Cognitive Determinants of Consumers Time Perceptions: The Impact of Resources Required and Available SUSAN POWELL MANTEL JAMES

J. KELLARIS*

This study examines cognitive processes believed to be responsible for systematic distortions in the subjective experience of time. In two experiments, subjects were exposed to mock radio ads containing congruent or incongruent information and asked to estimate the ads durations retrospectively. Consistent with a resource matching hypothesis, perceived time depended on the interplay of cognitive resources required and available. When cognitive resources required match cognitive resources available (at either high or low levels), time estimates were longer than when resources were mismatched. Evidence also suggests that durations may be inferred from the amount of information reconstructed from and linked to a time interval.

Although time pervades every aspect of consumptive activity, the inuences that shape temporal perceptions have received only limited attention from consumer researchers. The consumers experience of time is highly subjective (Hornik 1984), can differ radically from clock time (Fraisse 1984), and may depend on cognitive information processing during the interval (Ornstein 1997). Thus, an interval of time often seems longer or shorter than clock time depending on what happens during the interval. Perceived duration of an interval is a function of how the stimulus events that ll the interval are processed and subsequently reconstructed. Understanding such distortions in consumers time perceptions is potentially important to sellers and service providers because consumers assign value to time and are even more risk averse with their time than with their money (LeClerc, Schmitt, and Dube 1995). Further, the subjective duration of certain events may inuence outcomes such as evaluations, satisfaction, and consequent behaviors (Dube-Rioux, Schmitt, and Leclerc 1988; Taylor 1994). A better understanding of factors that inuence consumers perceptions of event durations may enable marketers to promote positive and combat negative consequences of time. Properties making up stimulus events or environments might be engineered to augment or diminish perceived duration as appropriate to the situation. The literature on psychological time suggests that the retrospective experience of time is dependent on our memory of what lls that time (James 1890). Ornstein (1997) proposed that duration perceptions are a function of the amount of memory dedicated to storing information encountered during an event, with greater allocations of memory indicating longer intervals (storage size hypothesis). If information can be organized for storage and complete retrieval, then there will be greater recall associated with the event, larger storage size, and longer time estimates (Ornstein 1997). Perhaps retrospective time estimation

involves not only what is remembered, but how that information is processed and stored.

RESOURCE-MATCHING HYPOTHESIS

Resource-matching (Anand and Sternthal 1989) is a process that seems likely to govern the storage and reconstruction of information from a past time period. Processing should be most efcient when the level of cognitive resources available matches the level of cognitive resources required to process the information composing a time periodor event. Regardless of whether resources available (RA)

equal resources required (RR) at a high or low level, under matched conditions, people tend to process information with very little elaboration beyond the content presented. Processing efciency is predicted to decline when resources required exceed or fall behind resources available. Two reasons for inefcient processing under mismatched conditions have been suggested (Anand and Sternthal 1989). First, when cognitive resources are limited and cognitive demands are high (RA ! RR), people tend to cope by using heuristic processing (Peracchio and Meyers-Levy 1997). Under heuristic processing, the amount of information processed will be minimized and judgments will be made on the basis of peripheral cues. Therefore, very little informational detail should be encoded and recalled from the time period. Second, when cognitive resources are plentiful and cognitive demands are low (RA 1 RR), people tend to elaborate on the information presented and to use excess resources to generate additional thoughts (Keller and Block 1997). Such elaboration should affect retrospective time estimation. According to the storage size hypothesis, one would expect that the elaboration would expand the storage size associated with the focal event, and thus the retrospective time estimate will be relatively longer. According to the resource-matching hypothesis, however, one would expect the elaboration to tie the information to other, unrelated events. For example, given excess resources, a consumer exposed to an ad may take a fact (e.g., the menu features lobster bisque) and think about some previous occasion on which this item was consumed. In this way, the links between the factual information (lobster bisque) and the ad itself will be attenuated because the fact may be more closely associated with some other event. This factual elaboration idea is consistent with research on advertising wear out (see Anand and Sternthal 1990; Cacioppo and Petty 1979), which suggests that, when a message is easy to process (i.e., there are excess resources), habituation and tedium occur at low levels of exposure, causing elaboration and counterargumentation to occur. Although total factual recall may be high, the elaboration process may attach those thoughts to alternate spaces in memory and leave a relatively small memory allocated exclusively to the focal event. Therefore, the resource matching hypothesis would predict relatively short retrospective time estimates under this mismatched condition (RA 1 RR). To summarize, whereas the storage size hypothesis would predict that retrospective time estimates would be longest in the case of excess resources available (RA 1 RR), the resource-matching hypothesis would predict that retrospective time estimates should be longer in a situation characterized by matched resources (RA p RR). In addition, retrospective time estimates should be shorter in a situation characterized by mismatched resources and heuristic processing (RA ! RR) or mismatched resources and elaboration to other events in memory (RA 1 RR). Finally, when the two matched conditions are varied only in the level of complexity, not in the amount of information presented, we would expect that similarly high time estimates would be produced from both matched cells. In summary of our expectations: H1: Cognitive resources required and cognitive resources available will interact to inuence consumers time perceptions such that when resources are matched, retrospective time estimates should be longer than when resources are mismatched.

