Nicholas Najjar When looking into Libya, most people would not see or comprehend its strong historical

background. When researching information in regards to the history of Libya, one can say that it consists of a cycle of rebellion. This consistent cycle of rebellion has yet to come to an end, which makes us question, whether or not there will be an end to the cycle. They Libyans, similar to any Arab nation, experienced imperialist intervention from the Ottoman Empire and European Statessuch as Italythroughout history. Unlike most Middle Eastern nations, Libyans had and still have much more bite in them. Sub-cultures within the country share their differences, but share their will to rebel as well. It is only after looking through the historical and political conflicts of Libya, can we start to look towards the future. We must find the cause for the cycle of rebellion in order to end it, and allow for the country to progress; this is not just for the sake of oil, but to obtain a peace that many of its citizens have yet to see throughout the centuries. Of course, the history of Libya consists of being occupied or ruled by a greater power, but for the sake of finding the roots of the cycle of oppression, we must start from the Ottoman Empire. In 1517 and 1551, respectively, the Ottoman Empire occupied Cyrenaica and Tripoli, that provided a temporary balance, to the interests of the European naval powers who started to consume the Mediterranean Sea (Vandewalle, 16). In all reality, the Empire basically handed the European powers the sea, making it less likely for them to resist against them. At the time, the Ottoman Empire came into the principal towns to collect the occasional tax. In 1711, The Ottoman governor of TripoliAhmed Bey Qaramanliestablished his own dynasty and started conducting his own diplomatic relations with the European powers, this brought some reaction from Constantinoplethe Capitol of the Empire (Vandewalle, 16). Eventually, Constantinople

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Nicholas Najjar recognized the dynasty in Tripolitania, which eventually ruled the Barbary Coast through 1835. This was the first, state formed and recognized by the legitimate empire. Qaramanli, at the time, had to focus on two issues in order to continue his dynasty. Qaramanli foreign policy had generated among the outside powers, as we as by lingering revolts as the increasingly rapacious dynasty attempted to extend taxation internally, (Vandelwalle, 17). This was essentially what led to the downfall of the dynasty, which progressed onto the Ottomans second occupation of the land. In 1835, the Ottoman Empire re-occupied the borders between Tripolitania, Fazzan, and Cyrenaica, which are where the three main cultures within Libya originated from. Between 1835 and 1911, thirty-three Ottoman representatives ruled the territories, the high number of indicative of the difficulty the Sublime Porte had in finding officials willing to devote their careers to managing territories that had consistently proven rebellious, difficult to govern, and economically of little importance to Constantinople, (Vandelwalle, 17). Through this piece of evidence, we can understand the heart and dedication of the Libyan people during the times of oppression. In the previous occupation, or dynasty, there was only one leader who was unable to maintain internal sovereignty. To show what degree the dedication for independence of the Libyans, the Ottoman Empire had thirty-three representatives, and still could not maintain sovereigntybeing forced to use military strategies against rebels. Although the sultan above the thrity-three representatives was nominated as the spiritual leader of Libyan Muslims, the occupation continued to, extend bureaucratic controland more importantly taxationinto the hinterland, (Vandewalle, 18). This caused for an uprising of continuous resistance from tribal

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Nicholas Najjar affiliations in Fazzan. This was the first time, in the history of Libya that rebellious leaders such as Abd al-Jalil Saif al-Nasr became heroes and figures that brought out, promoted, and encouraged future Libyan nationalists. When looking at the rise and fall of the Ottoman Empire in the region, we see the great devotion and sacrifice that we see in present day Libya. They also exerted a very similar amount of dedication of the Libyans during the European occupation of the land. At this point, the causes of a revolution come to question. Revolutions, Arise from inequalities, numerical or qualitative-from a numerical mass claiming an equality denied them, or from a minority claiming a superiority denied them. A revolution may result either in a complete change of polity, or only in a modification of the existing one, (Aristotle). Aristotles explanation for the cause of revolutions best relates to the time of the Ottoman occupation because the Libyans were not treated as equals, and did attempt to rebel against their ruler due to the indecencies put upon them. Similar to any revolution, or political struggle, Libyans continue to have a very strong desire for the equality of their people. In fact, rebels believe that a successful revolution is one that profits with honor (Aristotle). This is idea of honor also played a role in the Italian occupation: In Tripolitania, the threat came from several hundred harmed rebels emerging from the Fezzan onto the dejebel where they could take advantage of the difficulty of movement during the hot summer to attempt coups-de-main which, even if they achieved only limited success, would strike a blow at the Italian prestige.

