is providing ranking among the components of the
system. The component with higher exergy destruction is
very much responsible to deteriorate the performance of the
system as compared to the components with lower exergy
destruction. It further indicates that which component
needs to be repaired or serviced first for maintenance
purpose.

Figure 2. First and second law efficiency of wet ethanol based HCCI engine
cogeneration system at mean operating conditions
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Cogeneration system First law efficiency Cogeneration system second law efficiency
F
i
r
s
t

a
n
d

s
e
c
o
n
d

l
a
w

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
i
e
s

(
%
)
while using exhaust heat recovery to provide the high input
energy required for igniting wet ethanol. The heat
exchanger (regenerator) was used to preheat the intake air
allowing HCCI combustion without electrical air heating.
The thermal efficiency of the overall plant is found to be
46.47% and the exergetic efficiency is 38.5%. The results of
this study show that HCCI engines can use ethanol fuels
with 35% ethanol in water mixture while maintaining
favorable operating conditions. This can remove the need
for the most energy-intensive portion of the water removal
processes i.e. distillation and dehydration of wet ethanol
during ethanol production.
The main conclusions from the current study can be
summarized as follows:
1. HCCI combustion process is highly different from
combustion process of SI and CI engines as it lacks
flame propagation therefore it has superior potential for
22

achieving high thermal efficiency compared to SI or CI
engine. It is concluded that the cogeneration cycle has a
good thermal performance with first and second law
efficiencies of 46.47% and 38.5% respectively for the
mean operating conditions of T =300K, Pr=3, =80%.
0 C
2. Maximum exergy was destroyed in the HCCI engine
which is 2817.59kJ/kg at mean operating conditions.
Exergy destruction in Heat transfer processes e.g.
regenerator and fuel vaporizer accounts for about
72.409kJ/kg and 65.003kJ/kg respectively at mean
conditions. The exergy destruction in catalytic
converter is 127.673kJ/kg.
3. The exergy destruction in HCCI engine and catalytic
converter is high because the effect of chemical exergy
in these components predominates over the effect of
physical exergy.
4. Exergy destruction in ORC evaporator, ORC turbine,
ORC condenser, pump and cogeneration heat recovery
steam generator (HRSG) is very less compared to main
HCCI engine components.
5. It indicates that the exergy analysis is providing ranking
among the components of the system. The component
with higher exergy destruction is very much responsible
to deteriorate the performance of the system as
compared to the components with lower exergy
destruction. It further indicates that which component
needs to be repaired or serviced first.
Heat recovery from automotive engines has been
predominantly for turbo-charging or for cabin heating.
Studies relative to application of the recovered heat to run
organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is scarce. In this paper an
ORC is attached with hot exhaust gases of HCCI engine.
Mathematical model results suggest that the concept is
thermodynamically feasible and could significantly
enhance system performance of the engine. It will largely
benefit considering the cost advantage particularly fuel cost
in long run and emission control. This would definitely
provide a right platform for rapid and qualitative
development of internal combustion engines and will bring
economic development.
REFERENCES
[1] Thring R.H.,(1989) Homogeneous charge compression ignition
(HCCI) engines, SAE International, SAE Paper no. SAE 892068
[2] S. Onishi, S. H. Jo, K. Shoda, P.D. Jo, S. Kato, (1979), Active
thermo-atmosphere combustion (ATAC)-A new combustion process
for internal combustion engines, SAE International, SAE Paper no.
790501.
[3] Noguchi. M., Tanaka, Y., Tanaka, Y., and Takeuchi. Y., (1979), A
study on gasoline engine combustion by observation of intermediate
reactive products during combustion, SAE International, SAE
Paper no. 790840.
[4] Olsson, J.O., Tunestal, P., and Johnsson, B., (2001), Closed loop
control of an HCCI engine SAE International, SAE Paper no. 2001-
01-1031.
[5] Mach, J.H., Aceves, S.M., Dibble, R.W., (2009) Demonstrating
Direct Use of Wet Ethanol in a Homogeneous Charge Compression
Ignition (HCCI) Engine, Energy, Vol. 34, pp. 782-787
[6] Saisirirat, P., Togbe, C., Chanchaona, S., Foucher, C., Rousselle, M.,
and Dagaut, P., (2011) Auto- Ignition and Combustion
Characteristics in HCCI and JSR Using 1-butanol/n-Heptane
Blends, Proceedings of Combustion Institute, Vol. 33, Issue 2, pp.
3007-3014.
[7] Wu, H.W., Wang, R.H., Ou, D. J., Chen, Y.C., Chen, T.Y., (2011)
Reduction of Smoke and Nitrogen Oxides of a Partial HCCI Engine
Using Premixed Gasoline and Ethanol with Air, Applied Energy,
Vol. 88, Issue 11, pp. 3882-3890.
[8] Frias, J.M., Aceves, S.M., Flower, D.L.,(2007), Improving Ethanol
Life Cycle Energy Efficiency by Direct Utilization of Wet Ethanol in
HCCI Engines, ASME Trans., Journal of Energy Resources
Technology, Vol. 129, pp. 332-337.
[9] Moran, M.J., and Shapiro, H.N., (2008), Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics, 6th ed., Willey New York.
[10] Heywood, J., (1988), Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals,
McGraw Hill, New York.
[11] Green, D.W., Perry, R.H., (2008) Perry's Chemical Engineer's Hand
Book, Eighth ed., McGraw Hill, New York.
[12] Osborne R.J., Li, G., Sapsford, S.M., Stokes, J., Lake, T.H.,(2003)
Evaluation of HCCI for Future Gasoline Power Trains, SAE Paper
No. 2003-01-0750.
[13] Trivedi, S.K., Khaliq, A., Sharma, P.B., (2010) An Examination of
Exergy Destruction in Wet Ethanol Operated HCCI Engine Based on
First and Second Law Analysis, Proceedings of First International
Conference on New Frontiers in Biofuel, Sharma et al., eds., DTU,
New Delhi, India, pp295-305.
[14] A., Khaliq, S.K., Trivedi, I., Dincer, (2011) Investigation of wet
ethanol operated HCCI engine based on first and second law
analysis, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol.31, Issue 10, pp.1621-
1629.
23
Experimental Investigations of Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical
Spark Machining (TW-ECSM) of Borosilicate Glass
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology,
Allahabad 211 004, Uttar Pradesh, India
E-mail: bkbhuyan@mnnit.ac.in, vinody@mnnit.ac.in
Abstract - Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical Spark Machining
(TW-ECSM) is an innovative hybrid machining process,
combining the features of the Electro Chemical Machining
(ECM) and Wire-Electro Discharge Machining (WEDM). It is
more suitable for machining of electrically non-conductive
engineering materials. Conventional machining methods and
some unconventional machining methods cannot be
effectively applied for machining of borosilicate glass due to
the resulting problems of air borne dust, tool wear and
thermal damage. In this paper an inhouse TW-ECSM setup
has been designed and fabricated successfully and employed
for experimentation. The results about the feasibility of the
process and its performance during machining of borosilicate
glass have been illustrated. Borosilicate glass, which is
frequently used as a material for fabrication of micro
structures, was used as a workpiece. Experiments were
carried out to investigate the effects of specimen thickness
along with different type of wires on material removal rate
(MRR). For same set of input parameters, material removal
rate is found to decrease initially but after achieving certain
value, it begins to increase with increase in specimen
thickness.
Keywords: Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical Spark
Machining (TW-ECSM), Borosilicate Glass, Hybrid
Machining Process, MRR
1. INTRODUCTION
Borosilicate is a more stable form of glass, and
undergoes less expansion and contraction with changes in
atmospheric temperature and pressure. It transmits and
reflects a wide range of the light spectrum. For that reason,
it is useful in telescopes and optical instruments used in
space. It can be ground into a great variety of useful shapes,
ground to a high gloss, and coated with useful industrial and
scientific materials. It has also been formed into a variety of
utilitarian household objects, such as towel rods,
coffeepots and light fixtures, as well as jewelry and
accessories. Borosilicate glasses are also found in
semiconductor application in the micro electro-mechanical
systems development.
New ways of cutting hard and brittle non-conductive
engineering materials which are difficult-to-machine by
conventional methods continue to attract attention. While
electrical methods such as electro chemical machining
(ECM) and electro discharge machining (EDM) have
proved useful, drawbacks such as the expense of tooling for
forming large cavities and low rate of material removal have
hindered their wider acceptance. Ultrasonic machining
(USM), abrasive jet machining (AJM), laser beam
machining (LBM), and electron beam machining (EBM)
are some of the advanced machining processes that can be
used for literature by different researchers, such as Electro
chemical arc machining, Electro chemical discharge
machining and Spark assisted chemical engraving [3]. The
diversity of name illustrates the complexity of the process.
Machining these materials, but dimensional accuracy
and surface quality of the machined surfaces are the major
concern. Recently, a new trend has been introduced to
combine the features of different machining processes.
Such machining processes are called as hybrid machining
processes (HMPs). HMPs are developed to exploit the
advantages of each of the constituent machining processes
and diminish the advantages of each constituent process. It
has been observed that sometimes, hybrid machining
process enhances the material removal rate (MRR),
increases the capabilities of the constituent processes, and
widen the area of application of the constituent processes.
HMPs also reduce some adverse effects of the constituent
processes when they are applied individually. Electro-
chemical spark machining (ECSM) is one of the HMPs,
which combines the features of electro chemical machining
and electro discharge machining, has stemmed from its
ability to remove metal at high rates, as much as five and
fifty times faster than ECM and EDM, respectively under
the same parameter setting [1]. The ECSM process uses
Electro-Chemical Discharge (ECD) phenomenon for
generating heat for the purpose of removing work material
by melting and vaporization. This was presented for the first
24
time in 1968 by Kurafuji as Electro-chemical Discharge
Drilling for microholes in glass [2]. Several other names of
ECSM are used in ECSM with ECD have been tried in
many configurations: Die Sinking-ECSM, Hole Sinking-
ECSM, Die Drilling-ECSM, Hole Drilling-ECSM, Wire
Cutting-ECSM, Disc Cutting-ECSM, Cylindrical
Grinding-ECSM, Surface Grinding-ECSM and Pocket
Milling-ECSM. Die SinkingECSM operation usually
involves machining of cavity using non-rotating tool
electrode, where as in hole drillingECSM a rotating tool
electrode is used with the main focus on the surface quality
of side wall of the hole. Wire cuttingECSM is capable of
slicing large volumes and machining complex shapes of
non-conducting materials without the need of full form tool
electrode. In contour millingECSM, a simple shape tool
electrode is used to produce a three-dimensional (3-D)
cavity by adapting a movement strategy similar to
conventional milling. Success in the application of sinking
and drilling ECSM has stimulated interest in studying the
prospects of TW-ECSM. The development of the Traveling
Wire Electro-Chemical Spark Machining (TWECSM) is
the outcome of machining requirements. In 1985, Tsuchiya
et al. [4] proposed TW-ECSM first time for cutting non-
conducting materials such as glasses and ceramics. Various
researchers have put forth explanations of ECD
phenomenon based on their experimental studies.
Bhattacharya et al. [5] conducted experiments on
alumina and concluded that the most effective parametric
combination for moderately higher machining rate and
dimensional accuracy are 80V and 25% NaOH
concentration. Tool tip geometry was also found to play an
important role in a controlled spark generation in ECDM.
Kulkarni et al. [6] proposed the discharge phenomenon
similar to arc discharge in gases. They proposed that
hydrogen gas bubbles get accumulated at the tool-electrode
tip leading to combining of bubbles into a single large
bubble which isolates the tip completely from the
electrolyte. This causes the local electric field gradient
between the tool and electrolyte interface to go beyond the
breakdown limit of 25V/m leading to an arc discharge.
Basak and Ghosh [7] treated the discharge phenomenon as a
switching off process due to bubble bridges. Hofy and
McGeough [1] carried out experimental studies on the
effects of mode of electrolyte flushing, wire erosion,
machining speed on metal removal rate during TW-ECAM.
Their recommendation was to use coaxial mode of flushing
for maintaining the machining action and its accuracy and
also reported the values of bubble diameters, 1m.
Peng and Liao [8] verified that TW-ECDM can be
applied for slicing meso-size non-conductive brittle
materials of several millimeters thick. They have shown
that pulsed DC power shows better spark stability and more
spark energy than constant DC power. Nesarikar et al. [9]
carried out experimental study for the feasibility of TW-
ECSM process for precision slicing of thick Kevlar-epoxy
composite. They did comparison between the experimental
and calculated values of MRR and average diametral
overcut with the variations in electrolyte conductivity,
applied voltage and specimen thickness. Jain et al. [10]
carried out experiments on their self developed setup of
TW-ECSM for cutting Glass epoxy and Kevlar epoxy
composites using NaOH electrolyte. They found that the
wire wear rate and the overcut follow a similar behavior as
the machining rate but the wire wear rate is about two
magnitudes smaller than the MRR. They also tried to study
the effect of artificially introducing some bubbles into the
process during machining and found that the MRR as well
as the overcut decreases slightly. Yang et al. [11] carried out
experimental study to improve the overcut quality by
adding SiC abrasive to the electrolyte. They discussed the
effects of abrasive on expansion, roughness and MRR on
the various machining parameters in Wire Electro-
Chemical Discharge Machining (WECDM). Singh et al.
[12] attempted to explore the feasibility of using TW-
ECSM process for machining of electrically partially
conductive materials like lead zirconate titanate and carbon
fiber epoxy composites. They found that MRR increases
with increase in supply voltage. MRR also increases with
increase in concentration of the electrolyte up to around 20
wt. %. Beyond this concentration, it starts decreasing. They
also observed that machined surface shows evidence of
melting. Large cracks are sometimes observed when the
machining is done at higher voltage. However, such
cracking is not seen at lower voltage.
Based on the above literature survey, studied in depth, it
has been found that the ECSM process in general and the
TW-ECSM process i n part i cul ar has not been
commercialized and literature available for this process is
still scarce. The focus of the present work is on developing
an inhouse TW-ECSM setup and experimental analysis of
the non-conducting engineering materials. The effects of
specimen thickness and type of wires on material removal
rate have also been observed.
II. FUNDAMENTAL OF ECSM
The ECSM process involves a complex combination of
the electro chemical action and electro discharge action.
25
The electrochemical action helps in the generation of the
positively charged ionic gas bubbles, i.e. hydrogen gas (H ).
2
The electro discharge action takes place between tool and
workpiece due to breakdown of the insulating layer of the
gas bubbles. In ECSM process, an electrochemical cell
consists of two electrodes dipped in electrolyte, one is
larger electrode (anode) called as dummy electrode or
auxiliary electrode and another one is smaller electrode
(cathode). The distance between two electrodes is 30-50
mm and smaller size electrode is dipped 2-3 mm below the
electrolyte as shown in Fig. 1.
When an external potential is applied between the
electrodes, electrical current flows through a cell resulting
in electrochemical reactions such as anodic dissolution,
cathodic deposition, electrolysis of electrolyte etc. Surface
area of the cathode dipped in the electrolyte is very small
compared to anode hence high current density at the
cathode results in rapid generation of hydrogen gas bubbles
Fig. 1 Electro-Chemical cell with two
electrodes of grossly different size
and oxygen gas bubbles at the anode due to electrochemical
reactions. Boiling of electrolyte near small electrode would
occur due to Ohmic heating of the electrolyte. Beyond a
certain value of the applied potential, electric sparks appear
at the smaller electrode and the cell current drops. This is
known as Electro-Chemical Discharge (ECD) phenomenon
[2]. There are various theories [3] proposed to explain the
mechanism of spark generation at the cathode. However,
none of them has been verified experimentally.
In TW-ECSM process, D.C power is supplied between
the wire and the auxiliary electrode and the sparking takes
place between the wire and electrolyte and hydrogen gas
bubbles are accumulated and insulating layer is formed near
the wire surface. With the further increase of applied
voltage, sparking from wire takes place. If the workpiece is
kept in the vicinity of the spark zone, material is removed by
melting and vaporization. Thus the material removal
process in traveling wire electrochemical spark machining
is very complex in nature which is governed by various
process parameters. The experimental setup of TW-ECSM
has to be developed so that the process parameters are to be
properly controlled to achieve the good machining
performance.
III. DEVELOPED EXPERIMENTAL TW-ECSM SETUP
Traveling Wire Electro-Chemical Spark Machining
(TW-ECSM) setup has been designed and fabricated
keeping in view the fundamental mechanism of the process
and basic functional requirements of different parts. The
setup was performed after assembling various indigenously
developed basic components such as, Machining chamber,
Wire driving system, Electrolyte supply system and Power
supply system. A schematic diagram of the Traveling Wire
ECSM setup is shown in Fig. 2 (a) and a photograph of the
setup is also shown in Fig. 2 (b).
Fig. 2 (a) Schematic diagram of TW-ECSM setup and (b)
Photographic view of the developed tabletop TW-ECSM setup
26
The machining chamber of size 400mmx250mm
x110mm is made of Plexiglass holds the electrolyte, as it is
an electrically insulating, transparent and corrosion
resistant material. It is kept on the lower platform of a
wooden table. On the middle wall of the machining
chamber electrode positioning and job-feeding unit is
fixed. At the bottom of machining chamber a hole is
provided to drain out electrolyte from chamber. Within
machining chamber the tool electrode is just touching the
non-conducting workpiece such as borosilicate glass. The
auxiliary electrode is a vertical graphite rod and a
horizontal scale is attached at the centre of the top edge of
the vertical rod. The horizontal scale is provided in order to
measure the horizontal displacement of the auxiliary
electrode which in turn helps to measure and control the
inter electrode gap. In the base and side wall of the
machining chamber, pulleys are attached, which helps in
movement of wire throughout machining chamber. The
electrolyte reservoir is attached with the side wall of the
machining chamber in order to supply electrolyte. The
workpiece holder is made of iron plate. A vertical up and
down movement up to 30mm can be made to change the
depth of the workpiece in the electrolyte by using depth
control mechanism.
The wire driving system consists of a feed spool, a take-
up spool, a set of pulleys and a stepper motor. The step angle
of the stepper motor is 1.8. The rpm of the stepper motor
can be varied from 1 to 80. The programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) is used to rotate the stepper motor
smoothly. The input voltage to the stepper motor is 24V and
the input current to the stepper motor is 2.8A. The torque of
the stepper motor is 20kgcm. The wire electrode is fed
towards the workpiece at a constant rate from a feed spool
through a set of pulleys to the take-up spool. The pulley that
is submerged in the electrolyte is made of Teflon and other
pulleys are made of copper. A stepper motor drives the take-
up spool to pull the wire gently at a constant speed. An
anode made of graphite is attached to the pulley mount and
its distance from the cathode (wire) can be adjusted. The
distance between two electrodes is 30-50mm from each
other.
The electrolyte supply system consists of a pump and a
flow control valve. The electrolyte is supplied to the cutting
site on the work specimen can be immersed thoroughly in
the electrolyte. There are two different modes of electrolyte
flushing, such as (a) electrolyte flushing perpendicular to
wire and (b) electrolyte flushing coaxial with wire. The
electrolyte is added to the machining chamber from the
reservoir in the form of drops instead of flow from pipe. If
electrolyte is fed with high velocity, there will be no
formation of insulating layer or gas bubbles. Hence for this
thermal consideration the electrolyte should be added drop
by drop.
The power supply system used in TW-ECSM is mostly
DC power supply voltage able to maintain about 40V across
the cathodic tool-electrode and anodic auxiliary electrode.
Pulsating current can be applied to increase the
performance of TW-ECSM. Pulsating current has three
parameters such as pulse on-time, pulse off time and peak
current density. In the pulsed TW-ECSM process, a pulse
generator is used to supply the voltage pulses across the
electrodes. Pulsing is applied to this D.C by means of a timer
control. The main 230 volts, 3 phases, AC power supply are
converted to low voltage D.C power supply by a step down
transformer and silicon controlled rectifier unit. The
positive terminal of the power supply unit is connected with
auxiliary electrode and one end of the coil heating the
electrolyte. The negative terminal of the power supply unit
is connected with wire and another end of heating coil. Thus
temperature of the electrolyte is controlled electrically
o o
from 20 C to 60 C. The voltage and current can be recorded
with a voltmeter and ammeter.
IV. EXPERIMENTATION
Experiments of TW-ECSM have been conducted by
varying specimen thickness, keeping other parameters
constant. Initial experiments were performed in
borosilicate glass with graphite rod (diameter 8mm, length
55mm) as anode and copper wire of diameter 0.70mm, brass
wire of diameter 0.25mm and stainless steel of diameter
0.50mm as cathode. A rectangular borosilicate glass of size
40mm35mm2mm was adopted as a workpiece.
Workpiece was held at constant distance of about 35mm
from the anode. Cathode (wire) was always kept in physical
contact with the workpiece which was mounted on the
supporting platform. Copper wire and stainless steel wire
were broken frequently even at 64 volts but brass wire was
broken at 50 volts because of its low current carrying
capacity. Very low wire speed would lead to the situation
similar to the stationary tool resulting in overheating and
finally breaking of the wire. Too high wire speed was also
not desirable because it would be uneconomical. Hence,
wire was driven by stepper motor at a constant speed of 1.2
m/min. An aqueous solution of NaOH with a 200g/l solution
at 20C, was used.
27
NaOH has higher specific conductance, reactions take
place at higher rates, so a larger amount of gases were
evolved. Hence, higher MRR was achieved. Therefore, all
the experiments reported in this paper were carried out
using NaOH solution as electrolyte. Each experiment was
tested for about 5 to 12 min, during which voltage and
current were recorded on a voltmeter and ammeter,
respectively. The minimum linear feed rate to the
workpiece which could be achieved using the present setup
was 0.008mm/s. This feed rate was higher than the cutting
rate observed during the experiments. The nature of graph
observed that MRR of borosilicate glass using copper wire
and stainless steel are greater than the MRR using brass
wire of same material, keeping other parameter constant.
This is because of copper wire is a more electrically
conductive than brass wire and as per the diameter
concerned, stainless steel wire diameter was greater than
brass wire diameter. Copper possesses excellent
conductivity rating, low tensile strength, high melting
point and low vapour pressure rating which severely
limited potential. As new materials and demands came,
developers subsequently experimented with the use of
brass in order to meet the new demands. Brass is an alloy of
copper and zinc. Generally, the higher the zinc percentage,
the better the wire is for EDM.
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Machining of Borosilicate Glass
Micrograph of the specimen after machining has been
studied with the help of Optical Measuring Microscope
(OMM) as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 (a) shows after slicing of borosilicate glass with
keeping other parameter constant and (b) represents the
micrographs of machining portion of the specimen by using
optical measuring microscope 10X. Initial experiments
were performed in borosilicate glass with graphite rod as

