Introducation

Training is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, and performance. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics). In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession, observers of the labor-marketrecognize as of 2008 the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills throughout working life. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development.

Defination
It is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts, rules, or changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of employees.

Meaning
Training and is vital part of the human resource development. It is assuming ever important role in wake of the advancement of technology which has resulted in ever increasing competition, rise in customers expectation of quality and service and a subsequent need to lower costs. It is also become more important globally in order to prepare workers for new jobs. In the current write up, we will focus more on the emerging need of training and development, its implications upon individuals and the employers. Noted management author Peter Drucker said that the fastest growing industry would be training and development as a result of replacement of industrial workers with knowledge workers. In United States, for example, according to one estimate technology is de-skilling 75 % of the population. This is true for the developing nations and for those who are on the threshold of development. In Japan for example, with increasing number of women joining traditionally male jobs, training is required not only to impart necessary job skills but also for preparing them for the physically demanding jobs. They are trained in everything from sexual harassment policies to the necessary job skills.

Needs of traning
Before we say that technology is responsible for increased need of training inputs to employees, it is important to understand that there are other factors too that contribute to the latter. Training is also necessary for the individual development and progress of the employee, which motivates him to work for a certain organisation apart from just money. We also require training update employees of the market trends, the change in the employment policies and other things.

The following are the two biggest factors that contribute to the increased need to training and development in organisations: 1. Change: The word change encapsulates almost everything. It is one of the biggest factors that contribute to the need of training and development. There is in fact a direct relationship between the two. Change leads to the need for training and development and training and development leads to individual and organisational change, and the cycle goes on and on. More specifically it is the technology that is driving the need; changing the way how businesses function, compete and deliver. 2. Development: It is again one the strong reasons for training and development becoming all the more important. Money is not the sole motivator at work and this is especially very true for the 21st century. People who work with organisations seek more than just employment out of their work; they look at holistic development of self. Spirituality and self awareness for example are gaining momentum world over. People seek happiness at jobs which may not be possible unless an individual is aware of the self. At ford, for example, an individual can enrol himself / herself in a course on self awareness, which apparently seems inconsequential to ones performance at work but contributes to the spiritual well being of an individual which is all the more important.

Study Notes: People Management

On-the-job training With on the job training, employees receive training whilst remaining in the workplace. The main methods of one-the-job training include:

Demonstration / instruction - showing the trainee how to do the job Coaching - a more intensive method of training that involves a close working relationship between an experienced employee and the trainee Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of a wide range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in several different departments) Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of the business and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams are "multi-disciplinary"

The advantages and disadvantages of this form of training can be summarised as follows:

Introduction of on the job

Introduction
In 1964, Gary Becker noted the important role of on-the-job training in Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education by observing that:
Theories of firm behavior, no matter how they differ in other respects, almost invariably ignore the effect of the productive pro cess itself on worker productivity. This is not to say that no one recognizes that productivity is affected by the job itself; but the recognition has not been formalized, incorporated into economic analysis, and its implications worked out.... Many workers increase their productivity by learning new skills and perfecting old ones while on the job. Presumably, future productivity can be improved only at a cost, for otherwise there would be an unlimited demand for training

on the job training (OJT)

Definition
Employee training at the place of work while he or she is doing the actual job. Usually a professional trainer (or sometimes an experienced employee) serves as the course instructor using hands-on training often supported by formal classroom training. See also off the job training.