(Gooch, 1016)

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Nicholas Najjar This evidence showed that honor to ones people plays a great role in the rebellious cause. It shows that the rebels with a cause are well aware of the cost. The Libyan rebels see their attempts as successful, so long as they challenge the oppressor. As we progress through the history of Libya, we must keep in mind what inequalities occur due to its powerful government, which caused for a rebellion. This understanding of the causes of revolt must be used to analyze the history of Libya, especially the Sanusi Monarchy

(1951-1969). King Idris al-Sanusi, Needed to confront a number of interrelated difficulties: to

create a sense of political loyalty, to develop a sense of national identity among the three provinces citizens, and to build a state out if their multiple and contradictory interests,

(Vandewalle, 42). These issues along with a few others, such as religion, cause for great conflict
within the country. This is because each province has its own beliefs, politics, and identity. They best way to resolve this problem at the time was to have a weak centralized government that only regulated the economywhich was very poor until the discovery of oil in 1959 (Vandewalle, 44). Because western countries, such as America and Britain, showed great interest in the oil supply in Libya, it became a fast growing economy. Along with the economy, social, and political challenges began to grow at a similar pace. The kingdom proved incapable of finding its political bearings between East and West, tossed around by the discontinuities of rapid economic growth and divided loyalties. As one of the countrys earliest and most astute observers noted, When nationalism became the new mode of loyalty, especially among the new generations, the Sanusi movement began to decline.

(Vandewalle, 45).
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Nicholas Najjar This important piece of evidence shows a very distinct change in the vibe of the Libyan people, and that would be loyalty. In attempt of uniting the different groups in Libya, the monarchy gained loyalty, but not to King Idris. Instead, the Libyan people maintained a strong dedication to their sub-divisional groups, but an even greater loyalty to their Eastern brothers and opposed Western nations along with their influence. This sense of brotherhood was the building blocks to Gamal Abdul Nassers Arab nationalism ideology, and the uprising coupelead by Muamar Gadhafithat dethroned the king and assumed power. When Gadhafi took power, he formed an inner circle filled with a necessary strength to keep the nation moving in the proper progressive direction. It was Gadhafis strength and his functioning, State of the masses, that satisfied the Libyans and made them willing to accept the power structures until the civil war in 2011 (Paoletti, 316). Although Libyans were accepting of this new form of government, the dictatorship was bound to become corruptseeing that close friends and family took part in different divisions of the government. The tribal leaders were allowed to represent their local communities and provide socio-economic development plans, which allowed them to protect the tribal and regional interests (Paoletti, 317). This allowed for tribes to feel that they had some sort of say at the national level. At the same time, Gadhafis home tribeQadhafadominated the ranks of [Gadhafis] militias and armed forces, jobs which carry significant power and prestige, (Paoletti, 317). After realizing that yet againanother tribe is taking advantage of the rest and gaining power, we can understand why the recent revolution occurred. To clarify, the revolution was not a spur of the moment event, there was a rapid growth in opposition against Gadhafithrough tribal allies.

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Nicholas Najjar After Gadhafis death on October 20th, 2011, Libya became liberated and, The NTC declares Libya to be officially liberated and announces plans to hold elections within eight months, (BBC News). Given this information, we realize that the expected deadline has arrived, and due to indifferences, the elections have yet to occur. This is because of many reasons; the NTC has to decide on a form of government that works for all 140 tribal parties. At the same time, the question of whether or not a proper government that suits all tribal parties could exist. Testimonies of tribal elders show great emphasis in questioning the possibilities by them saying, Tribal law is stronger than the government law, (Chick). In response to that comment, Barak Barfi, a researcher at the New America Foundationwho has been researching Libya for five monthsstated: Today what remains to be seen is whether Libyas new leaders can break free of the tribalism that has historically plagued the country and move to a more representative and geographically dispersed governmentIf they cannot do this, and continue to perpetuate the traditional political order, the new Libya will fail.