Fig. 3 Machining of borosilicate glass (a) groove
cut and (b) micrograph of groove cut using
optical measuring microscope 10X
anode and brass wire of diameter 0.25mm as cathode.
Likewise, other experiments were performed. Each
experiment was tested about 5 to 12 minutes, during which
time the machining of current and voltage were recorded as
ammeter and voltmeter respectively. Brass is an excellent
thermal and electrical conductive material as well as less
corrosive. So that current rises at the machining of the
materials within less time, results more hydrogen bubbles
accumulate at the tool tip and more material removes.
B. Material Removal Rate
After machining, the workpiece was washed, dried to
evaporate any water remaining on the surface and
reweighed using a weighing digital micro balance
(accuracy 10g, CAS India Private Limited). The
difference between the original weight and the final weight
gave the amount of material removed. In this work, material
removal rate in millimeter per minute was evaluated as
shown in Fig. 4. The efficiency of the machining process is
also usually evaluated in terms of material removal rate in
milligrams per second.
1. Effect of Specimen Thickness
The effect of specimen thickness on MRR for
borosilicate glass with considering copper wire, stainless
steel and brass wire as shown in Fig. 4. MRR is decreasing
with increase in specimen thickness in the first part of the
curves. This is because of the obstruction in the current path
resulting in less bubble formation on the wire passing
through the groove and the energy generated on the wire
away from the workpiece is wasted in heating the
electrolyte. Similarly, second part of the curve, MRR
increases with increase in specimen thickness. This is due to
the discharge zone in the vicinity of the wire gets shifted to
the top of the workpiece and more bubble concentration on
the wire passing through the groove.
Fig. 4 Effect of specimen thickness on MRR
28
The Fig. 4 also shows that machining of borosilicate
glass with brass wire is better than copper and stainless steel
wire but low MRR than other two, due to low voltage. We
also observed that MRR decreases initially up to 3mm
thickness of the specimen and then increases with an
increase in the thickness of the specimen.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimentally obtained results during
machining of electrically non-conductive borosilicate
glass on designed and fabricated TW-ECSM setup and
thereafter discussion on the investigated results, the
following conclusions are drawn as listed below.
1. It has been found that machining of borosilicate glass
with brass wire is better than the copper wire and
stainless steel.
2. MRR has been observed to decrease initially with an
increase in specimen thickness upto certain value and
then increases continuously.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support for this work has been granted by the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Government of Indi a t hrough proj ect no. 22/
(0486)/09/EMR-II entitled Experimental and Numerical
Study of Traveling Wire Electrochemical Spark Machining
of Advanced Engineering Materials.
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29
Performance Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled by
Biodiesel of Jatropha Oil and Soybean Oil
1 2*
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ABES Engineering College,
Ghaziabad, Utter Pradesh, India
2
University College of Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
* Corresponding author E-mail: pkgarg4050@gmail.com
Abstract - Biodiesel is considered as an important renewable
and alternative fuel of future. This paper focuses on the
performance of biodiesel made from jatropha oil and soybean
oil. The biodiesel was produced through transesterification
process and it was blended with the fossil diesel. The blended
mixtures were tested in an IC diesel engine attached with a
dynamometer. On the basis of performance tests it was found
that brake thermal efficiency of mixed jatropha and soybean
biodiesel blends is nearer to pure diesel oil at different rpm.
The brake specific fuel consumption obtained with biodiesel
blend of mixture of jatropha and soybean oil is comparable
with fossil diesel.
Keywords: Biodiesel, Alternative fuel, Jatropha oil, Soybean
oil, Brake thermal efficiency
1. INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines are used in a number of applications like
heavy automobile engines, cars, small irrigation water
pumping systems and small electricity generators etc.
Therefore, diesel fuel is used much more than any other
gasoline fuels. Diesel is produced from non-renewable
fossil fuels which are limited in quantity and one day they
would be exhausted. Biodiesel is an alternative and
renewable fuel that can be produced from various vegetable
oils, animal fats and waste cooking oil. Biodiesel can be
blended with fossil diesel to create a biodiesel blend. This
blend can be used in compression-ignition engines or oil-
fired boilers and furnaces with little or no modifications.
Since biodiesel is produced from plants, it is considered
as carbon neutral because after combustion it produces the
carbon which has been absorbed during photosynthesis
process. The use of biodiesel can reduce the use of
petroleum based fuels and possibly lower the overall
greenhouse gas emissions. Biodiesel, due to its
biodegradable nature, and absence of sulfur and aromatic
contents, produces less toxic emissions. Therefore it is
considered as an environment friendly fuel. Many
researchers have produced biodiesel by using different
edible and non-edible vegetable oils and these biodiesels
have been tested in diesel engines for their performance.
Hammerlein et al. conducted experiments using filtered
rapeseed oil in diesel engine and found that the brake power
and torque using rapeseed oil were 2% lower than that of
diesel oil. But, NO and particulate emissions were lower as
x
compared to diesel fuel combustion. However, noise and
emission of CO and HC were higher [1]. Chio blended the
diesel and biodiesel in the ratio of 80:20 and 60:40 by
volume. The prepared blend was tested on a single cylinder
caterpillar engine, using both single and multiple injection
system. During high loads and single injection, the
particulate matter and CO emissions were decreased.
However, a small increase in NO was noticed when the bio-
x
diesel concentration is increased. But in the case of multiple
injection a decrease in particulate emission was observed
with little or no effect on NO [2]. Agarwal used ethanol
x
blended with diesel to study its performance and emissions
in an Engine. The tests demonstrated that almost all the
important properties of biodiesel are in very close to the
fossil diesel [3]. Rao et al. found that the brake thermal
efficiency for biodiesel and its blends was slightly higher
than that of diesel fuel at tested load conditions. It was found
that for jatropha biodiesel and its blended fuels, the exhaust
gas temperature increases with increase in power and
amount of biodiesel [4]. Godiganur et al. found that the
blend of Karanja oil methyl ester and diesel can be used
successfully as an alternative fuel without any affect on
engine power and performance. Moreover, the amounts of
exhaust emissions are lower than those of diesel fuel [5].
Mohanty et al. used Polanga oil to run an IC engine to
evaluate the combustion performance and emission
characteristics of diesel engine. It is found that Polanga oil
can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engine without
affecting the performance of the engine [6].
Almost all of the vegetable oils can be used as raw
material to produce biodiesel. But it is suggested that only
non-edible oils should be used for this purpose due to
obvious reasons. In the present study different blends of
biodiesel from jatropha oil and soybean oil has been used in
30
Blend
Ratio