Traning and Development Home Methods Of Training On the Job Training The most frequently used method in smaller organizations that is on the job training. This

method of training uses more knowledgeable, experienced and skilled employees, such as mangers, supervisors to give training to less knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced employees. OJT can be delivered in classrooms as well. This type of training often takes place at the work place in informal manner. Some key points on on the job Training on the job Training is characterized by following points It is done on ad-hoc manner with no formal procedure, or content At the start of training, or during the training, no specific goals or objectives are developed Trainers usually have no formal qualification or training experience for training Training is not carefully planned or prepared The trainers are selected on the basis of technical expertise or area knowledge Formal OJT programs are quite different from informal OJT. These programs are carried out by identifying the employees who are having superior technical knowledge and can effectively use one-to-one interaction technique. The procedure of formal on the job training program is: 1. The participant observes a more experienced, knowledgeable, and skilled trainer (employee)

2. The method, process, and techniques are well discussed before, during and after trainer has explained about performing the tasks

3. When the trainee is prepared, the trainee starts performing on the work place

4. The trainer provides continuing direction of work and feedback

5. The trainee is given more and more work so that he accomplishes the job flawlessly The four techniques for on the job development are:

Advantages Generally most cost-effective Employees are actually productive Opportunity to learn whilst doing Training alongside real colleagues

Disadvantages Quality depends on ability of trainer and time available Bad habits might be passed on Learning environment may not be conducive Potential disruption to production

Itroduction of off the job

Off-the-job training is conducted in a location specifically designated for training. It may be near the workplace or away from work, at a special training center or a resort Conducting the training away from the workplace rninirnizes distractions and allows trainees to devote their full attention to the material being taught- However, off-the-job training programs may not provide as much transfer of training to the actual job as do on-the-job programs. Many people equate off-the-job training with the lecture method, but in fact a very wide variety of methods can be used. Definitions: Employee training at a site away from the actual work environment. It often utilizes lectures, case studies, role playing, simulation, etc. See also on the job training.

Off the Job Training Methods

1. Classroom Lectures: Advantage It can be used for large groups. Cost per trainee is low. Disadvantages Low interest of employees. It is not learning by practice. It is One-way communication. No authentic feedback mechanism. Likely to lead to boredom for employees. 2. Audio-Visual: It can be done using Films, Televisions, Video, and Presentations etc. Advantages Wide range of realistic examples, quality control possible. Disadvantages One-way communication, No feedback mechanism. No flexibility for different audience. 3. Simulation: Creating a real life situation for decision-making and understanding the actual job conditions give it. Ensures active participation of all trainees. Can be very effective but needs good conductors.

4. Vestibule Training: - Employees learn their jobs on the equipment they will be using, but the training is conducted away from the actual work floor. While expensive, Vestibule training allows employees to get a full feel for doing task without real world pressures. Additionally, it minimizes the problem of transferring learning to the job.

5. Case Studies: It is a written description of an actual situation in the past in same organisation or somewhere else and trainees are supposed to analyze and give their conclusions in writing. This is another excellent method to ensure full and whole hearted participation of employees and generates good interest among them. Case is later discussed by instructor with all the pros and cons of each option. It is an ideal method to promote decision-making abilities within the constraints of limited data.

6. Role Playing: During a role play, the trainees assume roles and act out situations connected to the

learning concepts. It is good for customer service and training. This method is also called role-reversal, socio-drama or psycho-drama. Here trainees act out a given role as they would in a stage play. Two or more trainees are assigned roles in a given situation, which is explained to the group. There are no written lines to be said and, naturally, no rehearsals. The role players have to quickly respond to the situation that is ever changing and to react to it as they would in the real one. It is a method of human interaction which involves realistic behaviour in an imaginary or hypothetical situation. Role playing primarily involves employee-employer relationships, hiring, firing, discussing a grievance problem, conducting a post appraisal interview, disciplining a subordinate, or a salesman making presentation to a customer. 7. Programmed Instructions: This involves two essential elements: (a) a step-by-step series of bits of knowledge, each building upon what has gone before, and (b) a mechanism for presenting the series and checking on the trainees knowledge. Questions are asked in proper sequence and indication given promptly whether the answers are correct. This programme may be carried out with a book, a manual or a teaching machine. It is primarily used for teaching factual knowledge such as Mathematics, Physics, etc. 8. Management Games With computerized management games, trainees divide into five- or six-person groups, each of which competes with the others in a simulated marketplace. Each group typically must decide, for example. 1. 2. 3. 4. how much to spend on advertising. how much to produce, how much inventory to maintain, and how many of which product to produce.

