cmutsvangwa: Water Quality & Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water Eng.

, NUST

28/09/2006

3.1

Chapter 3 COAGULATION Treatment processes

Waters requiring treatment Surface waters: streams, rivers, lakes and limited treatment for groundwater Guidelines for the selection of a treatment processes reliability appropriate technology, availability of equipment, construction materials and chemicals economic viability pilot testing water quality of raw and treated water standards/ guidelines to be satisfied availability of skilled and unskilled manpower to design and operate the plant Process Fig. 3.1 summarises the treatment processes for surface waters in their sequence and some stages can be omitted (the dashed arrows). Groundwater is generally of high quality and does not require treatment. In exceptional case, treatment may be necessary and the stages of treatment for groundwater are shown in Fig.3.2.

Screening

Pre-settlement

Settlement

Coagulation

Distribution Tertiary treatment

Flocculation

Disinfection

Filtration

Fig. 3.1

Schematic illustration of treatments stages for surface waters

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Pre-settlement It is the first stage in water treatment for highly turbid waters and besides the settlement of solids there is a great reduction in bacteria. It also attenuates sudden fluctuations in river water quality. Prolonged storage should be discarded because it result in growth of algae and this will increase the treatment costs.

Fig. 3. 2:

Schematic illustration of groundwater treatment

(a) Disinfection and fluoridation (b) Iron and manganese removal (c) Precipitation softening

Sedimentation alone will not be effective for small suspended particles less than 50m. Coagulation and flocculation will result in bigger particles with higher settling velocities, which can settle down due to gravity in sedimentation tanks. Suspension Dispersion of solid particles in liquid Colloids Small particle 1 to 200x10-9m and are called stable if they do not join together and hence form stable suspension. Colloids do not join together because: 2
Chapter 5
Fig.2

Coagulation

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molecular arrangement within crystals loss of atoms due to abrasion of surfaces they are small and therefore have a large surface to volume ration because of the large surface area, colloidal particles accumulate a net negative charge at the surface-water interface and hence colloidal particles are negatively charged in water the net negative electrical charges at the particle surface result in preferential adsorption of ions. The first layer of cations (+ve) is attracted to the negatively charged surface to form the Stern layer and will travel with it (Fig. 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5). The Stern layer produces a rapid drop in potential. The net charge (+ve) is strong at the bound layer (Stern layer) and decreases exponentially with distance from the colloid (Fig. 3.3). the surface charge will contribute to stability and there will be no coalescence due to the repelling by the like charge.

Fig.3.3

Guoy-Stern colloidal model

Source: Water Supply, Terence McGee

Floc Collection of colloidal particles held together and has density closer to water Coagulation A process of making conditions favourable for colloidal particles to join together to form flocs. It is a process directed towards destabilisation of the colloidal particles. Flocculation The growth of flocs

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Fig.3.4:

Charge system in colloidal suspension

Source: Environmental Engineering, Peavy (1998)

Coagulation
When two colloids come in close proximity, thee are two forces acting on them: electrostatic potential Van der Waals force Electrostatic potential created by counter ions surrounding each colloid. It is a repelling force and hence colloids will repel each other. Van der Waals force It supports contact and is an attraction force. It is inversely proportional to the 6th power of the distance between particles. It decreases exponentially with distance (Fig. 3.5). It decreases more rapidly than the electrostatic potential (Fig. 3.5). It is more attractive force at close distances and repulsive at greater distances It become attractive only after passing through a maximum net repulsive force called the energy barrier at some distance between the colloids. Once the forces become attractive, contact between the particles takes place. A means of overcoming the energy barrier must be available before agglomeration of particles can occur. Some of the means of overcoming this energy barrier are outlined hereafter:

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Brownian movement random movement of smaller colloids because of molecular bombardment may produce enough momentum for particles to overcome the energy barrier for the colloidal particles to collide. Mechanical agitation mechanical agitation of the water may impart enough momentum to larger particle to move them across the energy barrier

The above processes are too slow to be efficient in water treatment and therefore other means of agglomeration must be used. Generally this is accomplished by chemical coagulation with aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3 and ferric chloride (FeCl3).

Fig. 3.5:

Force fields between colloids of like charge

Source: Environmental Engineering, Peavy (1998)

Mechanisms of coagulation ionic layer compression adsorption and charge neutralisation sweep coagulation inter-particle bridging 5
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Ionic layer compression A higher negative charge concentration compresses layers composed of +ve ions towards the surface of colloid and if this layer is sufficiently compressed, then Van der Waals force will become predominant producing a net attractive force and removing the energy barrier. Adsorption and charge neutralisation It is through the use of aluminium sulphate and ionisation of the aluminium sulphate in water produces sulphate anions and aluminium cations:

Al 2 (S 0 4 )3 S 0 2 + Al 3+ 4

Al 3+ react immediately with water to form a variety of aquometallic ions and hydrogen, a process called hydrolysis
Hydrolysis Al 3+ + H 2 O AlOH 2+ + H + Al 3+ + 2 H 2 O Al (OH 2 ) + 2 H +
+

7Al3+ +17H2O Al7 (OH ) +17H + 17

4+

Al3+ + 3H2O Al(OH)3 + 3H +

aquometallic ions

the aquometallic ions become part of the ionic cloud surrounding the colloid i.e. large, insoluble positively charged particles they are adsorbed onto the surface of the colloid where they neutralise the surface of the charge once the surface charge has been neutralised, the ionic cloud dissipates and the electrostatic potential disappears and contact occurs overdosing with a coagulant can result in restabilising the suspension.