(By volume)
Given Name
Blend-1

Biodiesel from
Jatropha 20% +
Diesel 80%
Jatropha blend
Blend-2

Biodiesel from
Soybean 20% +
Diesel 80%
Soybean blend
Blend-3
Biodiesel from
Soybean 10%
+Biodiesel from
Jatropha 10% +
Diesel 80%
Soya+Jatropha
blend
a diesel engine to check its performance and emission
temperature. The jatropha oil is a non-edible oil and it can
be produced from the carcass of jatropha plant. This plant
can be grown on non-irrigated land without any special
care.
II. PREPARATION OF BIODIESEL
Vegetable Oils (Triglycerides) are ester of glycerol and
fatty acids. A chemical reaction of these triglycerides with
the alcohol in the presence of a catalyst produces methyl
esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. This reaction process is
known as transesterification. Currently, most commercial
biodiesel is produced with the transesterification processes
using a homogeneous alkaline catalyst, generally NaOH or
KOH. The alkaline catalyst provides a faster reaction as
compared to an acidic catalyst. The alcohol which is
generally used is methanol due to its relatively low cost and
a high cetane number of the produced biodiesel [7].
Methanol has an ability to react with triglycerides quickly
and the alkali catalyst is easily dissolved. The rate of
transesterification process depends upon the amount of
methanol, catalyst, reaction temperature and reaction time.
The chemical reaction is given below:
CH COOR
2
| Catalyst
CHCOOR + 3CH OH CH OH) CHOH+3CH COOR
3 2 2 3
|CH COOR
2
Catalyst
(Triglyceride + Methanol Glycerol+Methyl Esters)
Theoretically, three moles of alcohol are required for
each mole of triglyceride to produce three moles of fatty
acid alkyl ester and one mole of glycerol. But since
transesterification is a reversible reaction, excess amounts
of alcohol are used to ensure that the oils or fats will be
completely converted to esters, and a higher alcohol
triglyceride ratio can result in a greater ester conversion in a
shorter time. Therefore maintaining a high alcohol to oil
ratio is essential. The commonly employed molar ratio for
two-step acid transesterification is 6:1 and 9:1 for alkali
catalyzed transesterification [8]. If molar ratio is further
increased it makes it difficult to separate the glycerol from
the oil [9]. The process temperature is constrained to be
below the boiling point of the alcohol used. Reported
reaction times for typical biodiesel production ranges from
30 minutes to over 2 hours, with catalyst concentrations that
vary between 0.1 and 2% [10, 11]. In this study jatropha oil
and soybean oil have been used as raw materials for
producing two different types of biodiesels. KOH was used
as catalyst. Table-1 shows properties of diesel and the oils
which have been used for the production of biodiesel.
For producing the biodiesel the vegetable oil was mixed
o
with methanol and KOH. The mixture was heated at 60 C
for 3 hours while stirring with magnetic stirrer. Mixing is
very important in the transesterification reaction as
triglycerides are immiscible in the alcohol solution.
o
Transesterification was carried out at 60 C, which is just
below the boiling temperature of methanol. The reaction
mixture was allowed to settle to get biodiesel at the top and
glycerin at the bottom. After separation the biodiesel was
filtered to remove any solid particles then it was heated at
o
100 C for 10 minutes in stainless steel tank to remove any
water contents.
After the preparation of two different types of biodiesel
by using two different raw materials, three different types of
blends of the biodiesel and conventional fossil diesel were
prepared as shown in the Table II.
In the first blend 20% of jatropha biodiesel is mixed with
80% of conventional diesel. In the second blend 20% of
Soybean biodiesel is mixed with 80% of conventional
diesel. In the third blend 10% of jatropha biodiesel and 10%
of soybean biodiesel is mixed with 80% of conventional
diesel. After the preparation of blends, tests were conducted
to determine the performance characteristics of the engine.
TABLE I PROPERTIES OF JATROPHA OIL, SOYBEAN OIL AND DIESEL
Fuel
Dynamic
Viscosity
at 20
o
C
(cP)
Density
(g/cc) at
30
o
C
Calorific
Value
(KJ/Kg)
Flash
point
o
C
Cetane
Number
Diesel

4.83

0.845

45,870 35 49.6
Jatropha Oil

50.73

0.93292

45,456 240 51
Soybean Oil

60

0.9239

38,000 254 34.8
TABLE II DIFFERENT BENDS OF BIODIESEL AND DIESEL
31
Performance Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled by Biodiesel of Jatropha Oil and Soybean Oil
III. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE
Experimental investigations were carried out on a
double cylinder DI diesel engine to examine the suitability
of jatropha and soybean biodiesel blends as alternate fuels.
Two cylinder four stroke Kirloskar engine test rig with
attached hydraulic dynamometer was used to conduct
performance tests on engine. Specifications of test rig are
given in Table III.
After warming up and stabilizing the engine, tests were
conducted. For all the tests the speed of the engine varied
from 1000 to 1500 rpm at a constant load. The jatropha and
soybean oil blends were supplied as fuel to the enginr. Each
experiment was repeated three to five times to calculate the
mean value of the experimental data. The performance
characteristics of the engine were evaluated in terms of
brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
These characteristics were compared with the results of
pure diesel.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Engine Performance
Different blends of diesel and biodiesel are tested and
compared with pure diesel for calculating BTE at different
speeds as shown in Fig. 1. The graph reveals that, maximum
value of BTE of different blends as well as pure diesel is
exhibited at 1000 rpm of the test engine. It is also observed
that at 1100 rpm the BTE of the jatropha blend approaches
to that of pure diesel, however on increasing the speed it
goes on decreasing. Soybean blend shows lower values of
BTE at all selected rpm. It may be due to its lower calorific
value. The soy+jatropha blend provide more BTE as
compared to blends of only soybean or only jatropha. But
the BTE of this blend is also less than the pure diesel.
TABLE III DIESEL ENGINE TEST RIG SPECIFICATIONS
Manufacture
Kirloskar Oil
Engines Ltd.
Engine Type
4 stroke, double
cylinder
Power 16 HP
R.P.M 1500
Cylinder bore

87 mm
Cylinder stroke

110 mm
Injection opening
Pressure

200 bar
Cooling medium

Water cooled
Dynamometer type

Hydraulic
Comparison Of Brake Thermal Efficiency Of Different Oil
Blends
6
8
10
12
14
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
RPM
B
r
a
k
e

T
h
e
r
m
a
l

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Diesel Jatropha Soybean Soya+Jatropha
Fig. 1 Comparison Curves For Brake
Thermal Efficiencies of Different Oil blends
B. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) has been
evaluated for different blends and at different rpm as shown
in Fig. 2.
It is found that pure diesel has the lowest BSFC value.
This is primarily due to the fact that diesel has the highest
calorific value among three fuels, and needs the lowest fuel
consumption rate for achieving the same engine brake horse
power output as by the other three blends. The values of
BSFC for soy+jatropha blend are slightly higher than pure
diesel at all values of rpm. It has been found that for all types
of tested fuels, as the rpm of engine increases BSFC also
increases under constant load conditions. BSFC is higher in
case of soybean blend with its lower BTE at all engine
speeds.
C. Exhaust Gas Temperature
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) increased with increase in
engine speed for all the cases as shown in Fig. 3.

Comparion Of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption for
Different Oil Blends
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
RPM
B
r
a
k
e

S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
k
w
.
h
r
)
Diesel Jatropha Soybean Soya+Jatropha
Fig. 2 Comparison Curves For Brake Specific
Fuel Consumption of Different Oils
32
Comparison Of Exhaust Temperatures Of Different Oils
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
RPM
E
x
h
a
u
s
t

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Diesel Jatropha soybean soya+jatropha
Fig. 3 Comparison Between Exhaust Temperatures of Different Oils
EGT values for jatropha blend are less than the pure
diesel at 1100 rpm and it remains nearer to the EGT values of
pure diesel upto 1300 rpm. After 1300 rpm EGT of jatropha
o
blend increases and reaches to maximum value of 190 C at
1500 rpm. The EGT of soya+jatropha blend is near to pure
diesel at 1400 rpm and slightly less than the pure diesel at
1500 rpm. EGT of soybean is higher as compared to tested
blends at various speeds of the engine. EGTs of biodiesel
blends are different from pure diesel oil, it may be due to
their different calorific values and different trends in
specific fuel consumption during the tests.
V. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of performance tests it is found that BTE of
mixed jatropha and soybean biodiesel blends is nearer to
pure diesel oil at different rpm. The brake specific fuel
consumption obtained with biodiesel blend of mixture of
jatropha and soybean oil is comparable with pure diesel.
Exhaust gas temperature of soybean oil is maximum at all
recorded engine speeds as compared to other oil blends and
pure diesel oil. The performance test carried out showed
that blend of diesel and biodiesel (soya+jatropha blend) can
be successfully used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines
without any modifications.
REFERENCES
[1] Hemmerlein N., Korte V., Richter H., Schrder G. (1991),
Performance, Exhaust Emission and Durability of Modern Diesel
Engines Running on Rapeseed Oil, SAE Paper Series 910848,
International Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan.
[2] Choi C.Y. (1997), Effect of Bio-diesel Blended Fuels and Multiple
Injections on D.I. Diesel Engines, SAE 970218.
[3] Agarwal A.K. (2007), Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel)
Applications as Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines, Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 233-271.
[4] Rao Y.V.H., Voleti R.S., Raju A.V.S. and Reddy P.N. (2009),
Experimental Investigations on Jatropha Biodiesel and Additive In
Diesel Engine, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol.2,
No. 4, pp. 25-31.
[5] Godiganur S.K., Murthy C.S. and Reddy R.P. (2010), The Effect Of
Karanja Oil Methyl Ester On Kirloskar HA394DI Diesel Engine
Performance And Exhaust Emissions, Thermal Science, Vol. 14,
No. 4, pp. 957-964.
[6] Mohanty C., Jaiswal A., Meda V.S., Behera P. and Murugan S. (2011),
An Experimental Investigation on the Combustion Performance and
Emissions of a Diesel Engine Using Vegetable Oil-Diesel Fuel
Blends, The Essentional Automotive Technology Event- April 12-
14, SAE International, USA.
[7] Noiroj K., Intarapong P., Luengnaruemitchai A. and Jai-In S.(2009),
A Comparative Study of KOH/Al2O3 and KOH/Na Catalysts for
Biodiesel Production via Transesterification from Palm Oil,
Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 1145-1150.
[8] Ala'a Alsoudy, Mette Hedeggard Thomsen and Isam Janajreh (2012),
Influence on Process Parameters in Transesterification of Vegetable
and Waste Oil -A Review, International Journal of Research and
Reviews in Applied Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 64-77.
[9] Srivastava A. and Parsad R. (2000), Triglycerides Based Diesel
Fuels, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, pp 111-113.
[10] Alamu O.J., Waheed M.A. and Jekayinfa S.O. (2007), "Biodiesel
Production from Nigerian Palm Kernel Oil: Effect of KOH
Concentration on Yield", Energy for Sustainable Development, Vol.
11, No.3, pp 77-82.
[11] Alamu O.J., Waheed M.A. and Jekayinfa S.O. (2008), Effect of
ethanol-Palm Kernel Oil Ratio on Alkali-Catalyzed Biodiesel
Yield, Fuel, Vol. 87, No. 8-9, pp 1529-1533.
33
Performance Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fueled by Biodiesel of Jatropha Oil and Soybean Oil
Machining Study of TI-6AL-4V Using PVD Coated TiAlN Inserts
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi -110 016, India
Abstract - This paper deals with machining Ti6Al4V material.
The experimental analysis was carried out using Response
Surface Methodology (RSM). The detailed experiments under
wet and dry conditions using the PVD coated TiAlN tools. In the
present work the relationship of Ti6Al4Vs surface roughness
and cutting forces with critical machining parameters and
conditions, based on experimental input and output data, has
been derived during the turning operation. It has been found
through design of experiments technique that linear model is
best ftted for predicting feed force and surface roughness under
both dry and wet cutting environment. Linear model is also
ftted for thrust force prediction during dry cutting. However
under wet cutting condition a quadratic model is more suited
for prediction of the thrust force. 2FI (2 Factor Interaction)
model is found to be ftted for cutting force prediction under
both the cutting environment.
Keywords: Ti6Al4V-alloy, PVD Coating, TiAlN tool, RSM
I. IntroductIon
Titanium and its alloys are considered as extremely
diffcult to machine materials. Titanium and its alloys have
several promising inherent properties (like low strength-
weight ratio, high corrosion resistance etc.) but their
machinability is generally considered to be poor. Titanium
and its alloys have high chemical reactivity with most of the
available cutting tool materials. Also due to the low thermal
conductivity of these alloys the heat generated during
machining remains accumulated near the machining zone.
Consequently the cutting tools are more prone to thermal
related wear mechanism like diffusion, adhesion wear. Hence,
on machining, the cutting tools wear out very rapidly due to
high cutting temperature and strong adhesion between tool
and workpiece material. Additionally, the low modulus of
elasticity of titanium alloys and its high strength at elevated
temperature makes the machining further diffcult [1-3].
To a large extent, machining of titanium and its alloys
follows criteria that are also applied to common metallic
materials. Compared to high strength steels, however,
some restrictions have to be recognized, which are due to
the unique physical and chemical properties of titanium and
its alloys. The lower thermal conductivity of titanium alloy
hinders quick dissipation of the heat caused by machining.
This leads to increased wear of the cutting tools. The lower
modulus of elasticity of titanium leads to signifcant spring
back after deformation under the cutting load. This causes
titanium parts to move away from the cutting tool during
machining which leads to high dimensional deviation in the
workpieces. The lower hardness of titanium and its higher
chemical reactivity leads to a tendency for galling of titanium
with the cutting tool and thereby changing the important
tool angles like the rake angles Titanium alloy machining
performance can be increased by selecting improved cutting
tool materials and coated tools [4-5]. Now a days, most of
the carbide cutting tools come with hard coatings deposited
on them either by the CVD or PVD technique. PVD coated
tools have been found to be better performing compared to
their CVD counterparts. Also in PVD thinner coatings can
be deposited and sharp edges and complex shapes can be
easily coated at lower temperatures [6]. PVDTiAlN-coated
carbide tools are used frequently in metal cutting process due
to their high hardness, wear resistance and chemical stability.
Also, they offer higher benefts in terms of tool life and
machining performance compared to other coated cutting
tool variants.
Currently in machining industries hard turning process
is being used to obtain high material removal rates. For
successful implementation of hard turning, selection
of suitable cutting parameters for a given cutting tool -
workpiece material and machine tool are important steps.
Study of cutting forces is critically important in turning
operations [7] because cutting forces co-relate strongly with
cutting performance such as surface accuracy, tool wear,
tool breakage, cutting temperature, self-excited and forced
vibrations, etc. The resultant cutting force is generally
resolved into three components, namely feed force (Fx),
thrust force (Fy) and cutting force (Fz).
Machining of titanium and its alloys differs from
conventional turning of engineering materials like steel, in
several key ways, mainly because the thermal conductivity
of the material is very low when compared to the steel (K
Ti

