TYPES OF STATISTICAL TESTS & THEIR ASSUMPTIONS

1.) PARAMETRIC TESTS

Based on assumptions made concerning the parameters of the population from which the sample was drawn The validity of these tests depend whether the assumptions about the nature of the sampled population from which the sample was drawn Usual assumptions include: 1.) Random selection of the sample 2.) Normal distribution of the population from which the samples were drawn 3.) Equality of variances (homoscedasticity) when more than one population is sampled. Other assumptions: If data is numerical and measured in either interval or ratio scale

2.) NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

Less stringent (strict) assumptions No assumptions are made about the population parameters Distribution-free tests

THE CHI-SQUARE (2)TEST OF HOMOGENEITY

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 A commonly used statistical test Compares the observed frequency of elements falling in different categories with the expected frequency if the null hypothesis was true

Types of 2 test: 1.) Chi-square Goodness of Fit Test 2.) Chi-square Test of Association 3.) Chi-square Test of Homogeneity

Uses: Chi-square test of homogeneity - is used when we wish to find out whether two or more populations have the same proportions for the different categories of another variable Data Lay-out - use a 2 x 2 contingency table ( a cross tabulation of 2 variables) - The rows represent the categories of one variable and the columns represent the categories of another variable - rows are designated as r - columns are designated as c

Table-1

Distribution of Subjects by Place of Residence and Blood Pressure Status Blood Pressure Status Normotensive Hypertensive 348 368 716 62 46 108

Place of Residence Alfonso Magallanes Total

Total 410 414 824

2 Test homogeneity assumes that categories are collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Samples are presumed to be independent of one another. Hypothesis Testing Procedure: Step 1: Statement of the Hypotheses Ho: The proportion of elements falling in each category of the variable of interest is the same for all groups. H1: There are differences between groups in the proportion of elements falling in each category of the variable Step 2: Setting the level of significance. -Arbitrarily set at .05 or .01 Step 3: Determination of the test statistic - 2 test is the test statistic which follows a chi-square distribution - the shape of the chi-square distribution is dependent on the degrees of freedom (df) where df = (row 1) (column 1) Step 4: Determine the critical region (C.R.)
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The critical region of the 2 distribution is determined by the degrees of freedom and the level of significance.

(See chi-square distribution table) Step 5: Computations of the Chi-square statistic Formula:

(O E ) = E
2

where

E=

row total x column total grand total

For Chi-square to be applicable, all the Es must be > 5, otherwise, the Fisher Exact Test will be used Step 6: Statistical Decision Reject Ho if the computed value of Chi-square falls in the critical region . Otherwise, do not reject Ho. Step 7: Drawing Conclusions This depends on the statistical decision

Sample Problem for Chi-square Test of Homogeneity:

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Step 1:

State the Hypothesis

Ho: P1 = P2 The prevalence proportion of hypertension in Alfonso is equal to the prevalence or proportion in Magallanes H1: P1 P2 Step 2: Level of significance = .05

Step 3: Test statistic = Chi-square test of homogeneity

(O E ) = E
2

Step 4: Critical region (C.R.): = .05 df = (row 1) (column 1) = (2-1) (2-1) =1 Look at .05, with 1 degree of freedom in the Chisquare distribution table this corresponds to 3.84. Therefore the C.R. = 2observed > 2 .05, 1 df = 3.84

Place of Residence Alfonso Magallanes Total

Blood Pressure Status Normotensive Hypertensive 348 368 716 62 46 108

Total 410 414 824

Step 5: Computations Oij 348 62 368 46

Remember:

Eij 356.3 53.7 359.7 54.3

(Oij Eij) -8.3 8.3 8.3 -8.3

(Oij Eij)2 68.9 68.9 68.9 68.9

(Oij Eij)2 Eij 0.19 1.28 0.19 1.27

Expected frequency ( E )=

row total x column total grand total

E = 410 x 716 = 356.3 824 E = 410 x 108 = 53.7 824 E = 414 x 716 = 359.7 824 E = 414 x 108 = 54.3 824

2 = 0.19 + 1.28 + 0.19 + 1.27 = 2.93

Step 6: Statistical Decision:

AREA OF NON-REJECTION

AREA OF REJECTION OR CRITICAL REGION

2 2.93 3.84

Since 2 calculated = 2.93 is < than 3.84, therefore DO NOT Reject Ho The value 2.93 falls in the area of non-rejection (see diagram). Step 7 Conclusion: There is no sufficient evidence to conclude that the prevalence of hypertension in Alfonso differs from the prevalence in Magallanes.

REVIEW OF THE CRITICAL REGION Critical Region (C.R.) or Region of Rejection Set of values of the test statistic which leads to the rejection of null hypothesis

These values are those whose probability of occurrence is less than or equal to the level of significance

They are found at the tail end of the distribution The values whose probability of occurrence is greater than or equal to comprise the region of non-rejection The size of the CR is determined by the

The location of the CR is determined by the nature of the alternative hypothesis, whether it is one-tailed or twotailed

See diagrams of the CR at differing alpha levels and direction of the alternative hypothesis. STATISTICALLY & NON-STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT RESULTS

When the null hypothesis is rejected, the results are said to be statistically significant and the observed difference between the observed and expected is not attributed to sampling variation

When the null hypothesis is not rejected, the results are said to be non-statistically significant and sampling variation is a likely explanation of the observed difference