H2: Cognitive resources required and cognitive resources available will interact to inuence consumers recall about the time period and elaboration such that a) When resources are matched, recall about the time period will be highest and elaboration will be minimal. b) When resources required exceed resources available, both recall about the time period and elaboration will be low. c) When resources available exceed resources required, recall about the time period will be low and elaborations associated with other events will be high. H3: The impact of resources required and resources available on consumer time perception will be mediated by recall about the time period.

EXPERIMENT 1 Method To test hypothesis 1, we conducted an experiment using a 2 (low vs. high resource requirements) # 2 (low vs. high resource availability) between-subjects design. Resource requirements were manipulated by presenting congruent or incongruent information in simulated radio ads. Resource availability was manipulated using music to induce neutral or positive moods. The dependent variable was retrospective estimates of the ads durations. Subjects. Subjects were undergraduate students (54 males, 38 females) recruited from a subject pool at a large mid western university. Ages ranged from 19 to 42 years (median p 21 years). Subjects received extra course credit for participating. Stimuli. To manipulate the independent variables, we created eight simulated radio ads (two per cell of our 2 # 2 design). The radio ads provided a premise for our study (i.e., participate in an ad test) and served as focal events, the durations of which were estimated by subjects as the experimental task. Manipulation. Potentially, many factors can inuence the cognitive resources required. For example, the congruity of elements composing a stimulus event should inuence the level of resources required to process the information encountered.1 Specically, incongruent information will tend to increase the resource requirements due to the absence of a preexisting cognitive schema (Heckler and Childers 1992; Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989) and the weak linkages between unrelated nodes in an associative network (Schmitt, Tavassoli, and Millard 1993). As a result, more effortful processing is generally required to comprehend and remember the elements of incongruous events; the opposite generally holds for congruous events. Similarly, many factors can inuence cognitive resources available to perform a time estimation task. For example, conditions that direct the perceivers attention to relevant or irrelevant aspects of a stimulus event can constrain the availability of resources to process and remember the event. According to the mood preservation hypothesis, people tend to focus on pleasant