is 7.3W/mK and K
Steel
is 50.7W/mK) [8]. This low thermal
conductivity results in high heat accumulation at the
machining zone (shear zone) and heat dissipation is very less
when compared to conventional turning of steels.
II. LIterature revIew
CNC Turning is widely used for machining of
symmetrical components in a variety of industries such as
automotives, aerospace, chemical, biomedical, textile and
other manufacturing industries. In the machining process,
errors may occur due to the problems in the machine tool,
machining methods and the machining process itself. Of
these, the errors that arise due to high cutting forces are the
major problems for machining process. In turning, cutting
forces and surface fnish are important parameters by which
the performance can be assessed. Hence it is important to
minimize the cutting forces and maximize the surface fnish.
Sun et al [9] studied the characterization of cutting
forces in dry machining of titanium alloys considering input
parameters like cutting speed (60-260 m/min) , feed ( 0.12 to
0.3 mm/rev)and depth of cut (0.5 to 2 mm) using uncoated
inserts and they have reported that cutting forces increases
with increase in feed and increase in depth of cut. Venugopal
et al [10], Hong et al [11], have studied the cutting forces
under dry and wet cutting environment for machining of Ti-
6Al-4V using uncoated inserts and they compared the results
with cryogenic machining. Jawaid et al [12] have studied
the machining of titanium alloys using PVD TiN coated
and CVD coated (TiCN+Al
2O3
) in wet cutting environment
and they assessed the wear mechanism of coated inserts.
Nalabant et al [13] have investigated extensively the effects
of uncoated, PVD and CVD coated cutting inserts and the
various cutting process parameters on surface roughness
and they have found that the best average surface roughness
values were obtained at cutting speed of 200 m/min with a
feed of 0.25 mm/rev using a 2.3 m thickness PVD coated
TiAlN-coated cutting tool.
Recently Yuan et al [14] studied the machining of
titanium alloys using uncoated cemented carbide inserts
under three different cutting environments such as dry,
wet, MQL with room temperature and MQL with varying
temperature of cooling air. Fang et al [15] did a comparative
study of the cutting force in high speed machining of Ti-6Al-
4V and Inconel 718 and they have explained the similarities
and differences both quantitatively and qualitatively in terms
of force related quantities.
Most of the experimental investigations on titanium
machining have been conducted using two-level factorial
design (2k) for studying the infuence of cutting parameters
on cutting forces and surface roughness[11, 15-16]. In two-
level factorial design, one can identify and model linear
relationships only. For studying the nonlinearity present in
the output characteristics at least three levels of each factor
are required (i.e. three-level factorial design, 3k). A central
composite design which requires fewer experiments than
alternative 3k design is usually better. Again, sequential
experimental approach in central composite design can be
used to reduce the number of experiments required. Keeping
the foregoing in mind, the present work is focused on
investigations of cutting forces and surface roughness as a
function of cutting parameters in titanium machining using
sequential approach in central composite design technique.
The study was conducted on Ti-6Al-4V alloy using coated
tools under dry and wet environment to analyze and compare
the measured output parameters. Regression equations
correlating input parameters viz., Cutting speed, feed, depth
of cut and effective rake angle with output like forces and
surface roughness were established based on experimental
data.
The review of literature suggests that for the machining
titanium alloys most researchers have used the input
machining parameters like cutting speed, feed and depth of
cut. But there are hardly any paper where researchers have
used different rake angles as also an input parameter. In the
current paper the effective rake angle is considered as another
input parameter. The major objective of the present work is to
experimentally fnd the magnitude of the cutting forces and
the surface roughness of the turned components and compare
them under dry and wet cutting environment.
III. experImentaL detaILs
The details of experimental conditions, instrumentations
and measurements and the procedure adopted for the study
are described in this section.
A.Workpiece Material
Titanium alloys have found wide applications owing to
its unique characteristics like low density [2]or high strength
to weight ratio (density of titanium is about 60% of that of
steel or nickel-based super alloys) and excellent corrosion
resistance (for biomedical, chemical and other corrosion-
resistant environments). Titanium is an expensive metal to
extract, melt, fabricate and machine. Titanium alloys are
considered to be diffcult-to-machine materials. This is due to
certain inherent metallurgical characteristics of these alloys
that make them more diffcult and expensive to machine
than steels of equivalent hardness. Titanium alloys have low
thermal conductivity due to which the heat generated in the
cutting zone cannot be rapidly conducted away into the fast-
fowing chip.
In the present study Ti-6Al-4V alloy bars of 60 mm
diameter and length 200 mm were used. They were annealed
and their chemical compositions are given in the Table I.
Table I ChemICal ComposITIon (%) of TI6al4V
B.Cutting Tool
In the present experiments, 5 levels of rake angle were
used. The -6 degree default rake angle tool holder for CNMG
tool inserts was used and for VNMG inserts the tool holder
default rake angle -10 degrees was used. So, the rake angles
obtained by such combination of inserts and tool holders are
-10, -6, 0, 7 and 14 degrees.
C.Machine Tool
A rigid, high precision T-6 (Leadwell, Taiwan) lathe
equipped with specially designed experimental setup was
used for carrying out the experiments. For increasing rigidity
of machining system, workpiece material was held between
chuck (three jaw) and tailstock (revolving center).
D.Cutting Conditions
The experiments have been conducted using tool holders
with -6 and -10 degree default rake angle. In this study the
input parameters and their levels are shown in Table III.
E.Cutting Force Measurement
The cutting forces were measured using Kistler
piezoelectric dynamometer (model 9257B) mounted on
specially designed fxture. Kistler tool holder (model:
9129AA) was used for holding the 2020 shank size
cutting tool. The charge generated at the dynamometer was
amplifed using three-charge amplifer (Kistler, Model:
5070A). The input sensitivities of the three-charge amplifers
were set corresponding to the output sensitivity of the force
dynamometer in the x, y and z directions. The amplifed
signal was acquired and sampled using USB data acquisition
system and stored in computer using Dynaware software for
further analysis. The sampling frequency of data was kept at
300 samples/s per channel and the average value of steady-
state force was used in the analysis.
Table III The leVels and InpuT parameTers
F.Surface Roughness Measurements
The measurements of average surface roughness
(Ra) were made on the Taylor Hobson Surface roughness
measuring machine with Ultra Surface Finish Software V5
version. Three measurements of surface roughness were
taken at different locations and the average value was used
in the analysis.
G.Response Surface Methodology
Response surface methodology (RSM) is a collection of
mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for the
modeling and analysis of problems in which a response of
interest is infuenced by several variables and the objective is
to optimize this response [18].
H.Experimental Plan Procedure
Planning of experiments is an important stage. Number of
experimental runs was decided by using the response surface
methodology. In this study, cutting experiments are planned
using fve-levels of each of the input parameters. Cutting
experiments are conducted considering four input parameters
or factors: Cutting Speed, feed, depth of cut and rake angle.
A total of 30 experiments were performed on a CNC turning
center (T-6 Lead well). The cutting experiments involved
in the machining of Ti6Al4V with TiAlN-PVD coated
carbide tools, fve levels of cutting speeds, feeds, and depth
of cut and effective rake angles. Two sets of environments
have been used to compare the experimental output.
Iv. resuLts and dIscussIon
The results are analyzed in Design Expert V8.0.6
software. An ANOVA summary table is commonly used
to summarize the test of the regression model, test of the
signifcance factors and their interaction and lack-of-ft test. If
the value of Prob > F in ANOVA table is less than 0.05 then
the model, the factors, interaction of factors and curvature
are said to be signifcant. Finally, % contribution column is
added in ANOVA summary table and it often serves as a
rough but an effective indicator of the relative importance of
each model term [18].
A. Force Components: The Cutting, Thrust Force And
Feed Force Against Input Parameters
Anova analysis shows that the model is signifcant
and feed (B) and depth of cut (C) are only the signifcant
factors (terms) in the model. All other terms are insignifcant.
In default the central composite design the curvature is
insignifcant which says that the model is linear. The lack of
ft also confrms the insignifcance as depicted from Anova
analysis thereby indicating that the model fts well with the
experimental data.
The various R
2
statics ( i.e R
2
, adjusted R
2
and Predicted
R
2
) of the cutting force are exported for Anova table for dry
and wet cutting environment. The value R
2
= 0.9748 for Dry
and the value for R2 = 0.9749 for wet cutting environment of
F
z
force indicates that 97.48% for dry and 97.49% for wet of
the total variations are explained by the model. The adjusted
R
2
is a static that is adjusted for the size of the model. The
value of the adjusted R
2
= 0.9719 for Dry and the value of
adjusted R
2
= 0.97206 for Wet cutting environment indicates
that 97.19 % for Dry and 97.2% for wet of the total variability
is explained by the model after considering the signifcant
factors. Predicted R
2
= 0.967 for dry and Predicted R
2
=
0.9674 for wet cutting environment is in good agreement with
adjusted R
2
and shows that the model would be expected to
explain 96.7% for Dry and 96.74% for Wet of the variability
in new data [18]. C.V. stands for the coeffcient of variation
of the model and it is the error expressed as a percentage of
the mean ((S.D./Mean)100). Lower value of the coeffcient
of variation (C.V. = 8.20%) indicates improved precision and
reliability of the conducted experiments.
The same procedure was applied on thrust force (Fy) and
resulting ANOVA with R
2
statistics for models (considering
only the signifcant terms) generated. For the thrust force, the
cutting velocity and effective rake angle is insignifcant and
feed and depth of cut are signifcant.
The response surface eqauations as obtained from the
Anova analysis and are follows
Fx =96.49+387.437*feed -- (1)
Fx= 66.493+450.1*feed -- (2)
Fy = 15.397 + 160.7861 * depth of cut -- (3)
Fy=7.43+0.0019*V+3.955*doc0.2621*gama+0.00142*v*
gama+18.9177*f*doc+0.6797*f*gama+18.9177*f*gama+
208.44*f^2+0.42709*gama^2 -- (4)
Fz= 15.89+61.833*f+62.58*doc+1548*f*doc -- (5)
Fz = -8.451+164.541*f+61.68*doc+1426.45*f*doc -- (6)
From equations 1to 6 are alternet Dry and wet cutting
environments respectively. The normal probability plot of
the residuals (i.e. error = predicted value from modelactual
value) cutting force is shown in Fig 1.1- Fig 1.2 for dry and
wet cutting environment and reveal that the residuals lie
reasonably close to a straight line, giving support that terms
mentioned in the model are the only signifcant[18].
Design-Expert Software
Fz
Color points by value of
Fz:
478
134.8
Internally Studentized Residuals
N
o
r
m
a
l

%

P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
Normal Plot of Residuals
-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
1
5
10
20
30
50
70
80
90
95
99
Fz
Fz:
448.8
118.4
N
o
r
m
a
l

%

P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
-3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00
1
5
10
20
30
50
70
80
90
95
99
Fig.1 Normal Probality & Residuals
Fig. 2 explains the comparision of the signifcant factors
with the input parameters. Fig 2.1 and Fig 2.2 explains that
the most signifcant factors for the inrease in the cutting force
are feed and depth of cut. Fig 2.3 shows that the signifcant
factor for feed force is feed and as feed increases the feed
force also increases. As shown in Fig 2.4 feed is also the most
signifcant factor for increase in the surface roughness.
Fig.3 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images under the different input parameters. SEM images are
obtained to study the rake face and cutting edge behaviour for
the extreme cutting conditions. Fig.3.1 shows the 14 degrees
rake angle with a fresh cutting edge.
The same insert is shown in Fig.3.2 & Fig.3.3 after
machining. Fig.3.2 shows the extreme (high levels)
coniditions of all the input parameters (cutting speed (140m/
min), feed (0.2 mm/rev), depth of cut (1.7 mm) and rake
angle (14 degrees)), it can be observed that from Fig.3.2 the
formation of built up edge is more and also it can be observed
that peeling off of the coating from the rake face has occured
resulting in the tool failure. It is also observed from the
Fig.3.4 to Fig.3.6 that wear of the nose radius has taken place
and also sizeable crater wear is seen on the rake face (Fig.3.5
and Fig.3.6).
Fig. 2.1 Comparision of f & Fz
Fig. 2.2 Comparision of doc & Fz
Fig. 2.3 Comparision of f & Fx
Fig. 2.4 Comparision of f & Ra
Fig. 2 Comparing the signifcant factors for forces and surface roughness.
Fig. 3.1 SEM micrographs of a fresh cutting edge of 14 degess rake angle
cutting tool inserts
Fig. 3.2 SEM micrograph of cutting tool insert under the following cutting
conditions: V=140 m/min; f = 0. 2 mm/rev and doc =1.7 mm and 14 degess
rake angle
Fig.. 3.3 SEM micrograph of cutting tool insert under the following cutting
conditions: V=100 m/min; f = 0.12 mm/rev and doc =1.1 mm and 14
degress rake angle
conditions: V=100 m/min; f = 0.12 mm/rev and doc =1.7 mm and 0 degess
rake angle
conditions: V=100 m/min; f = 0.2 mm/rev and doc =1.1 mm and 0 degress
rake angle
conditions: V=140 m/min; f = 0.12 mm/rev and doc =1.1 mm and 0 degress
rake angle
B. Surface Roughness and Input Parameters
The normal probability plot of the residuals for surface
roughness in dry condition (Ra-D) and the normal probability
plot of the residuals for surface roughness in wet condition
(Ra-W) is shown in Fig.4. The Figures prove that the residuals
lie reasonably close to a straight line, giving support that
terms mentioned in the model are the only signifcant [18].
The fnal response surface equation for linear model of
surface roughness is shown below in coded values.
Ra=1.5102-0.01536*V-0.275*feed
+0.21471*doc+.0983*V*feed -- (7)
Ra
Ra:
0.99724
0.3007
N
o
r
m
a
l

%

P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
1
5
10
20
30
50
70
80
90
95
99
Ra
Ra:
0.8835
0.1385
N
o
r
m
a
l