TESTING THE DIFFERENCE IN MEAN VALUES BETWEEN TWO INDEPENDENT GROUPS The T- test for Independent Samples Independent the two groups each stand as one and are mutually exclusive E.g. Group A is all male Group B is all female Treatment arm = 14 students Control arm = 15 students Statistical Assumptions of the T-test 1.) The observations in each group follow a normal distribution. 2.) Sample size of each group is at least 30 3.) The standard deviation (variance) in the two samples is equal (homogeneity of variance) 4.) The values observed in one group has nothing to do with the observations of the other group (independence)

Sample Problem: In an experiment 45 women were randomized to receive paracervical block prior to cryosurgery while another 39 received no paracervical block. The mean pain score in the treatment arm was 35.60 while the control arm is 51.41 points. (See table below) Is the mean pain score in the treatment arm significantly lower than that observed in the control arm?
Variable Total cramping score Group No block Block N 39 45 Mean Score 51.41 35.6 SD 28.11 28.45 SE of the mean 4.50 4.24

Step 1: State the null hypothesis: Ho: Women who had a paracervical block prior to cryosurgery had a mean cramping score of at least as high as women who had no block. Women who had a paracervical block prior to cryosurgery had a lower mean cramping score than women who had no block.

Ha:

In symbols: _ _ Ho: X1 = X2
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Ha:

_ _ X1 < X2 (one-tailed test)

Step 2: Let us use =.01 (there will be only 1 chance in 100 that we will incorrectly conclude that cramping is less with cryotherapy if it really is not. Step 3: Test statistic will be T-test for independent samples (Assuming that the observations follow a normal distribution, the SD are equal and the observations are independent)

( n1 + n2 2 )

SD

(x x ) [ (1 / n ) + (1 / n )]
1 2 1 2

__

__

where SDp= is the pooled standard deviation computed using the formula:

SD =
p

( n 1) SD + ( n 1) SD n +n 2
2 1 1 2 1 2

2 2

Step 4: Determine the critical region The degrees of freedom is : df = (n1 + n2 - 2) df = (45 + 39 -2) df = 82

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Critical region for df= 82 (use 60) and alpha =.01 at 1-tailed test is equal to -2.39 Reject null if the observed value of t is < -2.39 Step 5: Computations

( 45 +39 ) 2

= 28 .27
= - 2.56

(35 .6 51 .4 ) [(1 / 45 ) +(1 / 39 )]

1 2

Step 6: Statistical Decision The calculated or observed t is 2.56 which is less than the critical value of 2.39, so we reject the null hypothesis Step 7 Conclusion In this study, on the average, women who had a paracervical block prior to cryosurgery experienced less total cramping than women who did not have the block. Note:

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The conclusion refers to women on the average and does not mean that every woman with a paracervical block would experience less cramping.

TESTING THE DIFFERENCE IN MEAN VALUES BETWEEN TWO DEPENDENT GROUPS (OR PAIRED SAMPLES) Means when the Same Group is Measured Twice paired designs or repeated-measures designs before and after measurements

the researcher asks whether the intervention makes a difference or not (whether there is a change)

test statistic used is the paired samples T-test or the matched groups T-test or the dependent group T-test Sample Case Problem: Fifty-one (51) patients undergoing cholecystectomy were evaluated before, 1 month after, and 3 months after cholecystectomy. Patients were interviewed about the quality and frequency of their stools. In addition, to evaluate the role of bile acid malabsorption, serum concentrations of 7-alpha-

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hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (7--HCO) were measured before and after surgery. The data given were as follows: Serum value 7--HCO (ng/mL) After CHE (1 month) 25.33 13.51 46.55 29.58 Before CHE

Question: Is there a true difference in the 7--HCO before and after surgery, so that one can conclude that indeed surgery is beneficial? Step 1: State the Hypothesis Ho: The true difference of 7--HCO is zero Ha: The true difference of 7--HCO is not zero In symbols: Ho: = 0 (the symbol delta stands for difference in the population) Ha: 0 (2-tailed test) (if 7--HCO significantly increases or decreases) Step 2: Level of significance = .01 Step 3: Test-statistic is paired samples T-test

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Assuming that the data is in the interval or ratio scale, the differences are normally distributed. Step 4: Determine the critical region
The value of t that must be attained to be declared significant. The value of T that divides the distribution into the central 99% is by interpolation, 2.682, with 0.5% of the area in each tail with n-1 degrees of freedom.

df = n-1 df = 51-1 or 50 C.R.= Reject null hypothesis that the program does not make a difference if the value of the t-statistic is < than -2.682 or greater than + 2.682 Step 5 Computations:

d 0 t= SD / n
d

__

_ where d = is the mean difference 0 = is the assumed difference in the population S d / n = standard error of the mean difference

(d d ) SD = n 1
d

___

where d =

___

d n

SDd= 26.68 Substituting =

t=

46.55 25.33 0 21.22 = = 5.68 3.74 26.68 51

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Step 6: Statistical Decision Since the observed value of t is 5.68 larger than the critical value 2.682, we reject the null hypothesis. Step 7: Conclusion: Mean serum values for 7--HCO are NOT the same before cholecystectomy and 1 month later (p-value <0.01)

Examples: Tell what type of statistical test/s will be used in the following scenario: 1.) An investigator wishes to determine whether the mean hematocrit of 50 children living in high altitude will differ from another 50 children living near the sea. 2.) A doctor wants to know if the giving paracetamol among febrile rats will decrease the temperature readings at one hour and after 6 hours. 3.) A nurse wants to know if the number of male and female children differs in their ability to read figures which are < 5 cms in size and figures > 5 cms in size. 4.) A trialist wants to know if the a drug is effective in diminishing psychosis in the emergency room in a nonrandomized study (quasi-experimental study design).

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5.) Dr. Lin wants to know if the proportion of midwives and nurses who scored above 60 points and below 60 points differ among the 15 nurses and 15 midwives .

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