Usually, the game itself compresses a two- or three-year period into days, weeks, or months. As in the real world, each company team usually can't see what decisions (such as to boost advertising) the other firms have made, although these decisions do affect their own sales. Management games can be effective. People learn best by being involved, and the games can gain such involvement. They help trainees develop their problem-solving skills, as well as to focus attention on planning rather than just putting out fires. The groups also usually elect their own officers and organize themselves. This can develop leadership skills and foster cooperation and teamwork.

Advantages of Off-the-Job Training

Trainers are usually experienced enough to train It is systematically organized Efficiently created programs may add lot of value

Disadvantages of Off-the-Job Training:

It is not directly in the context of job It is often formal It may not be based on experience. It is expensive. Trainees may not be much motivated It is artificial in nature.

off the job training

Essential requirements of a good training programme

(i) Training programme should be designed so as to achieve the predetermined objectives, goals and needs of the organisation. It should be less expensive. (ii) Training programme should be leopardess for all, in the organisation and not for a particular group. (iii) Training programme should pre-planed and well organised taking in view, the objectives of training programme. For this purpose the whole task should be divided in various sub-activities an such sub-activities should be arranged in a systematic order. (iv) Training programme should be designed according to size, nature and financial position of the concern. A small scale enterprise cannot afford much to the training programme. (v) Training programme must be flexible enough. (vi) The programme must be conducted by senior and experienced officer of the concern. In large scale enterprises, training is conducted by the training director who is incharge of the training section under personnel department. Such training director is well trained and experienced in the art training. (vii) Theoretical and practical aspects of training must be given due considerations while preparing a training programme. (viii) It should be designed in such a fashion as to incorporate the recent trends developed in the industrial field. Psychological researches may guide the conducting of a programme. The main purpose of the training programme should be to enable the employee to pick-up the work as soon as he completes the training. (ix) Training programme should be designed taking in view the interests of both employer and the employees. Their group interests should not be suffered. (x) It is not essential to follow a single method of training for all employees. The purpose of training is to develop the men and not the methods, therefore, more than one method maybe followed side by side for different groups. (xi) The main purpose of the training programme should be to motivate the workers to learn something to improve is job performance and therefore, a reward must be to expected at the concussions of the learning process such as promotion or a better job. The above characteristics mus be developed in designing a sound training programme.

Provide training and information

Everyone who works for you needs to know how to work safely and without risks to health. You must provide clear instructions, information and adequate training for your employees. Don't forget contractors and self-employed people who may be working for you and make sure everyone has information on:

hazards and risks they may face measures in place to deal with those hazards and risks how to follow any emergency procedures

Ask your employees what they think about training to make sure it's relevant and effective. Keeping training records will help you to identify when refresher training might be needed. The information and training you provide should be in a form that is easy to understand. Everyone working for you should know what they are expected to do. Health and safety training should take place during working hours and it must not be paid for by employees. There are many external trainers who will be able to help you with your training needs but effective training can often be done 'in house'. Remember some of your staff may have particular training needs, for example:

new recruits people changing jobs or taking on extra responsibilities young employees, who are particularly vulnerable to accidents - read about the key risks and health and safety factors you need to consider for young people at work on the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) website - Opens in a new window health and safety representatives - read about training for health and safety representatives on the HSE website - Opens in a new window

Remember that staff will need extra training if you get new equipment or working practices change. this leaflet provides further help for readers including how to undertake training and choosing appropriate methods and organisations to help deliver the training