%

P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
-2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
1
5
10
20
30
50
70
80
90
95
99
Fig.4 Normal Probality & Residuals
Iv. concLusIon
The following main conclusions are drawn from the
comparative study of the effect of cutting speed, feed, depth
of cut and effective rake angle on the feed force (Fx), thrust
force (Fy), cutting force (Fz) and surface roughness (Ra) in
the machining of Ti-6Al-4V using PVD TiAlN coated inserts.
The central composite design is benefcial as it saves
number of experimentations required when compared
with the full factorial design for the same factors and for
the same levels.
Linear model is ftted for feed force and surface
roughness for dry and wet cutting environment, where
as Linear model is ftted for thrust force in dry cutting
and quadratic model is ftted in for thrust force in wet
cutting environment and 2FI (2 Factor Interaction) model
is ftted for cutting force in both the cutting environment.
For the feed force model: feed is most signifcant factor
in both the cutting environment with 41.04% and 50.47%
contribution in the total variability of model whereas
depth of cut has a secondary contribution of 5.11% in the
model.
For the thrust force model: the feed and depth of cut are
signifcant factors with 2.12% and 67.39% contribution in
the total variability of model, for wet cutting environment
where as in dry cutting environment the feed and the
depth of cut are signifcant factor with 1.5% and 66.77%
contribution in the total variability of model, respectively.
For the cutting force model: the feed and depth of cut
are the most signifcant factors affecting cutting force
and account for 46.88% and 47.59% contribution in the
total variability of model, respectively for wet cutting
environment, where as in for dry cutting environment
the feed and depth of cut are the most signifcant factors
affecting cutting force and account for 46.88% and
47.59% contribution in the total variability of model,
respectively. The interaction between these two provides
a secondary contribution of 1.28%.
For the Surface roughness model: the cutting velocity
and the feed provides primary contribution and infuences
most signifcantly on the surface roughness.
From conclusions drawn from the analysis of the
results for Ti-6Al-4V machining using PVD coated TiAlN
inserts the best suited environment for the selected process
parameters is wet condition. Such detailed experimental
work enable researchers to choose the optimized process
parametric conditions including cutting tool geometry (rake
angle mainly) to machine Ti alloy material effectively and
effciently without sacrifcing on the material removal rate.
reFerences
[1] Ramesh, S., L. Karunamoorthy, and K. Palanikumar, Fuzzy
Modeling and Analysis of Machining Parameters in Machining
Titanium Alloy, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Vol.23,
No.4, pp. 439-447, 2008.
[2] Lutjering G, W.J., Titanium, Springer, Berlin, 2003.
[3] Ramesh, S., L. Karunamoorthy, and K. Palanikumar, Surface
Roughness Analysis in Machining of Titanium Alloy, Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 23, No.2, pp. 174-181, 2008.
[4] Bouzakis, K.D., et al., Application in milling of coated tools with
rounded cutting edges after the flm deposition, CIRP Annals -
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 58, No.1, pp. 61-64, 2009.
[5] Corduan, N., et al., Wear Mechanisms of New Tool Materials for Ti-
6AI-4V High Performance Machining, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing
Technology, Vol.52, No.1, pp. 73-76, 2003.
[6] zel, T., et al., Investigations on the effects of multi-layered coated
inserts in machining Ti6Al4V alloy with experiments and fnite
element simulations, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Vol.
59,No.1, pp. 77-82, 2010.
[7] Shaw, M.C., Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, NY, 1984.
[8] Mathew, J.D., Jr., Titanium: A Technical Guide. ASM International,
1988. for Steel-http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-
conductivity-d_429.html
[9] Sun, S., M. Brandt, and M.S. Dargusch, Characteristics of cutting
forces and chip formation in machining of titanium alloys,
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 49,
No.7-8, pp. 561-568, 2009.
[10] Venugopal, K.A., S. Paul, and A.B. Chattopadhyay, Growth of tool
wear in turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy under cryogenic cooling, Wear,
Vol. 262,No.9-10, pp. 1071-1078, 2007.
[11] Hong, S.Y., Y. Ding, and W.-c. Jeong, Friction and cutting forces
in cryogenic machining of Ti6Al4V, International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 41, No. 15, pp.2271-2285,
2001.
[12] Jawaid, A., S. Sharif, and S. Koksal, Evaluation of wear mechanisms
of coated carbide tools when face milling titanium alloy, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, Vol.99, No.1-3, pp. 266-274, 2000.
[13] Nalbant, M., et al., The experimental investigation of the effects
of uncoated, PVD- and CVD-coated cemented carbide inserts and
cutting parameters on surface roughness in CNC turning and its
prediction using artifcial neural networks, Robotics and Computer-
Integrated Manufacturing, Vol. 25, No.1, pp. 211-223, 2009.
[14] Yuan, S.M., et al., Effects of cooling air temperature on cryogenic
machining of Ti6Al4V alloy, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol. 211, No.3, pp. 356-362, 2011.
[15] Fang, N. and Q. Wu, A comparative study of the cutting forces in
high speed machining of Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718 with a round
cutting edge tool, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.
209, No.9, pp. 4385-4389, 2009.
[16] Bermingham, M.J., et al., New observations on tool life, cutting
forces and chip morphology in cryogenic machining Ti-6Al-4V,
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 51,
No.6, pp. 500-511, 2011.
[17] Chemical Composition ASTM B348 Grade 5. http://www.smithshp.
com/downloads/Ti-6Al-4V%20_Grade%205_SHP%20.pdf.
[18] Montogomery, D.C., Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th ed,
John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2001.
Investigation of the Structure and Mechanical Properties of
Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloy
A. Chandrashekar
1*
, B. S. Ajay Kumar
2
, V. Anandkumar
3
and P. Raghothama Rao
4
1,2
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, Bangalore Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
3
Dept. of Industrial Engg. & Management, MVJCE, Bangalore, India
4
Dept. of Mechanical Engg, SJC Institute of Technology, Chickballapur, India
*Correspondence author E-mail: acsmech@gmail.com
Abstract - Friction stir welding is now extensively used in
aluminum industries for Joining and Material processing
applications. The Technology has gained increasing interest
and importance. In the present paper, the Mechanical and
Microstructural properties of AA 5083(AlMg4.5Mn0.7) butt
joints produced by Friction Stir Welding have been investigated.
Different welding trials with two rotating speed of the tool have
been done. The Mechanical properties of the welded joints have
been evaluated though micro hardness measurements (HV) and
Mechanical Tests. Metallurgical characterization has been done
by means of optical microscopy to investigate size, morphology
and distribution evolution of the metallic matrix and
precipitates present in this type of aluminum alloy. The change
in microstructure across the welded joints was characterized by
the presence of severely deformed grains in the region of the
weld nugget.
Keywords : AA5083, Friction Stir welding, Structural properties,
Mechanical testing, Tool Rotating speed
I. IntroductIon
FSW is one of the method in which the heat formed due
to friction and plastic deformation is used. The process has
been invented and experimentally proven at The Welding
Institute UK in December 1991[1]. FSW is a technique,
which allows aluminum, lead, magnesium, titanium, steel
& copper to be welded continuously with a non-consumable
tool. A non-consumable rotating tool that stirs the material
of welded parts shown in Figure 1, at temperatures well
below their melting point produces the joint. Main advantage
of FSW is the low welding temperature eliminating many
problems of conventional welding processes. Due to the low
temperature, materials such as Al-Cu-Mg alloys diffcult to
weld by fusion processes are easily welded by FSW [2].
A number of different process variables affect the quality
of a joint produced by friction stir welding; tool design, tool
rotation and travel speed, tool heel plunger depth and tilt
angle, welding gap, thickness miss match and plate thickness
variation [3]. Higher tool rotation rates generates higher
temperature because of higher friction heating and result in
more intense stirring and mixing of material.
Fig.1 Friction stir welding process
The design of the tool is a critical factor as a good tool
can improve both the quality of weld and the maximum
possible welding speed [4]. It is desirable that the tool
material is suffciently strong, tough and hard at the welding
temperature. Effect of welding speed on microstructure and
mechanical properties of friction stir welded aluminum alloy
was investigated by Sakthivel et.al. [5]. The infuence of
FSW parameters on the grain size of the stir zone and the
formability of friction stir welded 5083 aluminum alloys
was examined by Tomotake Hirata et.al.,[6]. The Aluminum
plates were friction stir welded at various rotational speeds
(850-1860rpm) and travel rates of 30 to160 mm/min with
welding forces ranging from 2.5 to 10 MPa, using different
diameters welding heads was investigated by Wang and Liv
[8]. From these experiments it has found that dimensions of
the welding head are critical to produce sound weld.
II. experImentaL procedure
A. Fabrication of FSW Tool
FEW tool made of High Speed steel having a pin profle
of straight circular was used to weld the joints. Tool has a
shoulder of diameter 14mm, a pin diameter of 4mm and a pin
length of 4mm.
B.Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloy
The aluminum alloy AA 5083 was selected for friction
stir welding process. The chemical composition of Aluminum
Alloy AA 5083 is as shown in Table I. Test plates of size
125mm*60mm*6mm were prepared from AA5083 alloy.
Table I ChemICal ComposITIon of The 5083 alumInum alloy (In WT %)
The experimental set up consists of a Friction stir welding
machine as shown in Figure 2. The plates are positioned in
the fxture, by using mechanical clamps so that the plate
will not be separated during welding. The machine can be
operated over a wide range of tool rotational speeds, welding
speeds & tool axial forces.
Fig.2 Friction stir welding machine
C. To Assess The Mechanical And Structural Properties of
FSW Joints
Eight jobs were produced at two different speeds
by using FSW tool. The welding parameters are presented in
Table II. A sample of a friction stir welded plate is shown in
Figure 3.
Fig.3 Friction stir welded joint
Table II WeldIng parameTers of fs WeldIng
1. Tensile Test
The Tensile test specimens were prepared according to
the ASTM E8 standard & the transverse tensile properties of
the FS welded joints were evaluated using a computerized
UTM (Universal Tensile Machine). For each speed welded
joint, three tensile specimens were prepared & tested.
2.Structural Analysis
For Microstructural Studies, the samples were
polished & etched with chemical solution(Kellers reagent)
that contained 90ml distilled water, 5ml nitric acid, 3ml
hydrochloric acid and 2ml hydrofuoric acid for about 80
seconds before being observed under the microscope. The
micro structural details of the welded and HAZ were studied
with the help of Optical Metallurgical microscope (model:
NIKON Epiphot 200).
3.Micro Hardness
Micro hardness values along the cross sections
(transverse to weld direction) of samples was measured by
using Vickers micro hardness testing machine. Hardness
measurements were taken at different points for an applied
load 100gms using Vickers micro hardness testing method
IS: 1501-2002.
III. resuLts and dIscussIon
A. Tensile Test
A typical three specimens from a job has been drawn to
evaluate transverse tensile properties of the welded joint. The
specimens prepared for tensile test are shown in Figure 4.
The results obtained from those specimens are tabulated and
presented in Table III.
Fig.4.Specimen made for tensile test
Table III TensIle TesT resulTs of aa 5083
B. Microstructure for AA5083

Fig.9 The macrostructure of the welded specimen
Figures (5), (6), (7) and (8) show the microstructure of the
specimen with the positions of micro-structural zones. Figure
(9) show the macrostructure of the specimen. Characteristic
structural zones of FSW can be clearly identifed from
recorded images of microstructure and different zones. Those
zones are: unaffected material or parent metal, heat affected
zone - HAZ, thermo-mechanically affected zone - TMAZ, and
so called weld nugget zone NZ, which provide a clearer
view of the observed structure of welded joints, as well as
the grain size. Macrostructure consists of fne precipitates of
alloying elements along the grain boundary in the matrix of
aluminum solid solution, in the base metal and fne columnar
grains at the weld zone.
Investigation of the Structure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloy
C. Micro Hardness Tests
It is observed that the Hardness is minimum at the weld
centre i.e. at the centre of the weld nugget. Markings are
made at a distance of 10 mm from centre of the weld on either
side. Hardness values are shown in table 4. The results of the
Vickers micro hardness are presented in Figure 10.
Table IV mICro hardness measuremenT for fsW Welded speCImen
Fig.10 Micro hardness profle of AA 5083
Iv. concLusIon
On the basis of the experimental characterization
conducted on FS welded joints of AA 5083, the following
Conclusions can be drawn:
It was found that the weld imperfections signifcantly
reduce the tensile strength and hardness of welded joints.
Hardness was found to be lower in the weld region
compared to TMAZ, HAZ & BM regions.
Micro-Structure of the parent metal shows dendrites of
aluminum solid solution and the grains are fned columnar
at weld zone.
acknowLedgements
The authors are grateful to the Management and
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bangalore Institute
of Technology, Bangalore, India, for extending the facilities
to carry out this Investigation.
reFerences
[1] W M Thomas, I M Norris, D G Stainer and E R Watts, Friction stir
welding development and variant technique, The SME summit 2005,
USA.
[2] Vladvoj Oceneasek, Margarita Slamova, Jorge F Dos Santos and
Pedro Vilaca , Microstructure and properties of FSW aluminium
alloys, Hradec nadmoravici, Metal, pp. 24-26, 2005.
[3] A J Leonard & I A Lockyer , Flaws in Friction Stir Welds, 4th
International Symposium on FSW, Park city, USA,2003.
[4] Prado R A, Murr L E, Shindo D S, Soto H F, Tool wear in the friction
stir welding of aluminium alloy 6061+20% Al203: A preliminary
study, Scripta Materialia 45, pp. 75-80, 2001.
[5] Sakethivel T, Sengar G S, Mukhopadhyaya J , Effect of welding speed
on micro-structural and mechanical properties on friction stir welded
aluminium, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, Vol 43, pp. 468-473, 2009.
[6] Tomotake Hirata, Taizo Oguri, Hideki Hagino, Tsutomu Tanaka,
Subg Wook Chung,Yorinobu Takigawa and Kenji Higashi, Infuence
of friction stir welding parameters on grain size and formability in
5083 aluminium alloy, Material Science and Engineering, A 456,
pp. 344-349, 2007.
[7] Wang D, Liv S, Study of FSW of aluminium, Journal of materials
science, Vol.39, pp. 1689-1593, 2004.
Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electro-Discharge Diamond
Surface Grinding Process
Shyam Sunder* and Vinod Yadava
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology,
Allahabad (U.P.) 211 004, India
* Corresponding author E-mail: mtr_shyam@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - Grinding of Metal matrix composites (MMCs) which
are making inroads in various engineering applications have
proved to be extremely diffcult to machine due to presence
of hard ceramic reinforcement. Electro-discharge machining
(EDM) of MMCs containing electrically non conducting phases
possess few problems in terms of hampering the process stability
and impeding the material removal process. Use of combination
of grinding and EDM has potential to overcome these
problems. This article presents the optimization design of an
electro-discharge diamond surface grinding (EDDSG) process
performed on aluminum-metal matrix composite (Al-MMC).
The major performance characteristics selected to evaluate
the process are material removal rate (MRR) and average
surface roughness (Ra). The input machining parameters used
in the present study were current, pulse on-time, wheel speed,
and duty factor. Experiments were carried out on newly self
developed surface grinding setup for electro-discharge diamond
grinding (EDDG) process for Al-10wt.%SiCp composites. The
experimentations are planned as per L9 orthogonal array. Grey
relational analysis (GRA) is used for optimizing the machining
parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) is coupled with
GRA to evaluate the weighting values corresponding to various
performance characteristics that their relative importance can
be properly described. The most signifcant factor has been
found as pulse on-time effecting the robustness of electro-
discharge diamond surface grinding (EDDSG) process.
Keywords : Electro-discharge diamond surface grinding,
Aluminium-metal matrix composites, Grey relational analysis,
Principal component analysis
I. IntroductIon
In recent years the critical need for less expensive
structural materials that can provide an optimum level of
performance has generated considerable research interest in
the development and application of metal matrix composites
(MMCs). Clyne and Withers [1] discussed that use of MMCs
provide signifcant benefts including performance such
as components life, and improved productivity. Kannnan
and Kishawy [2] mentioned that MMCs provide economic
advantage through energy savings or lower maintenance cost
and environmental benefts of lower noise levels. Compared
to monolithic metals, MMCs have high strength-to-weight
ratio, better fatigue resistance, better elevated temperature
properties, lower coeffcient of thermal expansion, improves
thermal conductivity, and excellent wear resistance. However,
the utilization of MMCs in different industries is not as
generalized as expected due to diffculties in machining of it.
Cost effective machining has not been, yet, proven. MMCs
have been successfully applied in aerospace industries since
1970s and in the middle of 1980s these materials reached
the automobile industry and nowadays its use is gaining
importance [3]. Al
2
O
3
is widely used in mechanical, optical,
and microelectronic applications because of its excellent
chemical resistance, good mechanical strength, high hardness,
transparency, high abrasive and corrosion resistance [45].
In traditional machining processes, grinding is one of
the viable method of machining because of high dimensional
accuracy and surface quality. But grinding of composite
materials using conventional surface grinding process shows
poor surface fnish and accuracy [6]. The decreasing cutting
ability of the wheel during the grinding of MMCs may be
caused by the following phenomena: (1) break out and
fragmentation of grains due to abrasion of reinforcement; (2)
attrition wear of the active grains; (3) clogging of the wheel
caused by the adherence of the chips. The last two forms of
damage determine the formation of wear fats on the wheel
surface [7-8]. EDM is an ineffcient machining process.
Thermal modeling of the process [9] has indicated that the
fraction of molten material which is physically not removed
but re-deposited on the parent material could be as high as
80%. EDM of composite materials containing electrically
non conducting phases possess a few problems. The non-
conducting material particles hamper the process stability and
impede the material removal process [10]. These problems
can be taken care of in EDDG which is a hybrid machining
process comprising of diamond grinding (DG) and electro-
discharge grinding (EDG). MRR is enhanced as the abrasive
grains eradicate the non-conducting material particles, with
spark discharges having thermally softened the surrounding
binding material.
This hybrid machining process has been developed by
combining EDM with metal bonded diamond grinding. In
this process, synergetic interaction effect of electro-discharge
action and abrasion action are employed to increase the
machining performance of constituent processes. The
electrical discharges of EDDG cause considerable decrease
in grinding forces, and grinding wheel wear; and also
effectively re-sharp the grinding wheel. The abrasive action
in this process helps to increase material removal rate (MRR)
and surface quality.
EDDG can be operated in three different confgurations
(1) electro-discharge diamond cut-off grinding (EDDCG)
(2) electro-discharge diamond face grinding (EDDFG) (3)
electro-discharge diamond surface grinding (EDDSG).
EDDSG is used to machine fat surfaces by using
periphery of the metal bonded diamond grinding wheel. Since
rectangular workpiece is held in a horizontal orientation,
peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the grinding
wheel about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the downward
motion of servo system. The relative motion of the workpart
is achieved by reciprocating the workpiece. While machining
the rotating wheel is fed downwards under the control of
servo system. The metal bonded grinding wheel and work
surface are physically separated by a gap, the magnitude of
which depends on local breakdown strength of the dielectric
for a particular gap voltage setting. The workpiece is thus
simultaneously subjected to heating due to electrical sparks
occurring between the periphery of metal bonded grinding
wheel and the workpiece, and abrasion action by abrasives of
diamond wheel having protrusion height more than the inter-
electrode gap (IEG).
Through grey relational analysis (GRA), a grey relational
grade is defned as an indicator of the multiple-performance
characteristics for evaluation. Lu et al. [11] used GRA
coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) to optimize
process parameters of high-speed end milling of SKD61 tool
steel. Yang et al. [12] employed GRA method to determine
optimal machining parameter setting for the end milling of
high-purity graphite under dry machining conditions. Most
of the researchers used their subjective judgment to establish
the weighting values of various performance characteristics
to calculate the values of grey relational grade.
Pearson [13] proposed PCA which was subsequently
developed as a statistical tool by Hoteling [14]. This
approach preserves as much original information as possible
by signifcantly simplifying a large number of correlated
variables into fewer uncorrelated and independent principal
components. In recent times, PCA has gradually become an
analytical tool for the optimization of a system with multiple-
performance characteristics [15].
The context is organized in the following manner.
Section 2 describes about newly developed experimental
setup on EDM machine and Taguchi methodology based
experimentation. Section 3 presents optimization using
GRA coupled with PCA and fnally paper concludes with
confrmation tests and summary of this study.
II. detaILs about experImentaL set up and taguchI
methodoLogy based experImentatIon
An attachment was developed and mounted on a Smart
ZNC die-sinking EDM machine. The EDM machine was
supplied by Electronica Machine Tools Ltd. Pune, India.
The metal bonded diamond grinding wheel mounted
on the ram of the machine with an attachment. Fig.1a,b [16]
respectively shows schematic diagram of electro-discharge
diamond surface grinding set-up and dimension details of
fabricated attachment attached to Z axis replacing original
tool holder of ZNC EDM machine. The grinding wheel was
driven with the help of variable-speed D.C. motor through a
belt pulley arrangement. The speed of the motor was varied
by changing supply voltage with the help of a variac. The set
up consists of a metal bonded diamond grinding wheel, D.C.
motor, shaft, pulley,V-belt, bearing etc.
(a)
(b)
Fig.1a,b (a) Schematic diagram of electro-discharge diamond surface
grinding set-up and (b) Dimension details of fabricated attachment attached
to Z axis replacing original tool holder of EDM machine
Since the experiment was to be performed in surface
grinding mode, so an automatic table feed arrangement was
made. The lead screw of the machine table was driven by
reversible synchronous motor. Since for automatic to and fro
motion of the table motor should automatically rotate both
in clockwise and anticlockwise direction as and when it is
required, therefore a reversible synchronous motor control
circuit was designed using relay switch, two limit switches
and regulated power supply. Working of this automatic control
is very simple. Suppose the motor is rotating in clockwise
direction and as a result table is moving in forward direction.
When a lever attached to machine table presses the limit
switches, polarity of the motor will automatically changed
and motor will start rotating in anticlockwise direction and
therefore table will move in reverse direction.
The input process parameters taken are wheel speed,
current, pulse on-time, and duty factor. The output parameters
analyzed are MRR and R
a
. Experiments were performed on
aluminum-silicon carbide (Al-SiC) MMC.
Each workpiece was machined for 90 minutes before
measuring output parameters. Three repetitions have been
done in each set of experiments. Amount of material removal
after 90 minutes was obtained by fnding weight difference
before and after machining using precision electronic
digital weight balance with 0.01mg resolution. The MRR is
calculated by using the following formula:
where is initial weight of workpiece in gram (before
machining); is fnal weight of workpiece in gram (after
machining); t is machining time in minutes. A Talysurf
surtronic 25 at 0.8 mm cutoff value was applied to measure
the R
a
of each machined workpiece. The specifcation of
grinding wheel is shown in Table I.
Table I speCIfICaTIon of grIndIng Wheel
Abrasive Diamond
Grain size 80/100
Grade M
Concentration 75%
Bonding material Bronze
Depth of abrasive 5 mm
Wheel diameter 100 mm
Thickness of wheel 10 mm
Three levels of each process parameters have been
selected without considering the interaction effect. The
numerical value of process parameters at different levels for
machining of Al-SiC composite is shown in Table II.
Pilot experiments were performed to decide the range
of parameters. The initial level of process parameters
for machining Al-SiC composites is: wheel speed- 1000
RPM, current- 8 A, pulse on-time- 100 s, and duty factor-
0.578. The experiments were performed as per standard L9
orthogonal array (OA) (Table III). Actual photograph of the
setup is shown in Fig.2a,b.