(Chick)
After completing a historical analysis, we can come to agree with Mr. Barfi when considering the facts. The political history of Libya, tracing back from the Ottoman Empire, has been consistently run by family, tribal alliances, or leaders who didnt show interest in the needs of their citizens. Also the differences between two larger tribes such as Cyrenaica and Tripolitania have deeply rooted political trends (Paoletti, 318). It is because of this that people have arguably questioned the possibility of ending the cycle of rebellion. To enhance their argument, they

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Nicholas Najjar would say as Mr. Deeb, For 42 years, [Gadhafi] put hatred between the tribes, (Chick). This is completely true and it cannot be maneuvered into believing otherwise, but during the time of todays revolution, the tribes were able to unite as one people against Gadhafi and his regime. While continuing our historical analysis, we must question what trends have continued to occur, in order to end the rebellious cycle. During the time periods of the Ottoman Empire, and western imperialism the idea of being oppressed by a greater power began to formulate. This is the first phase of the cycle; the governing power loses the trust of its citizens. The phase originates from different causes, but always leads to the same responses of the constituency. The next phase would be the gathering of support for change. In other words, tribessuch as Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and many other onesset aside their differences and became allies for the cause to bring down the oppressor. The following phase, eventually boils up a strong rebellion, and causes for the governors to react. Although violence to retaliation seems like the only option, a settlement cans be achieved in order to satisfy both the government and the people. Most revolts tend to end for the time being, if a settlement were compromised. Rather, the leaders of the Libyan territories, in most cases, have chosen to defend their power and further oppress their citizens. The next phase introduces a revolutionary change, which gave power to a new rulerwhether by an outer power or a power from within. For the time being, citizens are somewhat satisfiedeven if they do not fully approve of the government. At this point we have completed one cycle of the rebellious state we know today as Libya. Now that we have summarized the cycle of rebellion, we can attempt to end its repetition. One very important issue that would end this cycle would be to not focus the power of the Page 7

Nicholas Najjar government on one ruler, or tyrant. This is because, The tyrant is not a protector; his aim is his personal gratification, (Socrates). Because these leaders or governing nations want personal gains from running the country, they have increased taxes on its people. In a sense, governmental power has continued to live pleasantly at the expense of its citizenswhich instigates a growing rebellion. Another issue that we have noticed would be that once a new government is established, tribal groups return to their original divisions. This is a benevolent mistake which leads for the country to return back into the cycle. In support of this we find Ali Senussi, a leader of the Obeidi tribe, explaining that, There are two kinds of law: government law and the tribal or traditional law. We prefer the government law, but if we need to refer to our own law, we will do it, (Chick). Which shows that the tribal parties, intend to respect their governing laws, but if those law go against their tribal laws, they must refer to those first. This brings great conflict because the government must comply with the tribal laws as well as provide sovereignty throughout the nation. Unlike, the Sanusi monarchy, the new Libyan government should divide the land into provinces, but should not provide separate parliaments for the separate groups. Instead, the government should be a strong federal government with equal representation of each tribe. It should consist of the similar ideology used when writing the American Constitution. Most importantly it should have checks and balances between all branches of governments in order to prevent any tribe, or political organization to rise and gain more power than the otherslike Gadhafi had done.

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Nicholas Najjar In conclusion, Libya has a strong historical background which consists of a long and repetitive cycle of rebellion which has yet to come to an end. This raises the question of whether or not there will be an end to the cycle. We have gained a better understanding of the history of rebellion built around the Libyan people, and we have learned that they will not stand down to an oppressor. We discovered the cause of the cycle originating from the strong rebellious mentality built against leaders of the Ottoman Empire and Italian occupation. The cause of the rebellious cycle runs parallel to the cycle of unity and partiality of the Libyan tribes. It is also caused by selfish leaders who do not show great interest in the people, but their own gains. The best way to allow for Libya to grow would be for it to have a constitution with checks and balances, as well as a very similar structure of the American constitutiondue to the great divisions in the nation. This will not only allow for oil to be exported, but also allow for the nation to finally be a progressing sovereign state.

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Nicholas Najjar Work Cited

Vandewalle, Dirk J. A History of Modern Libya. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print. Emanuela Paoletti (2011): Libya: Roots of a Civil Conflict, Mediterranean Politics, 16:2, 313319. Chick, Kristen. "Tribal divisions may test new Libya government." Christian Science Monitor 25 Aug. 2011: N.PAG. Academic Search Complete. Web. 28 Apr. 2012. Aristotle. "Squashed Philosophers Abridged Editions - Aristotle - Politics." Squashed Philosophers Abridged Editions - Aristotle - Politics. Ed. Glyn Hughes. 2012. Web. 08 May 2012. <http://www.btinternet.com/~glynhughes/squashed/aristotlepolitics.htm>. "Libya Profile." BBC News. BBC, 18 Mar. 2012. Web. 27 Apr. 2012. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445>. Gooch, John. Re-conquest And Suppression: Fascist Italys Pacification of Libya and Ethiopia, 1922-1939 1. Journal Of Strategic Studies 28.6 (2005): 1005-1032. Academic Search Complete. Web. 27 Apr. 2012.

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