Continuum Mechanics V. Constitutive Equations: Basic Axioms

Continuum mechanics
V. Constitutive equations
Ales Janka
oce Math 0.107
ales.janka@unifr.ch
http://perso.unifr.ch/ales.janka/mechanics
Mars 16, 2011, Universite de Fribourg
Ales Janka V. Constitutive equations
1. Constitutive equation: denition and basic axioms
Constitutive equation: relation between two physical quantities
specic to a material, e.g.:
ij
=
ij
(u, {e
k
}, {F
k
}, T)
Basic axioms
Axiom of causality
Axiom of determinism
Axiom of equipresence
Axiom of neighbourhood
Axiom of memory
Axiom of objectivity
Axiom of material invariance
Axiom of admissibility
1. Basic axioms: causality
Axiom of causality:
Independent variables in the constitutive laws are:
Continuum position y
i
(x, t)
Temperature T
Dependent variables (responses) are e.g.:
Helmholtz free energy (thermodynamic potential, measure
of the useful work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic
system)
Strain energy density
Stress tensor
ij
Heat ux q
i
Internal energy
Entropy S
1. Basic axioms: determinism and equipresence
Axiom of determinisim
Responses of the constitutive functions at a material point x at
time t are determined by the history of the motion and history
of the temperature of all points of the body.
Axiom of equipresence
If an independent variable enters in one function of response, it
should be present in all constitutive laws (until the proof of the
contrary)
1. Basic axioms: neighbourhood
Axiom of neighbourhood
Responses at a point x are not much inuenced by values of
independent variables (temperature and displacement) at a
distant point x.
Hypothesis: functions y(x, t) and T(x, t) are suciently smooth
to be expanded into a Taylor series:
y
i
(x, t) = y
i
(x, t)+
y
i
x
j
x,t
( x
j
x
j
)+
1
2
2
y
i
x
j
x
k
x,t
( x
j
x
j
)( x
k
x
k
)+. . .
with negligible higher-order terms.
Simple thermomechanical material: Taylor expansion terms
with the second+higher derivatives are negligible:
(x, t) = T
_
y(x, t
), y
,x
(x, t
), T(x, t
), T
,x
(x, t
); x, t
This class of material also called gradient continua.

1. Basic axioms: memory
Axiom of memory
Values of constitutive variables from a distant past do not aect
appreciably the values of constitutive laws now.
Smooth memory material: constitutive variables can be
expanded to Taylor series in time with negligible higher order terms
Fading memory: response functionals must smooth possible
discontinuities in memory
1. Basic axioms: objectivity
Axiom of objectivity
Invariance of constitutive laws with respect to rigid body motion
of the spatial frame of reference (spatial coordinates).
Simple consequence: constitutive laws depend of the
deformation gradient (or strain tensor) rather than y(x).
1. Basic axioms: material invariance
Axiom of material invariance
Invariance of constitutive laws with respect to certain
symmetries/transformations of the material frame of reference
(material coordinates).
Symmetries in material properties due to crystallographic
orientation.
Hemitropic continuum: invariant w.r.t. all rotations
Isotropic continuum: hemitropic + invariant to reection
Anisotropic continuum: otherwise (can have some invariance
properties, but not all)
Homogeneous continuum: invariance w.r.t. shift of coord system
1. Basic axioms: admissibility
Axiom of admissibility
Consistence with respect to basic conservation laws (mass,
momentum, energy), and the 2nd law of thermodynamics
(entropy).
This axiom can also help to eliminate dependences on some
constitutive variables.
2. Constitutive laws for simple thermo-mechanical continua
Thermo-elastic continua: simple thermo-mechanical continua
with no memory.
By applying the basic axioms, all material properties depend only
on the current values of deformation and temperature: hence also
for Helmholtz free energy:
= ({e
ij
)}, T)
For simplicity, consider only small deformations (Cauchy strain
tensor e
ij
).
Are we able to say more about the form of the constitutive
laws in this case?
Axiom of admissibility: we need to be consistent with
thermodynamical laws and basic equilibria.
Let us derive with respect to time
=

e
ij
e
ij
+

T
T
and substitute it into the dissipation inequality
+

T
ij
j
v
i
+
q
i
T

i
T 0.
We get

e
ij
e
ij
+

T
T +

T
ij
j
v
i
+
q
i
T

i
T 0.
NB. Due to the symmetry of
ij
=
ji
, we have
ij
j
v
i
=
1
2
_
ij
j
v
i
+
ij
i
v
j
_
=
ij
e
ij
Hence, the dissipation inequality looks now like:
e
ij
_

e
ij
ij
_
+

T
_
+

T
_
+
q
i
T

i
T 0.
This inequality must hold for any time-dependent process, ie.
for any e
ij
and