information to maintain (or generate) a good feeling (Mackie and Worth 1989; Worth and Mackie 1987). Thus, when individuals are confronted with pleasant stimuli (e.g., pleasant background music), they are likely to devote some of their attention to the source of the pleasantness and to allocate relatively fewer resources to processing other elements of the stimulus environment. Conversely, if the background music is affectively neutral, people should not allocate resources to that element of the stimulus environment, and thus they should have more resources available for processing other information. Thus, we anticipate that by controlling two elements within the stimulus event, resources available and resources required can be manipulated. Specically, inclusion of pleasant elements in a stimulus event should limit resource availability by directing the allocation of those resources to the enjoyment of those pleasant elements, and manipulating stimulus (in)congruity will (extend) limit resources required to process the stimuli. The interplay of these constructs is expected to shape retrospective time estimates in the hypothesized pattern by inuencing processing strategy, in formation storage, and information retrieval. The stimuli were constructed to manipulate the resources required and the resources available by varying congruity and pleasantness of music. For example, an ad for a Chinese restaurant (Yen Ching) with pleasant Chinese music served as the stimulus for the low resources available, low re- sources required cell. This stimulus should be easy to process (i.e., low resources required) because music and message are matched (both Chinese). Moreover, because the subject is likely to focus some attentional resources on the pleasantness of the music, resources available to process the ad should be relatively low. An ad for Yen Ching with affectively neutral (Western) classical music served as the stimulus for the high resources available, high resources required cell. Because music and message are mismatched (Chinese restaurant and Western music), the incongruous ad should be more difcult to process, and more resources will be required. Similarly, because the music is neutral (rather than pleasant), the music will not attract a large amount of resources away from processing the ad itself, thereby leaving a higher level of resources available. To develop stimuli for the remaining two cells, the Yen Ching restaurant ad was paired with pleasant Western classical music (high resources required, low resources available) and paired with neutral Chinese music (low resources required, high resources available). To increase construct validity (Cook and Campbell 1979), a second ad for a British American restaurant (the Fox and Hound) was constructed for each cell in a similar pattern. These ads were constructed by matching and mismatching ad copy with pleasant or neutral classical or Chinese background music to manipulate resource availability and requirements. Thus half of the subjects in the high resources required/ high resources available cell heard an ad for the Fox and Hound restaurant with neutral Chinese music and the other half heard an ad for Yen Ching with neutral classical music. The remaining three cells were formulated in a similar manner. Although each subject heard only one ad, each restaurant and each musical genre was present in each cell. Hence, our between-subjects design with two exemplars per cell eliminates potential confounding of either musical genre or restaurant type with the constructs of causation (Kellaris, Cox, and Cox 1993). Ad copy was constructed to be as similar as possible for the two restaurants, and all ads were exactly 32 seconds in duration. The musical selections were chosen by an expert and pretested to identify pleasant and neutral selections of Chinese and Western classical music. Excerpts from Liszts Les Preludes and the musical score from the lm The Last Emperor were chosen as pleasant music selections; Caesar Franks Symphony in D Minor and a traditional Chinese piece were the neutral music selections. Pretests. To verify our stimuli, 25 subjects rated the test ads on single-item, seven-point pleasantness and congruity scales in a within-subjects pretest. We pooled responses tothe four positive music ads and compared them with the pooled responses to the four neutral music ads using Wilcoxons matched-pairs signed-ranks test. A similar analysis was conducted on the congruity data. Signicant statistical differences were found between responses to sets of neutral (median p 3.2) and positive (median p 4.0) music ads (z p 2.0; p ! .05) and between responses to sets of low (median p 2.2) and high (median p 4.2) congruity ads (z p 4.2; p ! .01).

As a pretest check on the independence of our manipula tions, we performed a second test using the individual test ad as the unit of analysis. We examined the correlation between average pleasantness and congruity ratings for the eight ads and found no statistical confounding (Kendalls t p .47; p 1 .05). Procedure. Subjects were processed individually in a listening lab. Upon arrival, each subject was given an audiocassette tape containing a test ad, a questionnaire, and a set of headphones. Then he or she was directed to an audio carrel by a lab attendant. Printed instructions reminded subjects that they would be hearing a radio ad about which they would be asked some opinion questions and that they should listen to it once without looking at the questions and then break the seal on the questionnaire and complete the items. Unobtrusive observation found no violations of these instructions. It is important to note that subjects had no way of anticipating the time estimation task. Both congruity (F(1, 91) p 101; p ! .001) and pleasantness (F(1, 91) p 26.0; p ! .001) treatments produced signicant main effects on their corresponding manipulation check measures in the expected direction. The pleasantness of the background music produced no main or interactive effects on ratings of stimulus congruity. Congruent (vs. incongruent) ads were found to produce slightly more positive perception of the background music (F(1, 91) p 4.1; p !.05). The difference (Maf fect p 4.4 vs. 4.7 for lowand high congruity groups, respectively) does not seem practically signicant; however, results should be interpreted in light of this confound. Measures. Immediately after listening to the ad, subjects lled out a need for cognition (NFC) scale (Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao 1984). The NFC scale was used as a ller task and to test for potential effects of need for cognition on the results (none was found). Next, the subjects estimated perceived duration of the ad, measured retrospectively. Instructions preceding the time estimation measure read as follows: Radio ads typically last anywhere from 10 seconds to over 45 seconds. Since many ads are read live on the air, they often last for some odd duration (as opposed to TV ads, which normally last for exactly 30 seconds). How long did the ad that you just heard seem to last? Please be as precise as possible, even if you are not certain. The perceived duration item was I estimate that the ad lasted for seconds. Such open-ended measures are standard in time perception research in psychology (e.g., Block 1990; Fraisse 1984; Levin and Zakay 1989) and consumer research (Kellaris and Altsech 1992; Kellaris and Kent 1992; Kellaris and Mantel 1996). Next, a manipulation check on perceived stimulus congruity was collected. This measure used ve sevenpoint items patterned after Kellaris, Cox, and Cox (1993): The music was appropriate for the restaurant described, The music did not seem to t with the message (reversed), The music was relevant to the subject of the ad, The music did not match the product in the ad (reversed), and The music was congruent with the message of the ad. Responses were summed and averaged to form a composite scale (a reliability p .95). Finally, a manipulation check on pleasantness of the back- ground music was preceded by the prompt The music made me feel . . . , and the items were good/bad, pleased/ displeased, and positive/negative. Alpha reliabilities were .84 for the three-item pleasantness scale. Results Pooling, Manipulation, and Confounding Checks. A pooling test was conducted on ad copy (restaurant type) by including it as a variable in the ANOVA looking at the effect of resources required by resources available on time perception. Results show that ad copy had no effect on duration estimates (F(1, 91) p 1.22; NS), and all of the main and interactive relationships reported below still hold. Hence, all subsequent analyses pool replicates within conditions. Hypothesis Test

