PART 5: GEOMORPHOLOGY - structural geology

Earth surface is still undergoing physical changes, in both small- & continental-scale Resulting from effect of weathering & tectonic forces. Produce various deformations and changes to the earth-crusts and shape of the earth surface e.g. rock mass that constitutes mountain range.

GEOMORPHOLOGY
In responding to the physical changes (e.g. state of stresses) of the surroundings, a rock mass may deform or change its physical state. Changes in rock mass include: expands if confining stress reduces; deforms plastically (ruptures) if acting stress is larger than its strength; deforms elastically (reshapes) if acting stress is smaller than its strength. As result, rock mass displays certain characteristics, indicating changes in the surrounding.

EXCAVATION OF SLOPE IN ROCK MASS The phrase solid as a rock is not a correct statement on the properties of rock mass. Rock bodies, whether exposed on the surface or buried in the earths crust, are not free from fracture and weakness planes. In addition, fresh and strong rock may be degraded and weakened by weathering processes.

Take a strong, solid (without discontinuity features), and fresh (unweathered) rock mass

A near vertical slope is excavated in the rock mass . . . .

. . . . . . in terms of the rock mass properties would there be any problem on the stability of the cut slope ?

A slope cut in a fresh, strong and solid rock mass but, with horizontal bedding planes (a type of discontinuity or weakness plane) . . . . .

Again, one will question the stability of the cut slope . . . is it being affected by the horizontal bedding planes . . . ? Is there any immediate effect due to rock mass properties & bedding planes . . . ?

A cut slope in a fresh, strong rock mass with horizontal bedding planes and inclined fracture planes (e.g. joints)

SLOPE B SLOPE A

For the cut slope (A) in this rock mass, is the stability being affected by the horizontal bedding planes and inclined joints . . . . ? Let propose another slope (B) on the other side of the hill . . . . . .

SLOPE A

SLOPE B

The rock properties and the horizontal bedding planes have no immediate effect on the stability of both SLOPE A and B. However, with respect to the orientation the joints, SLOPE B is critical.

GEOMORPHOLOGY
The characteristics include presence of structural discontinuities in rock mass, and the most important in construction are: bedding planes, folding (lipatan); fault (sesar) & joint (kekar) These discontinuity features induce weakness, and defect into rock bodies. They affect rock behaviour when subjected to loading ( e.g. stability of tunnel excavated in highly jointed rock mass, compared to massive rock)

FOLD (LIPATAN)
Folds only occur in clastic sedimentry rocks which exhibit bedding/layers/strata, metamorphic rocks originating from clastic sedimentary rocks & volcanic rocks. Beddings/strata are weakness planes in rock relative displacement can occur between bedding planes. Folds is formed when bedded/stratified rock is subjected to lateral compressive stress in the earth crust.

THINGS TO PONDER

Why there is no folding in granite ? For horizontal rock strata, why folding is associated with compressive lateral stresses?

FOLDINGS
Type of folding: symmetrical, non-symmetrical, over-turned & recumbent fold (lipatan rebah) Rajah 14. Recumbent fold can affect sequence of bedding arrangement (difficulties in verifying the relative age of beddings). Important geometrical parameters of fold: Limbs, syncline & anticline Dip direction/strike of inclined bedding (limbs).

TYPES OF FOLDS

FOLD GEOMETRY

FOLD
When rock strata are folded, they are under a state of strain (keterikan), this will induce remnant or residual stress in the folded rock mass. For symmetrical fold residual tensile stress occurs in the upper portion of the fold, & residual compressive stress in the lower portion. Usually, tension cracks can be found at the crest. For a deformed rock mass (e.g. folded), its in situ stress distribution is no longer in equilibrium presence of remnant stress due to deformation.

THINGS TO PONDER What type of stress usually associated with tension cracks in the crest of a fold ? For an excavation work in a folded rock mass, why it is critical to excavate at the shoulder of the fold ?