T!
Hence there must be:

e
ij
ij
= 0
ij
=

e
ij
,
+

T
=
T
,
q
i
T

i
T 0.
3. Simple thermo-mechanical continuum: large deformation
Small deformations: (Cauchy stress tensor)
ij
=

e
ij
, =
T
,
q
i
T

i
T 0
Large deformations: (2nd Piola-Kirchho)
T
ij
=
0
ij
, =
T
,
q
i
T

i
T 0
Dene strain (or stored) energy density =
0
, then:
T
ij
=

ij
, =
1
T
,
q
i
T

i
T 0
NB: T =

is a derivative of a scalar function with respect to a

tensor, see M2, Section 2.
Hyperelastic material: material for which T
ij
=

ij
4. Hookes law (Robert Hooke 16351703)
Neglect temperature: Taylor expansion of strain energy density:
(e) =
0
+ E
ij
e
ij
+
1
2
E
ijk
e
ij
e
k
+ . . .
with material coecients E
ij
, E
ijk
called elastic tensors.
Suppose small deformations: take only the 3 rst terms of the
expansion: then from
ij
=

e
ij
we obtain the Hookes law (1660):
ij
= E
ij
+ E
ijk
e
k
with the pre-stress E
ij
at initial conguration.
If no pre-stress:
ij
= E
ijk
e
k
4.1. Hookes law: elastic tensor E
ijk
Elastic tensor E
ijk
: 3
4
= 81 components depending only on
material coordinates
Possible reduction of degrees of freedom:
Symmetry of
ij
and e
k
symmetry of E
ijk
within ij and k:
E
ijk
= E
jik
= E
ij k
= E
ji k
no. of components reduced to 36.
Taylor expansion of (e) symmetry in pairs ij and k:
E
ijk
= E
kij
no. of components thus reduced to 21.
4.2. Hookes law in deviator-form
Consider only small deformations. Physical meaning of Cauchy strain e:
Relative volume change:
dV dV
0
dV
0
= e
1
1
+ e
2
2
+ e
3
3
= tr(e) = e
(cf. 1. Kinematics, section 4.)

Dene:
Volumic dilatation e: volume-changing deformation component:
e =
1
3
tr(e) =
1
3
e
Strain deviator e: volume-preserving deformation component

e
ij
= e
ij
e g
ij
e
i
j
= e
i
j
e
i
j
changes only shape, not the volume, tr( e) = 0.
Hydrostatic tension s: forces opposed to volume change
s =
1
3
tr() =
1
3
j
j
Stress deviator : forces opposed to shape change:

ij
=
ij
s g
ij

i
j
=
i
j
s
i
j
4.2. Hookes law in deviator-form, shear and bulk moduli
Hookes law for isotropic materials (in deviator form):

i
j
= 2 e
i
j
volume-preserving deformations
s = 3 K e volume-change
Material properties characterized only by 2 constants
shear modulus characterizes genuine shear
bulk modulus K characterizes (in)compressibility
(incompressible material for K )
Total strain tensor:
i
j
=
i
j
+ s
i
j
= 2 e
i
j
+ 3 K e
i
j
= 2
_
e
i
j

1
3
e

i
j
_
+ K e

i
j
= 2 e
i
j
+
_
K
2
3
_
e

i
j
4.3. Hookes law for isotropic materials: elastic tensor E
ijk
Total strain tensor:
ij
= 2 e
ij
+
_
K
2
3
_
e
g
ij
= 2 g
ik
g
j
e
k
+
_
K
2
3
_
. .
=
g
ij
g
k
e
k
=
_
g
ik
g
j
+ g
i
g
jk
_
e
k
+ g
ij
g
k
e
k
Here, and are the so called Lame coecients, K =
2 + 3
3
.
The corresponding elastic tensor E
ijk
is thus (
ij
= E
ijk
e
k
):
E
ijk
=
_
g
ik
g
j
+ g
i
g
jk
_
+ g
ij
g
k
4.4. Hookes law for isotropic materials: compliance C
ijk
The tensor-inverse of E
ijk
is called compliance C:
ij
= E
ijk
e
kl
e
ij
= C
ijk

k
.
Let us inverse the Hookes law (ie. express e as a function of ):
= 2 e + tr(e) Id
Take a trace:
tr() = 2 tr(e) + 3 tr(e) = (2 + 3 ) tr(e)
Plug back tr(e) into the Hookes law above to get
= 2 e +

2 + 3
tr() Id
Hence,
e =
1
2
_

tr()
2+3
Id
_
or e
ij
=
1
2
_
g
ik
g
j

2+3
g
k
g
ij
_
. .
C
ijk
k
4.5. Hookes law: Youngs modulus E, Poissons ratio
Material constants in Hookes law by analogy with linear springs:
In 1D, spring stiness E =
force F
relative elongation
Compare with a special case in 3D:
Mono-axial loading
Suppose
ij
= 0 for all i , j , except
11
= 0.
Compliance-form of a 3D Hookes law gives:
e
11
=
1
2
_
1

2 + 3
_

11
=
+
(2 + 3)

11
e
22
= e
33
=

2(2 + 3)

11
du
dy
u(x,y)
(u)
F
F
x
y
yy
yy
(u)
yy
(u)
u(x,y)
=
4.5. Hookes law: Youngs modulus E, Poissons ratio
Youngs modulus dened as apparent 1D spring stiness in the
case of mono-axial loading, ie:
E =