Duration estimates ranged from 10 to 50 seconds, with an average estimate of 27.2 seconds across all conditions. We observed a signicant interactive effect of resources required (congruity) with resources available (pleasantness) on perceived duration (F(1, 91) p 5.3; p ! .02, h 2 p .05) and no main effects (F(1, 91) p .23; NS; F(1, 91) p .03; NS). This interaction is illustrated in gure 1. Planned contrasts conrm that the matched resources cells produce a retrospective time estimate that is signicantly longer (M p 29.4 seconds) than the mismatched conditions (M p 25.15 seconds, t p 2.21; p p .02). Therefore, the evidence supports hypothesis 1. Discussion Consistent with hypothesis 1, the data suggest that resources available interact with resources required to inuence duration perceptions. Specically, when resources are matched, duration estimates tend to be longer; when resources are mismatched, duration estimates are minimized. For reasons previously elaborated, we believe that an im portant mechanism underlying retrospective duration estimates is the perceivers ability to reconstruct events from memory. Because it generally takes longer for more to transpire, the more information one recalls and connects to a time interval, the longer that time interval should seem in retrospect. The interactive effect observed and the planned comparisons performed in experiment 1 are consistent with our explanation of the link between resource-matching and memory as manifested in time perceptions. There is a need, however, for further evidence of our process explanation. Hence, a second experiment was designed to test the storage size hypothesis against the resource-matching hypothesis as it relates to the process by which retrospective time is estimated. It is suspected that it is not total recall that drives retrospective time perception, but rather recall attached to the time period. Elaborations that effectively attach information to other events should not inuence time estimates. Therefore experiment 2 is designed to separate the effects of recall about the time period from elaboration and to test the mediating inuence of memory processes (elaboration and recall) on time estimates. EXPERIMENT 2 Experiment 2 uses a 2 # 2 between-subjects design similar to that of experiment 1, but with a different manipulation of resources available (a distraction task) to provide convergent evidence of results observed in experiment 1. In addition to retrospective time estimates, we collected elaboration and recall data to facilitate the testing of our process explanation (hypotheses 2 and 3). Method Subjects. Subjects were undergraduate students (36 males, 15 females) recruited from a subject pool at a large midwestern university. Ages ranged from 19 to 27 years (median p 23 years). As in the previous experiment, subjects received extra course credit for participating. Stimuli and Distraction Procedure. Stimuli were the Chinese restaurant ads from experiment 1, with affectively neutral congruent or incongruent background music used to manipulate resource requirements. To manipulate resource availability, half of the subjects in each congruity condition were given a distraction task (low resource availability); half were not (high resource availability). Both groups were toldthat an ad would be played; however, whereas the high availability group was told that they would be asked some opinion questions about the commercial, the low resource availability group was told to look for a missing card in a deck of playing cards. Printed instructions read: In a moment, an ad will begin playing and at that time you should begin searching for a card that is missing from a normal deck of playing cards. When the ad nishes, you should stop searching even if you have not yet found the missing card. Was advertised? Specically what was the name of the advertised product or service? And, Please list any facts or information that you can recall from the commercial. Please list as many as you can recall. The responses to these three questions were reliably coded by two independent judges (graduate students) with 92%