TENSION CRACKS AT CREST OF A FOLD

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FOLD
Folded rock mass creates problems to construction - higher in situ stress: Virgin in-situ stress ( gh) + residual stress Slope excavated in folded rock mass may exhibit frequent failures inclined bedding plane. For petroleum industry, folded strata is the main target area in exploring for petroleum reservoirs (Figure 15)

Inclined bedding planes in folded strata

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Inclined bedding planes

Inclined bedding planes in folded strata

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Inclined bedding planes in folded strata

FAULT (SESAR)
Fault a fracture between two rock blocks where there has been observable relative displacement. One of the block can be displaced upwards or downwards or even displaced laterally (Rajah 16). Fault can occur in all kind of rocks (whenever cracks are present). Important geometry of fault: dip direction of fault, dip angle, strike & amount of displacement (Fig. 17)

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ASSOCIATED DISPLACEMENTS IN FAULT FORMATION

FAULT STRUCTURE & GEOMETRY

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FAULT
Faults are classified based on their formation: normal fault, reverse fault and strike-slip fault (sesar mendatar). A large scale displacement (few kms) may induce metamorphism in the surrounding rock, forming metamorphic rocks e.g. fault breccia & clay gouge. Fault traversing a river gives rise to waterfall. Springline is a result of groundwater flowing a long a fault line. Large faults (10 20 km deep) can act as passage for magma to flow upwards from inside the mantle.

NORMAL & REVERSE FAULT

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STRIKE - SLIP FAULT (horizontal displacement)

Movements of fault

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San Andreas Fault two continental plates slide past one another

Earthquake is produced by a sudden slip along interlocked fault line

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FAULT
Formation of multiple large size faults (fault zone) may induce remnant or residual stress in host rock. Residual shear stress may occurs in rock bodies at near a fault zone. Excavation work in rock displaying fault structure, instability of excavated surfaces is a common problem, particularly if faults are filled with clay gouge.

FAULT
Faults induce discontinuity (ketakselarasan) and weakness into rock uneven stresses distribution. Ideally, rock mass without discontinuities (faults & fold), stress distribution can be assumed in a state of hydrostatic stress (P = gh); stresses are equal in all directions. If faults are present in rock mass, stress in one direction may not be equal to stress in the opposite direction (e.g. horizontal stresses , h).

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JOINT (KEKAR)
Joint is a fracture, separating two rock blocks, where there is no observable (very small) displacement (Fig. 14). Formation of joints are associated with tensile stress acting within a rock body. The source of tensile stresses can be from any/all of the following processes: Expansion & shrinking of a massive magma body during cooling process joint sets that are perpendicular to each other.

JOINT (intersecting of more than 2 joint sets)

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EXPOSED JOINT SURFACES

JOINT SET (in almost vertical orientation)

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JOINT (KEKAR)
Expansion of rock bodies due to reduction in overburden stress. For instance, decreasing thickness of materials (soils) covering a deep seated bed rock after continuous & intensive weathering at the surface sheet joints. Tensile stress acting at crest of a fold tension cracks. For impermeable rock (e.g. granite) joint acts as a secondary permeability. As other discontinuities in rock, joints are weakness planes in rock.

SHEET JOINT (KEKAR BERLAPIS)

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TENSION CRACKS AT CREST OF A FOLD

JOINT displaying very small displacement

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Undisplaced JOINT

Various types of discontinuity/weakness planes & and their formation in different rock type
Types of structural discontinuity Fault plane Joint plane Bedding plane Foliation Slaty & schistosity Rock types Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

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JOINT
Important geometrical parameters: dip angle, dip direction & strike (Figure 17). Joints are relatively smaller in size compared to fault (few m length) A group of joints of almost similar orientation is called JOINT SET. Two or more joint sets that are intersecting each other is termed as JOINT SYSTEM (Figure 18). In a joint system, if one joint set is more dominant than other sets, this set is called primary set.

JOINT SETS 1 set and 3 sets

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JOINT SET (granite)

JOINT SET (granite)

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JOINT SET (shale)

EFFECT OF 1 JOINT ON UCS OF ROCK

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EFFECT OF 2 JOINT ON UCS OF STRENGTH

EFFECT OF MANY JOINT ON UCS OF ROCK in highly fractured rock the strength may approach that of soil

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JOINT
The more is the number of joint sets, the weaker and more unstable is the rock. Rock with more joint sets is easier (cheaper) to excavate. Bed rock displaying multiple joint sets may not be suitable for foundation of large structures. Joints in hard rock are passage for weathering agents (water, O2) to penetrate into rock thus, rocks with more joint sets are more easily weathered compared to rock with less joint sets. Exposed rounded rock boulders are the result of weathering of rock that exhibits 3 joint sets that are perpendicular to each other.