(a) (b)
Fig.2a,b EDSSG set up (a) Fabricated attachment attached to Z axis
replacing original tool holder of EDM machine and (b) Fabricated
attachment attached to X axis for an automatic table feed arrangement
Table II maChInIng parameTers and TheIr leVels used In The experImenT
for al-10WT%sIC ComposITe
Table III experImenTal obserVaTIons for al-10WT%sIC ComposITe
usIng l
9
oa
III. optImIzatIon usIng gra coupLed wIth pca
In GRA, when the range of sequences is large or the
standard value is large, the function of factors is neglected.
However, if the factors measured unit, goals and directions
are different, the GRA might produce incorrect results.
Therefore, original experimental data must be pre-processed
to avoid such effects. Data pre-processing is the process of
transforming the original sequence to a comparable sequence.
For this purpose, the experimental results are normalized in
the range of zero and one, the process is called grey relational
generating. Three different types of data normalization
according to whether we require the smaller-the-better (SB),
the larger-the-better (LB), and nominal-the-better (NB). The
normalization is taken by the following equations.
Smaller-the-better (SB)
Larger- the-better (LB)
Nominal-the-better (NB)
Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electro-Discharge Diamond Surface Grinding Process
Where is normalized
value of the kth element in the ith sequence, is
desired value of the kth quality characteristic, max

is the largest value and min is the smallest
value of ,
,
is the number of experiments and is the
quality characteristics.
A grey relational coeffcient is calculated to display
the relationship between the optimal and actual normalized
experimental results. The grey relational coeffcient can be
expressed as
where is the relative difference of kth element
between comparative sequence and the reference
sequence , is the absolute value of difference
between ,

is a identifcation coeffcient and its value lie between
zero and one. In general it is set to 0.5
The average grey relational coeffcient is the grey
relational grade but, the importance of each quality
characteristic may be different The grey relational grade
is a weighting-sum of the grey relational coeffcients. It is
defned as follows:
where represents the weighting value of the kth
performance characteristic, and the corresponding weighting
values are obtained from the principal component analysis.
A. Principal Component Analysis
Pearson and Hotelling initially developed PCA to
explain the structure of variance-covariance by way of the
linear combinations of each quality characteristic.
1. The Original Multiple Quality Characteristic Array
X =

where is the number of experiment and is the number
of quality characteristic. X is the grey relational coeffcient of
each quality characteristic.
2.Correlation Coeffcient Array
The Correlation coeffcient array is evaluated as follows:
where : the covariance of sequences

and ; : the standard deviation of sequence
; : the standard deviation of sequence .
3. Determining the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are determined from
the correlation coeffcient array,
where