concordance; discrepancies were resolved via discussion. For the rst two questions, the judges coded one if the subject correctly identied the category (question 1) or brand name (question 2) and zero if the question were left blank or incorrectly an swered. For the third question, the judges assigned one point for each correct fact or piece of information identied and a zero if a particular fact was not recalled. Elaboration was measured by asking subjects to think back to the time during which the radio ad was playing. Try to recall all of the thoughts that were going through your head while the ad was playing. Write down your thoughts in as much detail as you can in the spaces below. These thoughts may or may not be about the commercial itself. Try to recall anything that went through your mind as you listened and report it as completely as possible. These responses were reliably coded into ve categories (unelaborated ad-related thoughts; elaborated ad-related thoughts, positive; elaborated ad-related thoughts, negative; card-sort thoughts; and idiosyncratic thoughts) by two independent judges (r p .86), with discrepancies resolved via discussion. An unelaboratedad-related thought would include a mention of an item in the ad that was not further qualied or elaborated. An elaborated ad-related thought would include a mention of an item in the ad plus an elaboration that associated this information either positively or negatively with some other event. A card-sort thought was a thought directly related to the card-sort task. An idiosyncratic thought is a thought that was unrelated in any way to the ad or the card-sort task. Next, the unelaborated ad-related thoughts were compared with the unaided recall data and any duplicates counted. Again, the two coders produced initially concordant judgments (r p .97), and discrepancies were resolved via discussion. An unduplicated factual recall score was calculated as the total unelaborated factual thoughts + total recall duplicate mentions. In this way, whether the subject recalled a fact during the recall question or during the total thought question, the fact was counted only once. The unduplicated factual recall scores ranged from zero to 10, with a mean score of 3.9 per subject. Finally, the unduplicated factual recall scores were added to the thoughts about the card-sort task to produce recall about the time period. An elaboration score was calculated as the total elaborated thoughts both positive and negative. This measure ranged from zero to 10, with a mean score of 2.3 per subject, and indicated the extent to which the recalled items were associated with events other than the focal event. Results Replication Results. Duration estimates ranged from 10 to 50 seconds, with an average estimate of 27.5 seconds Measures. Time perceptions were measured as in experiment 1. Additionally, recall was measured using three questions: What general category of products or services across all conditions. The data provide additional support for hypothesis 1. We observed a signicant interactive effect of resources available with resources required on perceived duration (F(1, 51) p 9.5; p ! .003, h 2 p .02) and no other statistical effects. This interaction shows a tendency toward longer estimates when resources are matched (M p 31.7) than when they are mismatched (M p 23.9, t p 3.09; p p .003), thus supporting hypothesis 1. Recall. To test hypothesis 2, ANOVAs and planned t- tests were performed using the recall about the time period measure and total elaborated thoughts measure separately (see table 1). The data support hypothesis 2. First, there is a signicant interactive effect of resources available and resources required (F(1, 51) p 27.0; p ! . 0001, h 2 p .05) as well as a signicant main effect of both resources available and resources required on recall about the time period (F(1, 51) p 5.9; p p .019, h 2 p 01; and F(1, 51) p 10.8; p p .019, h 2 p .02, respectively). The planned t-tests show that recall about the time period is signicantly higher among subjects with matched resources (M p 6.1) than among subjects with mismatched resources (M p 3.7, t p 4.57; p ! .0001). In addition, planned t-tests support hypothesis 2c and show that subjects with high