Large rounded to sub-rounded boulder (granite)

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Large rounded to sub-rounded boulder (granite)

Boulders are produced by weathering of jointed granite sphreoidal weathering.

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Physical weathering (disintegration due to joints) creates new surfaces for chemical weathering to take place on the exposed surfaces, especially at the 8 corners

THINGS TO PONDER
What are the main differences between joint and fault ? Why a slope face cut in rock displaying 3 joint sets is less stable than in rock displaying 1 joint set ? Do I have any other options besides this nonentertaining Rock Mechanics ? (Yes . . . . . . . try Rock & Roll)

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JOINT
Intrusive igneous rock (e.g. granite) almost always exhibiting 3 sets of joint, typical joint characteristic for massive and strong rock, with random (rawak) minerals arrangement. For rocks displaying structured minerals arrangement in certain orientation (lamination, slaty & schistosity), e.g sedimentary & metamorphic rock, the major joint sets are usually parallel to the mineral arrangement.

Fracture plane parallel to lamination (sandstone)

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MEASUREMENT OF JOINT (& other fracture planes) Major rock excavation work (e.g. slope & tunnel) requires a preliminary (initial) investigation before design & construction Joint survey: field work to identify types of weakness planes (joint, bedding planes, faults) measurement on geometrical orientation (dip & dip direction). Joint orientation & joint sets for a rock type are usually consistent thus, measurement can be undertaken on the exposed portion of the rock. Data & info obtained (e.g. geological mapping) are used for preliminary design of the structure.

MEASUREMENT OF JOINT
Figure 17 shows the important geometrical characteristics of joint (or other weakness plane) that need to be measured in the field: DIP angle (sudut kecondongan). Dip direction (arah kecondongan) / Strike. Joint survey is undertaken on exposed rock body (accessibility & cost) . Other relevant data & info on joint: open or close, conditions of joint surface (rough or smooth), infill (berinti) & size/length, continuity (keselanjaran)

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GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS for an inclined weakness plane

FILLED JOINT (KEKAR BERINTI)

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MEASUREMENT OF JOINT (& other fracture planes) Instrument used are Brunton compass & tapes. Collected data few hundreds to thousands. Data is analysed using computer software (e.g. GEORIENT) - lower hemisphere strereonet projection. Output data: dip & dip direction of major & minor joint sets, probablity of failure direction and mode of failure. Mean dip & dip direction of all the measured joint is compared with the proposed cut slopes.

Joint measurement using BRUNTON COMPASS

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Typical roughness profile & index (JRC) of joint surface

DATA FROM JOINT MEASUREMENT

Dip angle 55 55 65 65 60 60 60 75 75 65 70 55 65 75 85 80 90 85 65 70 Dip direction 0N 030 025 035 030 000 350 350 000 000 285 280 280 285 285 235 240 230 220 350 355 Joint set J1 J1 J1 J1 J2 J2 J2 J2 J2 J3 J3 J3 J3 J3 J4 J4 J4 J4 J5 J5

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Stereonet projection plot great circles

Stereonet projection plot poles density

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Stereonet projection output great circles of joint sets & cut slope

MODES OF SLOPE FAILURE and PLOTTED STEREONET

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MODES OF SLOPE FAILURE

Effect of weakness planes (dip & dip direction) on stability of cut slope face in a discontinuous rock mass

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Direction of tunneling with respect to joint orientation

Direction of tunneling with respect to joint orientation

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THE GRAND FINALE

Theoretically, a vertical slope face of several thousand meters height (H) can be excavated in a massive, continuous & strong rock (based on formula H = UCS/) However, in actual condition in the field, this is impossible (the allowable maximum vertical height, H, is less than 10 m) ?

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