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? Development is a concept which is contested both theoretically and politically, and is inherently both complex and ambiguous Recently [it] has taken on the limited meaning of the practice of development agencies, especially in aiming at reducing poverty and the Millennium Development Goals. (Thomas, 2004: 1, 2) The vision of the liberation of people and peoples, which animated development practice in the 1950s and 1960s has thus been replaced by a vision of the liberalization of economies. The goal of structural transformation has been replaced with the goal of spatial integration. The dynamics of long-term transformations of economies and societies [has] slipped from view and attention was placed on short-term growth and re-establishing nancial balances. The shift to ahistorical performance assessment can be interpreted as a form of the post-modernization of development policy analysis. (Gore, 2000: 7945) Post-modern approaches see [poverty and development] as socially constructed and embedded within certain economic epistemes which value some assets over others. By revealing the situatedness of such interpretations of economy and poverty, postmodern approaches look for alternative value systems so that the poor are not stigmatized and their spiritual and cultural assets are recognized. (Hickey and Mohan, 2003: 38) One of the confusions, common through development literature is between development as immanent and unintentional process and development as an intentional activity. (Cowen and Shenton, 1998: 50) If development means good change, questions arise about what is good and what sort of change matters Any development agenda is value-laden not to consider good things to do is a tacit surrender to fatalism. Perhaps the right course is for each of us to re ect, articulate and share our own ideas accepting them as

provisional and fallible. Since [development] depend[s] on values and on alternative conceptions of the good life, there is no uniform or unique answer.

Definition of Development
Development
The act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding process by which anything is developed, as a plan or method, or an image upon a photographic plate; gradual advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes; also, the result of developing, or a developed state. The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their passage from the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of organization. The act or process of changing or expanding an expression into another of equivalent value or meaning. The equivalent expression into which another has been developed. The elaboration of a theme or subject; the unfolding of a musical idea; the evolution of a whole piece or movement from a leading theme or motive.

Development

Definition: The act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding process by which anythingis developed, as a plan or method, or an image upon a photographic plate; gradual adv ancement or growth througha series of progressive changes; also, the result of developing, or a devel oped state.

MEANING:
Development - means a progression from a simpler or lower to a more advanced, mature, or complex form or stage. It is also defined as the gradual advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes. Development is a process, not a level. It is a path to achieve certain goals.

Definition of Development Banks

Development banks are those financial institutions engaged in the promotion and development of industry, agriculture and other key sectors. In the words of A.G. Kheradjou A development bank is like a living organism that reacts to the socialeconomic environment and its success depends on reacting most aptly to that environment. Kheradjou assigns an important task to the development banks. He feels that these banks should react to the socioeconomic needs. They should satisfy the developmental needs of the economy and their success is linked to the satisfactory growth of the economy. In the views of William Diamond A development bank has the opportunity to promote enterprises i.e. to conceive investment proposals and to stimulate others to pursue them or itself to carry them through, from conception to realization. In principle, a development bank is well suited to assume this kind of role. Yet, enterprise creation is fraught with costs and risks which development bank cannot neglect. Development banks can prudently undertake them only when they have the requisite financial strength, technical expertise and the managerial skill to bank. In his views, a development bank is an institution which takes up the job of developing industrial enterprises from its inception to completion. This process involves costs as well as risks. The bank should have sufficient financial sources and expertise to promote a new unit. D.M. Mithani states that. A development bank may be defined as a financial institution concerned with providing all types of financial assistance (medium as well as long-term) to business units in the form of loans, underwriting, investment and guarantee operations and development in general and industrial. The role of a development bank has been emphasized in this definition. In this view a development bank aims to provide financial and promotional facilities for the overall development of a country.

Features of a development bank.

1. A development bank has the following features or characteristics: 2. A development bank does not accept deposits from the public like commercial banks and other financial institutions who entirely depend upon saving mobilization. 3. It is a specialized financial institution which provides medium term and long-term lending facilities. 4. It is a multipurpose financial institution. Besides providing financial help it undertakes promotional activities also. It helps an enterprises from planning to operational level. 5. It provides financial assistance to both private as well as public sector institutions. 6. The role of a development bank is of gap filler. When assistance from other sources is not sufficient then this channel helps. It does not compete with normal channels of finance. 7. Development banks primarily aim to accelerate the rate of growth. It helps industrialization specific and economic development in general 8. The objective of these banks is to serve public interest rather than earning profits. 9. Development banks react to the socio-economic needs of development.