resources available and low resources required report on average 4.6 elaborations, which is signicantly higher ( p ! .02 ) than the remaining three cells where subjects report 1.1 (low RR/ low RA), 1.2 (high RR/low RA), and 1.9 (high RR/high RA) elaborations. Test for Mediation. Baron and Kennys (1986) framework for combining mediation and moderation was used to test hypotheses 3 concerning the mediating role of recall about the time period. In the previous section, the interaction of resources required and resources available is shown to inuence time estimates signicantly. The mediator (recall about the time period) is also signicantly affected by the interaction (F(1, 51) p 27.0; p ! .001), and the mediator is correlated with time perception (r p .42, p p .002). Finally, when recall about the time period is used as a covariate, the potential mediator signicantly affects time perception (F(1, 51) p 4.112; p ! .05), and the interaction and all main effects of the independent variables become non- signicant ( p 1 .1). Therefore, recall about the time period appears to mediate the relationship between resources matching and time perception. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Evidence from two experiments suggests that the interplay of resources available and resources required to process an event will shape time perception by inuencing elaboration, recall about the time period, and storage size. Across studies, ndings support the hypothesis that cognitive resources required and available will interact to inuence elaboration and recall associated with an event, thereby inuencing consumers retrospective estimates of the events duration. It appears that recall about the time period mediates the impact of resources required and available on time perception and that elaboration may work to associate some information from the ad into other storage locations in memory, thus minimizing the storage size associated with the adand minimizing the time estimate. Our data are consistent with Anand and Sternthals (1989) theoretical processing strategies in that subjects who have minimal resources available and ample resources required resort to heuristic processing retain little factual information about the time period and report short time estimates. Conversely, those with excess resources available and few resources required tend to elaborate on the information encountered and possibly store that information with other events in memory. This would tend to minimize the storage size associated with the focal event and explain the short time estimate reported. The current ndings provide insight into the process by which situationally induced resource limitations inuence time perceptions. Discussion These results provide insight into the process underlying retrospective time perception under conditions of varying resource availability and varying resource requirements. In addition, unelaborated thoughts about the time period are identied as a mediator. It appears that, when resources are matched, recall about the time period is higher and time estimates are longer than in mismatched cells. In addition, when resources available are limited yet resources required are high, it appears that subjects resort to heuristic processing and have low levels of recall and low levels of elaboration and that time estimates are short. Finally, in the most interesting condition, when resources available are high and resources required are low, the results appear to conform to the expectations of resource-matching theory. Subjects under this condition tend to report extensive elab- orations that tie the facts in the ad to other events in memory. Thus, this group reports low unelaborated recall about the time period and short retrospective time estimates. Limitations and Future Research Certain limitations of this study suggest opportunities for future research. For example, we examined perceptions of fairly brief (32 seconds) events. Further research is needed to examine inuences and

processes that shape perceptions of longer time intervals. Another limiting feature of our study is the operation of stimulus congruity. We manipulated verbalnonverbal congruity using concurrently presented stimuli. Future research should examine effects of other types of congruity, including (in)congruities within and across sensory modalities and between concurrently and contiguously presented informational cues. Finally, our study examined antecedents of time perception, but not consequences. Future research should examine consumption-relevant outcomes of perceived duration such as satisfaction and behavioral intent. Moreover, our current work focuses on retrospective (vs. concurrent) time perception under the assumption that the remembrance of time passage (vs. the experience of time passage) is what drives outcomes. This assumption can and should be tested. Conclusion This study has shown that retrospective estimates of event durations are inuenced by the interplay of cognitive resources, which appears to operate through reconstructive memory in a manner consistent with the resource-matching hypothesis. The more one remembers from and associates with a past event, the longer that event seems in retrospect. Hence, conditions that inuence recollection appear to inuence temporal perceptions. This suggests the intriguing possibility of using environmental cues such as music to shape consumers temporal perceptions in commercial applications, a topic that surely merits further study by consumer researchers. [Received July 1999. Revised July 2002 . David Glen Mick served as editor and Punam Anand Keller served as associate editor for this article.] REFERENCES Anand, Punam and Brian Sternthal (1989), Strategies for Designing Persuasive Messages: Deductions from the Resource Matching Hypothesis, in Cognitive and Affective Responses to Advertising, ed. Patricia Cafferata and Alice M. Tybout, Lexington, MA: Heath, 135159. (1990), Ease of Message Processing as a Moderator of Repetition Effects in Advertising, Journal of Marketing Research, 27 (August), 345353.

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