eigenvalues,
eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues .
4. Principal Components
The uncorrelated principal component is formulated as:
Where is called the frst principal component,
is called the second principal component and so on.
The principal components are aligned in descending
order with respect to variance, and therefore the frst principal
component accounts for most variance in the data. In
order to objectively refect the relative importance for each
performance characteristic in grey relational analysis, PCA
is specially introduced here to determine the corresponding
weighting values for each performance characteristic.
Table IV The CalCulaTed grey relaTIonal Co-effICIenT, grey
relaTIonal grade and rank
Table V The eIgen Values and explaIned VarIaTIon for prInCIpal
ComponenTs
Table IV represent the grey relational coeffcient of
each performance characteristic. These data are used to
evaluate the correlation coeffcient matrix, and determine
the corresponding eigen values shown in Table V. The
eigenvector corresponding to each eigenvalue is listed in
Table VI & and its square can represent the contribution of
the corresponding performance characteristic to the principal
component.
Table VI The eIgenVeCTors for prInCIpal ComponenTs
Table VII shows that the contributions of MRR and Ra
are indicated as 0.4999 and 0.4999. Moreover, the variance
contribution for the frst principal component characterizing
the whole original variables, i.e. the two performance
characteristic, is as high as 62.76%.Hence for this study, the
squares of its corresponding eigenvectors are selected as the
weighing values of the related performance characteristic,
and the coeffcients , in are thereby set as 0.4999 and
0.4999 respectively.
The main effects of each control factor on grey relational
grade are given in Table VIII. The use of the grey relational
grade to perform the ANOVA analysis is shown in Table IX.
Wheel speed, duty factor and pulse on time are the most
signifcant process parameters for affecting the multiple
process responses. From the response table for grey relational
grade the best combination of input parameters is the set with
S
2
C
3
T
2
DF
3
i.e., wheel speed at 1200 RPM, current at 24 A,
pulse on-time 150 s and duty factor 0.697. The percentage
contribution of each control factor to the total variance is
pulse on-time 31.14%, duty factor 29.08%, wheel speed
28.15%, current 11.63%.
Table VII ConTrIbuTIon of QualITy CharaCTerIsTIC
Iv. conFIrmatIon experIment
Once the optimal level of the machining parameters is
identifed, the next step is to verify the improvement of the
performance characteristics using this optimal combination.
Table X compares the results of the confrmation experiment
using the optimal machining parameters (S
2
C
3
T
2
DF
3
) with
those of the initial machining parameters (S
1
C
1
T
1
DF
1
). Three
confrmation experiments were conducted at the optimum
setting of the machining parameters. The average value of
MRR, and R
a
at optimum level were found to be 0.137 g/
min, and 6.12 m.The result of confrmation test shows that
quality characteristics MRR has been improved considerably,
while Ra deteriorates slightly.
Table VIII response Table
Table Ix resulT of anoVa
* Pooled factors
Multi-Objective Optimization of the Electro-Discharge Diamond Surface Grinding Process
Table x resulTs of ConfIrmaTIon experImenT aT opTImum parameTer
leVel (usIng gra and pCa)
v. concLusIons
Based on experiments, results the conclusions are
summarized as follows:
1. The principal component analysis, used to determine
the corresponding weighting values of each performance
characteristics while applying grey relational analysis to a
problem with multiple performance characteristics, is proven
to be capable of objectively refecting the relative importance
for each performance characteristic.
2. The factors setting found as best combination
of process variables is wheel speed- level 2 (1200 RPM),
current- level 3 (24A), pulse on-time- level 2 (150 s) and
duty factor - level 3 (0.698). The percentage contribution
of each control factor to the total variance is pulse on-time
31.14%, duty factor 29.08%, wheel speed 28.15%, current
11.63%.for simultaneous optimization of MRR. and R
a
.
Hence, the most signifcant factor affecting the EDDSG
robustness has been identifed as pulse on-time.
3. Improvement in MRR by 61.17%, but deterioration
in R
a
by 2.68% have been found during EDDSG at the
optimum parameter setting against initial parameter setting
while performing simultaneous optimization of multiple
quality characteristics.
reFerences
[1] Clyne T, W., and Withers P. J. (1992), An Introduction to Metal Matrix
Composites, Cambridge University Press London.
[2] Kannan S., and Kishawy H. A. (2006), Surface Characteristic
of Machined Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites, International
Jourmal of Machime Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 46/15, pp. 2017-
2025.
[3] Mohan B., Rajadurai A. and Satyanarayana K. G. (2002), Effect of
SiC and Rotation of Electrode on Electric Discharge Machining of
Al-SiC Composite, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol.
124, pp. 297-304.
[4] Handke B., Simonsen J. B. Bech M. Li. Z. and Mller P. J. (2006),
Iron Oxide Thin Film Growth on Al2O3/NiAl, Surface science,
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[5] Murakami T., Ouyang J. H. Sasaki S. Umeda K. and Yoneyam, Y.
(2007), High Temperature Tribological Properties of Spark-Plasma-
Sintered Al2O3 Composites Containing Barite-Type Structure
Sulfates, Tribology International , Vol 40(2), pp. 246-253
[6] Aguair P. R., Dotto F. R. L. and Bianch E. C. (2005), Study of
Thresholds to Burning in Surface Grinding Process, Journal of the
Brazillian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, Vol.
27(2), pp. 150-156.
[7] Zhu, Y., and Kishawy H. A. (2004), Infuence of Alumina Particles
on the Mechanics of Machining Metal Matrix Composites,
International Jourmal of Machime Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 45,
pp. 389398.
[8] Di Ilio A., Paolett, A. Tagliaferrz V. and Venial F. (1996), An
Experimental Study on Grinding of Silicon Carbide Reinforced
Aluminium Alloys, International Jourmal of Machime Tools and
Manufacture, Vol. 36/6, pp. 673685.
[9] Erden A., and Kaftanoglu B. (1981), Heat Transfer Modeling of
Electric Discharge Machining, in: Proc. 21st Int. Mach. Tool Des.
Research Conf., London.
[10] Konig W., Dauw D. F. Levy G. and Panten U. (1998), EDMFuture
Steps Towards the Machining of Ceramic, Ann. CIRP., Vol. 37(2),
pp. 623631.
[11] Lu H. S., Chan C. K. Hwang N.C. and Chung C. T. (2009), Grey
Relational Analysis Coupled With Principal Component Analysis for
Optimization Design of the Cutting Parameters in High-Speed End
Milling, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 209, pp.
38083817.
[12] Yang Y.Y., Shi R. and Huang C.H. (2006), Optimization of Dry
Machining Parameters for High Purity Graphite in End-Milling
Process, Mateials and Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 2, pp. 832
837.
[13] Pearson K., (1901), On Lines and Planes of Closest Fit to Systems of
Points in Space, Philosiphical Magazine series, Vol 62, pp. 559572.
[14] Hotelling H. (1993), Analysis of a Complex of Statistical Variables
into Principal Components, Journal of Education Psychology, Vol.
24, pp. 417441.
[15] Fung H.C., and Kang P.C. (2005), Multi-Response Optimization
in Friction Properties of PBT Composites Using Taguchi Method
and Principal Component Analysis, Journal of Material Processing
Technology, pp 602610.
[16] Yadav S K S., and Yadava Vinod. (2008), Experimental study and
parameter design of electro-discharge diamond grinding,International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, pp. 34-42.
Enhancing Wear Resistance of Low Alloy Steel Applicable on
Excavator Bucket Teeth Via Hardfacing
Shivali Singla
1
, Amardeep Singh Kang
2*
and Jasmaninder Singh Grewal
3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Baba Hira Singh Bhattal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lehragaga,
Distt. Sangrur, Punjab, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab, India
3
Department of Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
* Corresponding author E-mail: amardeepkang@gmail.com
Abstract - New developments in the feld of continuously
operating earth moving equipment demand a new way of
improving wear resistances of these equipment parts which
directly involved with different types of sand and rocks during
their operation in harsh feld environment. Wear caused by
the impact and abrasion action of hard particles is a major
problem in the area of earth moving machinery. The objective
of this study was to enhance the useful life of the excavator
bucket teeth in order to decrease the idle time required to
reinstate the teeth periodically during working. The objective
was carried out by means of hardfacings, where the effect of the
hardfacings on the extent of wear and the wear characteristics
of the excavator bucket teeth were examined. Four types of iron-
based hardfacing electrodes with a wide range of C (0.75-5% by
weight) and Cr (2-33% by weight) were selected to deposit by
manual metal arc welding process on the low alloy steel. It was
observed that the wear rates of the hardfaced low alloy steel
were signifcantly lower than those of the un-hardfaced steel,
indicating a great improvement in the wear protection provided
by hardfacings.
Keywords : Excavator bucket teeth, Wear, Hardfacing, Pin-on-
disk
I. IntroductIon
Wear is a surface phenomenon and occurs mostly at
outer surfaces. Every part that is moving in service will be
subject to wear at the contact point with other parts. The
consequence of this wear is that the parts need to be replaced,
which costs more and causes downtime on the equipment.
The surface characteristics of engineering materials have a
signifcant effect on the serviceability and life of a component
thus cannot be neglected in design. Abrasive wear produces
the premature failure of many components of the extraction
machinery with considerable economic costs [1-3]. The
ongoing challenge of engineers in these felds is to fnd or
design materials that are the most wear resistant, in order to
extend the life of the parts and reduce the frequency of part
replacement. Surface engineering is an economic method
for the production of materials, tools and machine parts with
required surface properties, such as wear resistance [4-5].
Wear related failure of machinery components counts as one
of the major reasons for ineffcient working of machines in a
variety of engineering applications. Many such applications
involve handling of abrasive materials or contact with the
material in service. Abrasion is one of the important and
commonly observed wear modes in these cases.
Wear resistance of materials can be improved through
bulk treatment and surface modifcation. While bulk
treatment has been practiced for a long time, surface
treatment is fairly recent and gaining importance. Because
wear is a surface phenomenon, it is possible to use a
relatively inferior bulk material for a specifc (wear related)
application by modifying the surface characteristics of the
material economically. A variety of techniques/materials
exist for modifying the surface properties of substrates.
However, their success depends on an appropriate selection
of the techniques/materials depending on the application
of the modifed components. This emphasizes the need to
characterize the modifed surfaces accordingly [6-7]. Among
many proven techniques of surface modifcation, hardfacing
has been especially effective in cases not requiring close
dimensional tolerances. Any equipment needs to be
maintained properly to work effectively so that it is to
regularly inspect for signs of wear, corrosion, fatigue and
cracks. The equipment is subjected to various types of wear
especially the abrasion wear. The wear causes hundreds of
tons of material to be lost and productivity that can never be
recovered. This represents signifcant expenses to companies
in the recovery or replacement of these wear prone elements.
Surfacing is a process of depositing a material layer over
substrate either to improve surface characteristics like
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and hardness, etc. or to
get the required size or dimension [8-10]. A variety of bulk
materials (ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys) can be
modifed by alloying, mixing, compositing, and coating to
achieve adequate resistance to wear corrosion and friction.
Hardfacing technique is discussed in the current research. In
order to properly understand the hardfacing technique it is
necessary to understand the wear that has occurred and its
causes.
The purpose of this research was to study the wear
characteristics and wear resistance of low alloy steel that
were processed with four different commercial hardfacing
alloys by shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and comparing
these with the un-hardfaced low alloy steel under laboratory
conditions. The wear rates obtained from laboratory can then
be used to predict service lives of the excavator teeth.
II. experImentaL procedure
A. Materials and Weld Metal Overlays
Excavator teeth used in the experiment were made
from low alloy steel with a composition given in Table I. It
can be hardened and tempered to offers good combination
of ductility and hardness combined with excellent resistance
to shock. The substrate material is the material from which
the excavator bucket teeth are made up of. Spectroscopy
is done to determine the actual composition of the original
bucket teeth. Spectroscopy was done at National Institute of
Secondary Steel Technology (NISST), Mandigobindgarh,
Punjab (INDIA). From Spectroscopy analysis it was found
that the excavator bucket teeth are made up of low alloy steel
- 27Mn2 (EN14B).
Table I ChemICal ComposITIon (WT %) of loW alloy sTeel
Selection of the hardfacing electrodes was done on the
basis of the chemical composition of the excavator teeth. The
actual chemical composition of the bucket teeth had been
determined with the help of Optical Emission Spectrometer.
The result obtained from the spectroscopic analysis of
original bucket teeth helped in the selection of various
hardfacing electrodes. Also, from the literature survey it was
found that number of alloying elements like Cr and C etc. can
be added into the substrate in the form of weld consumables
to improve wear resistance. The percentage composition of
the four different hardfacing electrodes used in the current
research work is as given in Table II.
Table II ChemICal ComposITIon (WT%) of hardfaCIng alloys used In
presenT researCh Work
For laboratory tests, samples were prepared in the
form of cylindrical pins having fnal diameter of 8 mm and
length of 30 mm with the help of lathe machine, surface and
cylindrical grinding machines.
B. Deposition of Hardfacing Layers
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) technique was
used to deposit the hardfaced layers. Constant current type
power source was used, the reason being that with this type
of characteristics, the welding current remains constant,
irrespective of small variation in arc length and consequent
slight change in arc voltage, which are unavoidable even in
the case of a skilled worker.
Table III WeldIng parameTers for eaCh hardfaCIng eleCTrode
As the welding current was fairly steady, the weld
quality is consistent. The various welding parameters are
given in Table III. DC was used for welding because DC
has the advantage of two polarities, which means that the
electrode can be made negative or positive. Straight polarity
(i.e. electrode negative) can be used for SMAW of all steel,
but not for most non-ferrous metals. With straight polarity,
more of the arc heat is concentrated on the electrode and
consequently melting and a deposition rate higher, welding
is more rapid and the distortion of work piece is less. On
completion of the weld deposits, each test piece was cooled
down in air.
III. Laboratory test
The specimens were then subjected to wear tests on
a pin-on-disc test apparatus, which is shown schematically
in Fig 1.
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of the pin-on-disc wear test
The pin-on-disk test is generally used as a comparative
test in which controlled wear is performed on the samples to
study. The mass lost allows calculating the wear rate of the
material. Since the action performed on all samples is identical,
the wear rate can be used as a quantitative comparative value
for wear resistance. The device used was Wear and Friction
Monitor Tester TR-201 of Make-M/S Ducom Instruments
Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore-INDIA, conforming to ASTM G99
standard as shown in Fig 2. This testing apparatus is designed
to study the wear and friction characteristics in sliding
contacts. It is also used for evaluating the rate of wear and
ranking of materials. It is fully guarded for operator safety. It
is operated with a pin perpendicular to the fat circular disc.
The sliding path is a circle on the disc surface.
Fig. 2 Wear Testing Apparatus as per ASTM G99 standards
Three samples of each hardfacing i.e. H 1, H 2, H 3 and
H 4 on EN-14B were subjected to wear on Pin-On-Disc wear
test rig at normal loads of 30N, 40N and 50N respectively.
Three samples of EN-14B substrate were also subjected to
wear on Pin-On-Disc wear test rig at the same loads. The
comparisons of wear with respect to sliding distance at
different values of load acting have been made by plotting
the graphs of different hardfaced and unhardfaced samples.
The Fig 3 shows the comparison of weight loss between
hardfaced and un-hardfaced samples at load of 30N.
Fig. 3 Variation of cumulative weight loss with the sliding distance at 30 N
subjected to dry sliding wear
It shows that H 1 hardfacing alloy is at the lowest
position on the graph and un-hardfaced sample at the top
most position on graph and it can be seen that the wear w.r.t.
sliding distance lowest slope for H 1 alloy. The wear goes
on increasing w.r.t. sliding distance for all the samples. The
curves of H 2 and H 3 are approximately overlapping each
other. Similarly the comparison for wear between hardfaced
and un-hardfaced samples has also been made from the graph
of wear with respect to sliding distance at 40 N and 50 N load
acting (Fig 4 & Fig 5).
subject to dry sliding wear
subject to dry sliding wear
Iv. concLusIons
Based upon experimental results obtained in the
present work, the following conclusions have been drawn:
H 1, H 2, H 3 and H 4 hardfacing alloys have successfully
been deposited on EN-14B substarte using SMAW
process.
The specimens hardfaced with H 1, H 2, H 3 and H 4
alloy on low alloy steel showed signifcantly lower
Enhancing Wear Resistance of Low Alloy Steel Applicable on Excavator Bucket Teeth Via Hardfacing
cumulative weight loss as compared to uncoated EN-14B
substrate.
Cumulative weight loss for hardfaced and un-hardfaced
(EN-14B) specimens increases with increase in load.
The cumulative weight loss for H 1 hardfacing alloy was
observed to be minimum in the present study.
The wear resistances for EN-14B, hardfaced with H 1, H
2, H 3 and H 4 alloys followed a general trend as given
below:
H 1 > H 2 > H 3 > H 4 > Low alloy steel.
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[1] D. Dowson, History of Tribology, 2ndEdition, 1998.
[2] J. Neale, Component Failures, Maintenance and Repair: A Tribology
Handbook, 1995.
[3] W. Scotts, Proceedings of the International Conference on Tribology
in Mineral Extraction, Nottingham, 1984.
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Industries, ASTM Handbook, Vol. 18, Center for Welding and Joining
Research, Colorado School of Mines, USA, pp.649655.
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(1980) 913.
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Coatings, Tribo.Int 1996, 29, pp. 207-14.
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microstructure on abrasive wear of hardfacing alloys, Wear, 2005,
259, pp 52-61.
[8] Kirchganer, M., Badisch, E., Franek, F, Behaviour of iron-based
hardfacing alloys under abrasion & impact, Wear, 2008, Vol 265(5-
6), pp. 772-777.
[9] Dasgupta, R.; Prasad, B. K.; Jha, A. K.; Modi, O. P.; Das, S.;
Yegneswaran, A. H,Low stress abrasive wear behavior of a hardfaced
steel, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Vol. 7,
No. 2, pp.221-226.
[10] W.Wo, L.-T.Wu, The wear behavior between hardfacing materials,
Metall. Mater. Trans. A27A (1996) 36393648
Creep Modeling in An Orthotropic FGM Cylinder
Ashish Singla
1
, Manish Garg
2
, Dharmpal Deepak
1
and V. K. Gupta
1*
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering, Punjabi University Patiala, Punjab, India
2
Department of Physics, Punjabi University Patiala, Punjab, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: guptavk_70@yahoo.co.in
Abstract - A mathematical model has been developed to
estimate steady state creep in an orthotropic cylinder made of
functionally graded composite. The FG cylinder is assumed to
undergo creep according to Power law. The model developed
has been used to investigate the steady state creep response of
the FGM cylinder for varying orthotropicity of the material.
The results obtained are compared with those estimated for
a similar FGM cylinder but having isotropic properties. The
result reveals that the presence of orthotropicity in the FGM
cylinder may signifcantly modify its creep response.
Keywords : Modeling, Steady state creep, Cylinder, Functionally
Graded Material, Orthotropic
I.IntroductIon
Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are
microscopically inhomogeneous composite materials in
which the volume fraction of two or more materials is
varied smoothly and continuously as a function of position
in certain direction(s) of the structure from one point to
another [6, 13]. These materials are mainly constructed to
operate in high temperature environments and are made from
a mixture of metal and ceramic or a combination of different
metals. FGMs have been developed as ultra high temperature
resistant materials for potential applications in aircrafts,
space vehicles and other structural components exposed to
elevated temperature [5].
Bhatnagar et al. [2] have presented the analysis for an
orthotropic thick-walled cylinder undergoing creep due to the
combined action of internal and external pressures, and rotary
inertia. It is observed that the cylinder with more strength in
the radial direction has lower effective stress and performs
better. Gupta et al. [4] analyzed creep stresses and strain rates
in a rotating non-homogeneous thick-walled cylinder by using
Seths transition theory. The study indicates that for a rotating
non-homogeneous cylinder, with compressibility increasing
radially, the circumferential stress is maximum at the external
surface at lesser angular speed but at higher angular speed it
becomes maximum at the internal surface. The compressive
value of axial stress, observed at the external surface,
increases with the increase in angular speed. Chen et al. [3]
analyzed creep behavior of an FGM cylinder subjected to
both internal and external pressures. It was assumed that the
properties of graded material are axi-symmetric and depend
on the radial coordinate. An asymptotic solution was derived
on the basis of Taylor expansion series. The approximate
solutions calculated by taking different higher-order terms
in the Taylor series were compared with the results of fnite
element (FE) analysis performed in ABAQUS software. It
is observed that although the use of higher-order terms may
help to obtain a more accurate result for the time-dependent
behavior of the cylinder, a ffth-order form is suffciently
accurate to calculate the distribution of creep stress with
satisfactory approximation. Singh and Gupta [9] investigated
the steady state creep in a transversely isotropic functionally
graded cylinder operating under internal and external
pressures. They described creep behavior of the cylinder by a
threshold stress based creep law. The effect of anisotropy was
investigated on the creep stresses and creep rates in the FGM
cylinder. The study reveals that in the presence of anisotropy,
the radial and tangential stresses are marginally affected
whereas the axial and effective stresses vary signifcantly.
The strain rates as well as strain rate inhomogeneity decrease
signifcantly when the extent of anisotropy () reduces from
1.3 to 0.7. Sadeghi et al [7] carried out strain gradient elasticity
formulation to analyze FG micro-cylinders. The material
properties were assumed to obey a power law distribution in
the radial direction. A power series solution for stresses and
displacements in FG micro-cylinders subjected to internal
and external pressures was obtained. Numerical examples
were presented to study the effect of characteristic length
parameter and FG power index on the displacement feld and
stress distribution in the FG cylinders. It is observed that the
characteristic length parameter has a considerable effect on
the stress distribution of FG micro-cylinders. The increase
of material length parameter leads to decrease the maximum
radial and tangential stresses in the cylinder. The study also
reveals that the FG power index has a signifcant effect on the
maximum radial and tangential stresses.
The literature consulted so for reveals that a number
of studies have been undertaken to investigate the creep
behavior of composite cylinders. The studies pertaining to
creep behavior of FGM cylinder are rather limited. Further,
the studies on FGM cylinders, however limited, assume the
material to be isotropic. In actual, the FGMs are anisotropic
in nature. The anisotropy may be induced during processing
such as forging or due to initial creep deformation. Therefore,
it is imperative to consider the effect of anisotropy on the
creep behavior of the FGM cylinder subjected to thermo-
mechanical loading.
II. dIstrIbutIon oF reInForcement
The cylinder is made of Al-SiC
p
composite with SiCp

content decreasing linearly from the inner to outer radius.
Therefore, the density and the value of creep parameters B
and n will vary with the radial distance. The content (vol. %)
of SiC
p
, V(r), at any radius r of the cylinder is given by Singh
and Gupta [9],
( )
( )
( )
[ ]
min max max
V V
a b
a r
V r V