Important functions of Development Banks

Development banks have been started with the motive of increasing the pace of industrialization. The traditional financial institutions could not take up this challenge because of their limitations. In order to help all round industrialization development banks were made multipurpose institutions. Besides financing they were assigned promotional work also. Some important functions of these institutions are discussed as follows: 1. Financial Gap Fillers Development banks do not provide medium-term and long-term loans only but they help industrial enterprises in many other ways too. These banks subscribe to the bonds and debentures of the companies, underwrite to their shares and debentures and, guarantee the loans raised from foreign and domestic sources. They also help undertakings to acquire machinery from with in and outside the country. 2. Undertake Entrepreneurial Role Developing countries lack entrepreneurs who can take up the job of setting up new projects. It may be due to lack of expertise and managerial ability. Development banks were assigned the job of entrepreneurial gap filling. They undertake the task of discovering investment projects, promotion of industrial enterprises, provide technical and managerial assistance, undertaking economic and technical research, conducting surveys, feasibility studies etc. The promotional role of development bank is very significant for increasing the pace of industrialization. 3. Commercial Banking Business Development banks normally provide medium and long-term funds to industrial enterprises. The working capital needs of the units are met by commercial banks. In developing countries, commercial banks have not been able to take up this job properly. Their traditional approach in dealing with lending proposals and assistance on securities has not helped the industry. Development banks extend financial assistance for

meeting working capital needs to their loan if they fail to arrange such funds from other sources. So far as taking up of other functions of banks such as accepting of deposits, opening letters of credit, discounting of bills, etc. there is no uniform practice in development banks. 4. Joint Finance Another feature of development banks operations is to take up joint financing along with other financial institutions. There may be constraints of financial resources and legal problems (prescribing maximum limits of lending) which may force banks to associate with other institutions for taking up the financing of some projects jointly. It may also not be possible to meet all the requirements of a concern by one institution, So more than one institution may join hands. Not only in large projects but also in medium-size projects it may be desirable for a concern to have, for instance, the requirements of a foreign loan in a particular currency, met by one institution and under writing of securities met by another. 5. Refinance Facility Development banks also extend refinance facility to the lending institutions. In this scheme there is no direct lending to the enterprise. The lending institutions are provided funds by development banks against loans extended to industrial concerns. In this way the institutions which provide funds to units are refinanced by development banks. In India, Industrial Development Bank of India(IDBI) provides reliance against term loans granted to industrial concerns by state financial corporations. commercial banks and state co-operative banks. 6. Credit Guarantee The small scale sector is not getting proper financial facilities due to the clement of risk since these units do not have sufficient securities to offer for loans, lending institutions are hesitant to extend them loans. To overcome this difficulty many countries including India and Japan have devised credit guarantee scheme and credit insurance scheme. In India, credit guarantee scheme was introduced in 1960 with the object of enlarging the supply of institutional credit to small industrial units by granting a degree of protection to lending institutions against possible losses in respect of such advances. In Japan besides credit guarantee, insurance is also provided. These schemes help small scale concerns to avail loan facilities without hesitation. 7. Underwriting of Securities Development banks acquire securities of industrial units through either direct subscribing or underwriting or both. The securities may also be acquired through promotion work or by converting loans into equity shares or preference shares. So development banks may build portfolios of industrial stocks and bonds. These banks do not hold these securities on a permanent basis. They try to disinvest in these securities in a systematic way which should not influence market prices of these securities and also should not lose managerial control of the units. Development banks have become world wide phenomena. Their functions depend upon the requirements of the economy and the state of development of the country. They have become well recognized segments of financial market. They are playing an important role in the promotion of industries in developing and underdeveloped countries.