11
e
11
=
+
(2 + 3)
with
11
and e
11
from the mono-axial loading in cartesian
coordinates.
Poissons ratio measures transversal vs. axial elongation
=
e
22
e
11
=

2 ( + )
Relative volume change:
dV dV
0
dV
0
= e
11
+ e
22
+ e
33
= (1 2 ) e
11
ie. = 0.5 for incompressible materials
4.6. Hookes law for isotropic materials: summary
Isotropic material characterized by two constants:
shear modulus and bulk modulus K,
=
E
2 (1 + )
K =
1
3
(2 + 3) =
1
3
E
1 2
Lames coecients and ,
=
E
2 (1 + )
=
E
(1 + )(1 2)
= K
2
3
Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio ,
E =
(2 + 3)
+
=

2( + )
4.6. Hookes law for isotropic materials: summary
Corresponding form of Hookes law:
using shear modulus and bulk modulus K, in deviator form:

i
j
= 2 e
i
j
, s = 3 K e
using Lames coecients and :
ij
=
_
g
ik
g
j
+ g
i
g
jk
_
e
k
+ g
ij
g
k
e
k
Or in global form
= 2 e +

2 + 3
tr() Id
using Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio :
ij
=
E
2(1 + )
_
2
1 2
g
ij
g
k
+ g
ik
g
j
+ g
i
g
jk
_
e
k
large deformations: Saint Venant-Kirchho material
() = tr(
2
) +

2
_
tr()
2
, T
ij
=

ij
4.7. Hookes law: measuring stress-strain curve for steel
0 strain e
11
s
t
r
e
s
s
2
1
3
3
4
uniform plastic elastic necking
B
A
5
1 Ultimate Strength
2 Yield Strength (elastic limit)
3 Rupture
4 Strain hardening region
5 Necking region
A 1st Piola-Kirchho stress =
F
A
0
B Euler stress =
F
A
5. Linear thermo-elasticity: Duhamel-Neumanns law
Consider also temperature: Taylor expansion of strain energy:
(e, T) =
0
(T) + E
ij
(T) e
ij
+
1
2
E
ijk
(T) e
ij
e
k
+ . . .
=
0
(T) +
_
E
ij
(T
0
) +
E
ij
T
(TT
0
) + . . .
_
e
ij
+
1
2
_
E
ijk
(T
0
) +
E
ijk
T
(TT
0
) + . . .
_
e
ij
e
k
+ . . .
Suppose |T T
0
| << T
0
and small deformations and neglect all
(mixed) 3rd order terms and higher.
Duhamel-Neumanns law: from
ij
=

e
ij
we obtain:
ij
= E
ij
T
0
+ E
ijk
e
k

ij
(TT
0
)
with
ij
=
E
ij
T
. For isotropic materials
ij
= g
ij
.
Usually, we take T
0
with no pre-strain, E
ij
T
0
= 0.
5. Linear thermo-elasticity: Duhamel-Neumanns law
From the Hookes law, we can write:
i
j
= 2 e
i
j
+
i
j
e

i
j
(TT0)
Let us derive the compliance-form e = e(, T):
Index-contraction of the above gives
i
i
= (2+3) e
k
k
(TT
0
) ie. e
=
1
2 + 3
_
i
i
+
k
k
(TT
0
)
_
Substitute it back to the Duhamel-Neumanns law to obtain
e
i
j
=
1
2
_
i
k

j

2+3
i
j

k
_

k

1
2
_

2+3

i
j

m
m

i
j
_
. .
i
j
...thermal dilatation coe
(TT
0
)
6. Constitutive law for heat ux q: Fouriers law
Suppose simple thermo-mechanical continuum, small deformations:
q = q(T, T, e)
Use rst-order Taylor expansion around a deformation-free
conguration at T
0
to approximate:
q
i
= k
i
0
+ k
i
1
(TT
0
) + k
ij
2

j
T + k
ijk
3
e
jk
with some coecients k
i
0
, k
i
1
and k
ijk
3
.
This law must not contradict the 2nd law of thermodynamics
in particular there must be (cf. Section 2 and 3 above):
q
i
T

i
T =
1
T
_
k
i
0
+ k
i
1
(TT
0
) + k
ij
2

j
T + k
ijk
3
e
jk
_

i
T 0
for any state of the continuum, ie. T > 0 and e. This is
satised only if
k
i
0
= k
i
1
0 , k
ijk
3
0 and [k
ij
2
] is sym.positive denite
6. Constitutive law for heat ux q: Fouriers law
Hence, we have derived the Fouriers law for heat ux:
q
i
= k
ij
j
T , q = k T
with the heat conductivity tensor k, k
ij
= k
ij
2
, [k
ij
] is a
symmetric positive denite matrix.
For isotropic materials: k = k Id.

Continuum Mechanics V. Constitutive Equations: Basic Axioms

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Continuum Mechanics V. Constitutive Equations: Basic Axioms

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Continuum mechanics

This class of material also called gradient continua.

is a derivative of a scalar function with respect to a

(cf. 1. Kinematics, section 4.)

Strain deviator e: volume-preserving deformation component

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