Sweep coagulation From the above equations, the last product formed in the hydrolysis of Al (SO4)3 is aluminium hydroxide (Al (OH)3.

The aluminium hydroxide forms gelatinous flocs that are heavier than water and settle by gravity. The colloids may become entrapped in a floc as it is formed or may become enmeshed by its sticky surface as the flocs settle. The process by which colloids are swept from the suspension in this manner is known as sweep coagulation. 6

Chapter 5

Coagulation

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Inter-particle bridging Synthetic polymers may be used in addition to the stated coagulants. Such polymers are linear or branched and have a surface which is highly reactive. They have adsorption forces and the colloids may get attached to these surfaces to form polymer-colloid, and the several polymer-colloids may become enmeshed and grow into bigger particles, which can settle (Fig. 3.6). Also synthetic polymers may carry a negative, positive charge or can be neutral, metallic polymers from aluminium and ferric iron carry positive charge. Hence the negative synthetic polymers will help in the attraction of colloids.

Fig. 3.6

Inter-particle bridging by polymers

Source: Environmental Engineering, Peavy (1998)

Conditions for optimum formulation of flocs, the pH should be between 6-8. an optimum dosage of coagulant is required and is determined by the jar test too high or too low dosages are ineffective 7
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acid is formed when alum reacts with water, so it is necessary to maintain the desired pH range. To achieve a satisfactory final pH, its usually necessary to add an alkali and rapid mixing will be important. hydrated lime is often added for pH correction on cost grounds

Disadvantage of lime low solubility i.e. needs constant agitation blocks pipes As an alternative sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used or sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). But caustic soda is more expensive and dangerous Coagulant aids Poly-ectrolytes (polymers); They make flocs larger, tougher and denser. They have longer molecules with charged site which link small flocs together (inter-particle bridging). There are three groups: cationic, anionic and non ionic (ampholytic). Activated silica It is prepared from sodium silicate and it has the following benefits: increases the rate of coagulation and flocculation reduces coagulant dosage broaden pH range for effective coagulation produces large and tougher floc particles increases removal of both colour and colloidal particles Purified clays May be added to water with low turbidity to add weight to the flocs and reduce coagulant requirement e.g. bentonite clay. Jar test Selection of an appropriate coagulant is through experiments and taking into consideration costs, sludge management and the Jar test is mostly used. Overdosing may lead to filter clogging. The required dose cannot be calculated because water chemistry is too complex. The right dose is found by comparing the effects of different doses of coagulant on water, and choosing the lowest dose that gives a satisfactory result (Jar test). If too low a dose is used, little treatment is achieved and money is wasted, and a high residual goes into supply. If too much is dosed, the turbidity removal is below the optimum. This result in the filters clogging quickly and a high residual goes into supply and this is a health hazard. Procedure normally six jars are used one for control (Fig. 3.7) the other five jars are dosed with different doses of aluminium sulphate initial turbidity, pH and alkalinity of sample should be known one minute flash mix at 200 rpm 8
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this is followed by 10 to 30 min flocculation period at between 20 to 70 rpm (i.e. water is being allowed to settle). the time of appearance of the flocs, the size of floc and the turbidities of the treated water should be noted the jar with the minimum dose but with the lowest final turbidity gives the optimum dose e.g. beaker 3 in Table 3.1 gives the optimum dose of 5ml of aluminium sulphate solution. a jar test is performed every shit Jar test results to determine optimum dosage 2 2 6 3 5 2 4 8 2 5 15 4 6 25 9

Tabl1 3.1:

Beaker 1 Dose, ml 1 Final turbidity (NTU) 17

Fig.3.7:

Schematic illustration of a jar-test equipment

Chemo-feeders This is the equipment used to introduce the coagulant in the chamber. coagulant can be dosed by: gravity dosing pumps 9
Chapter 5 Coagulation

The

cmutsvangwa: Water Quality & Treatment: Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST

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In small plants, and when the power requirements or degree of complexity of the plat are to be kept to a minimum, the coagulant can be dosed by gravity. The tank in which the coagulant is mixed and stored should be at a high level to allow the prepared solution to flow under gravity through a flow controller. A float valve can also be used in gravity systems to maintain head constant.

References 1. Peavy H. S., Rowe D. R., and Tchobanoglous G., (1985), Environmental Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York, USA 2. Terrence McGhee Water supply

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