(1)
Where
max
V and
min
V

are respectively the maxim
um (at the inner radius) and t

he minimum (at the
outer radius) SiCp content in the cylinder.
The average SiCp content in the cylinder can be
expressed as,
(2)
Where l is the length of cylinder.
Substituting V(r) from Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and integrating,
we get,
( )( ) ( )
3
3 2
max
2
min
3 2
2 3 1 1 1 3

+
+
V V
V
avg
(3)
Where ) ( b a is the ratio of inner to outer radius of the
cylinder.
III. creep Law and parameters
The creep behavior of the FGM cylinder is described by
Nortons power law.
n
e e
B
(4)
Where
e
is the effective strain rate,

e
is the effective
stress, B and n are material parameters describing the creep
performance in the cylinder.
It is evident from the study of Singh and Ray [8] that the
values of creep parameters B and n appearing in Nortons law
depend on the content of reinforcement, which vary with the
radial distance. It is also revealed that the effect of varying
SiC
p
content on the creep parameters B and n is opposite to
each other. The value of B decreases with the decrease in
SiC
p
content but the value of n increases with the decrease
in SiC
p
content. In the light of this, the values of Power law
multiplier (B) and stress exponent (n) appearing in the creep
law (Eq. 4), at any radius r of the FGM cylinder are estimated
by following equations.
[ ]
avg o
V r V B r B ) ( ) (
(5)
and
[ ]

avg o
V r V n r n ) ( ) (
(6)
Where B
o
and no are respectively the values of creep
parameters B and n respectively and is the grading index.
The values of B
o
, n and are the taken from the study of
Chen et al. [3].
Table I Values of Creep parameTers [3] and dImensIon
of The model
Iv. mathematIcaL FormuLatIon
Let us consider a thick-walled hollow cylinder made
of functionally graded Al-SiC
p
composite having inner and
outer radii as a and b respectively. The cylinder is subjected
to internal and external pressures denoted respectively by p
and q.
For the purpose of analysis the following assumptions
are made:
(i)The material of the cylinder is orthotropic and
incompressible i.e. 0 + +
z r

where r, and z are taken respectively along the radial,
tangential and axial directions of the cylinder.
(ii) The cylinder is subjected to internal pressure that
is applied gradually and held constant during the loading
history.
(iii) Elastic deformations in the cylinder are neglected as
compared to creep deformations.
The cylinder is suffciently long and hence is assumed
under plain strain condition (i.e. axial strain rate,
0
z
)
The radial (
r
) and tangential (

) strain rates in the

cylinder are given by:
(7) and
r
u
r
(8)
Where is the radial displacement rate and
u

is the radial displacement.
Eqs (7) and (8) may be solved to get the following
compatibility equation,
(9)
The cylinder is subjeconditions,

p
r

at
a r
(10)

q
r

at
b r
(11)
Where the negative sign of
r
implies the compressive
nature of radial stress.
By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on an
element of the cylinder in the radial direction, we get,
(12)
Since the material of the cylinder is incompressible,
therefore,
0 + +
z r

(13)
The constitutive equations under multi axial creep in an
orthotropic cylinder, when the principal axes are the axes of
reference, Bhatnagar and Gupta [1] are given by,
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
+
+
r z r
e
e
r
H G
H G

(14)
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
r z
e
e
H F
H G

+
+

(15)
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
r z z
e
e
z
G F
H G

+
+

(16)
Where F, G and H are the anisotropic constants,
e
and
e
are respectively the effective strain rate and effective
stress in the FGM cylinder.
The Hills yield criterion, when the Principal axes of
anisotropy are the axes of reference, Dieter [11], is given by,
( )

2 1
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
1
]
]
]
,
,
+ +
+

r r z z e
H G F
H G
(17)
Under plain strain condition ( 0
z
), one may get from
Eqs. (7), (8) and (13),
r
C
u
r

(18)
Where C is a constant of integration. Using Eq. (18) in
Eqs. (7) and (8), we get,
2
r
C
r

(19) and
2
r
C
(20)
Under plane strain condition, Eq. (16) becomes,
) (
) (
G F
F G
r
z
+
+
(21)
Substituting
z
from Eq. (21) in to Eq. (17), we get,
(22)
Substituting
r
and
z
respectively from Eqs. (19)
and (21) into Eq. (14), we obtain,
(23)
Using Eqs. (4) and (22) in Eq. (23) and simplifying, one
gets,

n
r
r
I
/ 2
1

(24)
Where, (25)
Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (12) and integrating, we
get,
p X
r

1
(26)
Where, (27)
Substituting Eq. (26) into Eq. (24), we obtain,
p
r
I
X
n
+
/ 2
1
1
(28)
To estimate the value of constant C, needed for estimating
, the boundary conditions given in Eqs. (10) and (11) are used
in Eq. (26) with X
1
(Eq. 27) integrated between limits a to b.
to get,

q p dr
r
I
b
a
n
n

+2
1
(29)
Substituting the value of
1
I from Eq. (25) in to Eq. (29)
and simplifying, we obtain,

n
X
q p
C
]
]
]
,
2
(30)
Where, and (31)
Using Eqs. (21) and (22) into Eqs. (14) and (15), one
obtains,
(32)
The analysis presented above yields the results for
isotropic FGM cylinder. When the anisotropic constants are
set equal i.e. F=G=H.
v. estImatIon oF anIsotropIc constants
The Hills yield criterion for orthotropic material, as
given by Eq. (17), involves constants F, G and H, the values
of which are required for estimating involve creep response
of the FGM cylinder. If X, Y and Z are the tensile stresses in
the principal directions of anisotropy, then according to Hill,
Dieter[11].
]
]
]
,
,
+ + + G F
Z
F H
Y
H G
X
2 2 2
1
;
1
;
1
(33)
The above set of equations may be solved to estimate the
values of anisotropic constants as given below,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
,
,
,
,
,
,
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2
;
1 1 1
2 ;
1 1 1
2
Z Y X
H
Y X Z
G
X Z Y
F
(34)
For isotropic material the ratio of anisotropic constants
is unity i.e. F/G = G/H = H/F = 1.
If the material of cylinder is subjected to uniaxial loading
in r and directions, the corresponding stress invariant may
be expressed in terms of observed tensile strength and Hills
anisotropic constants as given below,
y
r e
H G

2
+
(35) and
y
H F
e

2
+
(36)
where
Y Y
r
, are respectively the yield strength of
composite in r and directions and e is the isotropic yield
stress. If the material of cylinder is tested under uniaxial
loading in z direction, the stress invariant may similarly be
written as,
y
z e
G F

2
+
(37)
where
y
z
is the yield strength of composite in z
direction.
It is assumed that during processing of FGM cylinder the
whiskers get aligned in the tangential () direction, leading
to anisotropic behavior. Therefore, in FGM cylinder the
direction becomes longitudinal direction and the remaining
directions (i.e. r and z) may be taken as transverse directions.
For axisymmetric problems like cylinder, the directions r,
and z may be taken as the principal directions. Thus, the
anisotropic constants given by Eqn. (34), may be expressed
as,
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
r z
y y y
F

(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(38)
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
r z
y y y
G

(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(39)
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
e
z r
y y y
H

(
(
(
,
\
,
,
,
(
j
+
(40)
When assume the
y y
r
and
y y
z

,
The
value of G/F > 1 and H/F < 1 implies that the yield strength
of FGM cylinder in the tangential direction is the highest and
lowest in the axial direction. On the contrary, G/F < 1 and
H/F > 1 imply that the yield strength of the cylinder is the
highest in tangential direction but lowest in the tangential
direction.
To study the effect of anisotropy on the stress and strain
rates, following numerical values of anisotropic constants
taken from Kulkarni et al. [10] has been used.
Table II Values of anIsoTropIC ConsTanTs Taken from [10]
vI. numerIcaL scheme oF computatIon
To begin the computation process, the vlaue of X
2
is estimated from Eq.(31) after substituting the value of
anisotropic constants F,G and H and the values of creep
parameters B and n, as estimated from Eqs. (5) and (6)
respectively.Thereafter,the value of constant C is estimated
from Eq. (30) and using this in Eq.(25) the value of I1 is
obtained. The value of I
1
, thus estimate is used in eq. (27) to
get X
1
.Knowing X
1
, the stresses
r
and
are obtained
respectively from Eqs. (26) and (28).The values of and are
substituted in Eq. (21) to estimate the distribution of axial
stress (
z
) in the cylinder. Knowing
r
,

and
z
,
the values of and are obtained respectively from Eqs. (4)
and (22). Finally, the strain rates
r
and

are estimated
respectively from Eqs. (14) and (15).
vII. resuLts and dIscussIon
A. Validation
Before discussing the results obtained in this study, it
is considered necessary to validate the analytical procedure
used in this study. The values of B and n are assumed to be
constant for the cylinder as 2.7710-
16
MPa-
n
/h and 3.75,
similar to the work of Chen et al.[3].The distribution of
tangential stress estimated in the cylinder is compared with
those reported by Chen et al.[3], in Fig. 1. An excellent
agreement is observed between these results, validating the
present study.
Fig. 1 Validation of Chen et al. [3] vs. Analytical
B. Variation of Creep Parameters
Figure 2 shows the variation of creep parameters B
and n with radial distance in FGM cylinders. The value of
parameter B and n in the FGM cylinder is supposed to decrease
and increase respectively with increase in radial distance, as
is evident from the Eqs. (5) and (6). The variations observed
in parameters B and n are attributed to decreasing SiC
p
content, V(r), in the FGM cylinders with increasing radius
(r), as evident from Eq. (1). Owing to similar distribution of
reinforcement (SiC
p
) in the different FGM cylinders C1-C3,
they have similar variations of parameters B and n.
Fig. 2: Variation of creep parameters B and n in cylinder
C. Effect of Anisotropy on Stresses and Strain Rates
Figure 3 shows the effect of anisotropy on radial stress
in the FGM cylinders. The radial stress remains compressive
over the entire cylinder with a maximum (compressive) and
zero values reported at the inner and outer radii respectively,
under the imposed boundary conditions given in Eqs. (10)
and (11). the results obtained through analytical technique
are not affected by varying degree of anisotropy in the FGM
cylinders. This is attributed to the fact that the term X1 used
in Eq. (26) for calculating radial stress is not affected by
varying the extent of anisotropy in the FGM cylinders.
Fig.3 Effect of anisotropy on radial Stress
Figure 4 shows the effect of anisotropy on tangential
stress in the FGM cylinder. The tangential stress remains
tensile throughout the FGM cylinders and is observed to
decrease with the increase in radius. The results obtained
by analytical procedure reveals that the tangential stress
in the FGM cylinder is not affected by varying the extent
of anisotropy in the FGM cylinders. This is attributed to
the fact that the terms X
1
and I
1
/r2/
n
, used in Eq. (28) for
calculating tangential stress, are not dependent on the extent
of anisotropy.
Fig. 4 Effect of anisotropy on Tangential Stress
Figure 5 shows the effect of anisotropy on effective stress
in the FGM cylinder. The effective stress decreases with
increasing radial distance. The results of analytical procedure
reveal that the effective stress is observed to be minimum for
FGM cylinder C1 and maximum for FGM cylinder C3 when
compared with the isotropic FGM cylinder C2.
Fig. 5 Effect of anisotropy on Effective Stress
Figure 6 shows the effect of anisotropy on radial
and tangential strain rates in FGM cylinders. The radial
and tangential strain rates in the cylinder are equal in
magnitude but opposite in nature under the assumptions of
incompressibility (Eq. 13) and plain strain condition ( 0
z
).
The effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential strain rates
in the FGM cylinder decreases with increasing radius. The
radial strain rate is the lowest in FGM cylinder C1 and the
highest in FGM cylinder C3 when compared to isotropic
FGM cylinder C2. The effect of anisotropy on effective strain
rate (Fig.7) is observed to be similar as for tangential strain
rate in Fig.6.
Fig. 6 Effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential strain rate
The effect of anisotropy on effective strain rate in
the cylinder similar those described for radial and tangential
strain rates (refer Fig. 6).
Fig. 7 Effect of anisotropy on effective strain rate
vIII. concLusIons
The present study has led to the following conclusions:
1. The effect of anisotropy on radial and tangential stresses
increases near the inner radius but exhibit are decrease
towards the outer radius.
2. The effective stresses in the FGM cylinder with
y y y
z r

> >
is lower everywhere as compared to any
other FGM cylinder. The effect of anisotropy on the
effective stress decreases with increasing radius.
3. The strain rates (radial, tangential and effective) in the
FGM cylinder is the lowest for the FGM cylinder with
y y y
z r

> >
and the highest for the FGM cylinder with
y y y
r z
> >
.
4. The effect of anisotropy on strain rates decreases with
increasing radius.
reFerences
[1] Bhatnagar, N.S. and Gupta, S.K., (1969), Analysis of thick-walled
orthotropic cylinder in the theory of creep, Journal of the Physical
Society of Japan, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 1655- 1662.
[2] Bhatnagar, N.S., Kulkarni, P.S. and Arya, V.K. (1986), Creep
analysis of orthotropic rotating cylinder considering fnite strains,
International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp.
6171.
[3] Chen, J.J., Tu, S.T., Xuan, F.Z. and Wang, Z.D. (2007), Creep
analysis for a functionally graded cylinder subjected to internal and
external pressure, Journal of Strain Analysis of Engineering Design,
Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 69-77.
[4] Gupta, S.K., Sharma, S. and Pathak, S. (2000), Creep transition in
non-homogeneous thick walled rotating cylinders, Indian Journal of
Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 31, No. 12, pp. 15791594.
[5] Noda, N., Nakai, S., Tsuji, T. (1998), Thermal stresses in
functionally graded materials of particle-reinforced composite.
JSME International Journal Series, Vol. 41, No.2, pp. 178-184.
[6] Reddy, J.N. (2000), Analysis of functionally graded plates,
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol.
47, No.1-3, pp. 663684.
[7] Sadeghi, H., Baghanib,M. and R. Naghdabadi (2012), Strain
gradient elasticity solution for functionally graded micro-cylinders,
International Journal of Engineering Science, Vol. 50, No.1, pp. 22
30.
[8] Singh, S.B. and Ray, S. (2001), Steady state creep behavior in
an isotropic functionally graded material rotating disc of Al-SiC
composite, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Vol. 32A, No.
7, pp.16791685.
[9] Singh, T. and Gupta, V.K. (2011), Effect of anisotropy on steady
state creep in functionally graded cylinder, Composite Structures,
Vol. 93, No. 2, pp. 747-758.
[10] Kulkarni, P. S., Bhatnagar, N. S. and Arya, V. K.(1985), Creep
analysis of thin-walled anisotropic cylinders subjected to internal
pressure, bending and twisting, Proceedings of the workshop on
solid mechanics, pp. 13-16.
[11] Dieter, G.E. (1988), Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd ed. London,
McGraw-Hill Publications.
[12] Shen Y.L. (2010), Constrain deformation of materials: devices,
heterogeneous structures and Thermo-mechanical modeling, Springer
Publication, Ist edition, p.no.179.
[13] Suresh, S., Mortensen, A. (1998), Fundamentals of functionally
graded materials: processing and thermomechanical behavior of
graded metals and metal-ceramic composites, IOM Communications
Limited, London.

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