The Management of Wildlife Interactions With Overhead Powerlines

AFRICAN CENTRE FOR ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
The Management of Wildlife Interactions with Overhead Power Lines
Southern African Power Pool Environmental Sub-Committee Training Manual 13 August 2003
DISCLAIMER
USE OF ESKOM TRAINING MATERIAL 1. Eskom hereby grants permission to Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) representatives to use the material contained in this training manual for your own exclusive purposes. 2. This material may not be exploited for financial gain by you. 3. The use, application, or interpretation of the material is entirely at your own risk and neither you nor anybody else shall have any claim against Eskom arising out of the use of the material. 4. Eskom is under no obligation to advise you of and supply later versions of the material. 5. Eskom retains the right to refuse the supply of further material without incurring liability for loss or damage in the event of such refusal. 6. Eskom reserves the right to modify and change the material as and when it sees fit. 7. The material is and remains the property of Eskom, who has the exclusive right of dissemination and reproduction thereof. 8. The material is protected by copyright and you may not reproduce or transmit the material by any means except with the prior consent of Eskom in writing. 9. No rights of ownership in the material or licence to yourselves shall be deemed to pass with the supply of material to you. 10. Except as may be provided for in a separate agreement, Eskom shall not be obliged, by virtue of the supply of the material, to advise, interpret, analyse or otherwise give input on the material to you or any other person. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
African Centre for Energy and Environment (ACEE)

Contact details:
Contact person: Maria Couto C/O Technology Services International Private Bag 40175 Cleveland 2022 Johannesburg South Africa Tel: +27 (0) 11 629-5723 Fax: +27 (0) 11 629-5528 Maria.couto@ eskom .co.za http://www.acee.co.za
Contents
Page
Synopsis Section1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4: Section 5: Section 6: Section 7: Section 8: Section 9: Introduction Collision Mechanisms Versus Electrocution Mechanisms Species Involved in Collision Incidents Mitigation Techniques Electrical Faults Caused by Bird Excretions Birds Nesting on Overhead Line Structures Electrocutions Disturbance and Habitat Degradation How to Recognise Actual and Potential Animal Interaction Problems
1 2 3 11 12 17 32 40 57 58 60 61 64 65
Section 10: Concluding Remarks Section 11: References Section 12: About the Author Section 13: Appendices
Powerline collision sensitive species of conservation concern Distribution Technical Bulletin: Mitigation devices for bird/animal contact with 22 & 11 KV electrical equipment Distribution Technical Bulletin: Covering of jumpers on MV auxiliary Structures Distribution Technical Bulletin: Approved tested bird flapper Vulture electrocution risk areas Eskom Distribution Procedure: Raptor nests on powerline procedure
THE MANAGEMENT OF WILDLIFE INTERACTIONS WITH OVERHEAD LINES BY CHRIS VAN ROOYEN
SYNOPSIS A brief overview of the management of wildlife interactions with overhead lines is provided. Five major types of interactions are described. These are: bird collisions with overhead lines, electrical faults caused by bird excretions, the impact of birds breeding on overhead line infrastructure, electrocutions and the impact of construction and maintenance activities in the line servitude on wildlife and other animals in the vicinity.
African Centre for Energy and Environment (ACEE) Eskom Resources & Strategy
Page 1
1.
INTRODUCTION
Wildlife, especially birds, interacts with overhead lines both in a positive and a negative way. Bird collisions with overhead lines can be a major cause of unnatural mortality. Most heavily impacted upon are bustards, storks, cranes and various species of waterbirds. The most commonly used mitigation technique to reduce these collisions is to mark the line with anti-collision devices. Excreta from birds using the electricity structures to roost on can cause electrical faults. Recent research has discovered that the so-called bird streamers (long streams of bird excreta) exist as an important cause of faults. This problem can be solved through the fitting of anti-perching devices in high risk areas on overhead line structures. Electricity structures are an important nesting substrate for many birds. Large birds nesting above insulators can pollute insulator strings and cause streamer related faulting. Certain species use pieces of wire as part of their nesting material. These can cause flashovers when nests collapse and pieces of wire bridge the air gap between the live conductor and the tower structure. This problem can be addressed through a nest management strategy involving the re-location of nests coupled with appropriate perch management techniques. Electrocution is not a major problem on high voltage overhead lines due to large clearances, but depending on the design used, it can be a factor on 132kV structures. It is a major source of mortality and electrical faults on medium voltage lines. Various activities related to the construction and maintenance of overhead lines can have an impact on wildlife and other animals in the immediate vicinity of the servitude. These activities may cause disturbance to wildlife and livestock, and habitat degradation. This can be addressed through appropriate procedures aimed at limiting these impacts. As can be gathered from this brief introduction, the biological and business implications of wildlife interactions with overhead lines are such that they cannot be ignored. The management of these interactions must form a critical part of the overall integrated management strategy of the responsible electricity utility.
Page 2
2.
COLLISIONS OF BIRDS WITH OVERHEAD LINES A bird collision incident occurs when a bird physically strikes either the overhead phase conductor or the overhead shield (ground) wire of an overhead line. Experience in South Africa and elsewhere has shown that bird collisions with the shield wire are more common than collisions with the overhead conductor. It has been generally found that birds can usually avoid the highly visible bundled conductors on higher voltage overhead lines but often fail to see the smaller diameter shield wire [Alonso & Alonso 1999(a)].
Shield Wire
Figure 1: Visibility of shield wire in comparison to bundled conductors (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 2.1 COLLISION MECHANISM VERSUS ELECTROCUTION MECHANISM Bird electrocutions on the electrical infrastructure are often confused with bird collisions. Bird electrocution refers to the scenario where a bird is perched or attempts to perch on an electrical infrastructure, and causes an electrical short circuit by physically bridging the air gap between live components and/or other live and grounded components. This in turn causes a lethal current to flow through the body of the bird; burnt feathers are usually a sign of electrocution. In the case of a collision, the incident takes place when a bird fails to see the conductor and/or overhead shield wire while in full flight, and collides with it in mid-air. The primary cause of death or injury is the physical impact with the line. It is important to distinguish between the two mechanisms, as the wrong terminology can cause confusion and even lead to wrong conclusions and corrective actions or recommendations.
Page 3
2.2 2.2.1
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A COLLISION INCIDENT Locality of Carcass The dead bird is almost invariably found underneath the overhead line conductors in the centre of the span. Research in South Africa has established that very few collisions actually happen in the first and last 25% of the span [Anderson 2001]. Depending on the size of the overhead line, and the resulting height of the earthwire, and the speed at which the bird was traveling, the carcass may be found up to 50m from the line but usually the bird is found directly under or very close to the line.
Figure 2: Mid-span location of collision victim under the overhead line (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 2.2.2 Types of Injury The typical injuries that result from an overhead line collision are impact injuries such as a broken neck, broken wings and legs. Broken legs are a particularly common injury sustained by large terrestrial birds from an overhead line. When they finally see the overhead line, they will usually flare (brake with their wings and drop both their legs to reduce speed). In most of these cases the birds strike the overhead shield wire with their legs, resulting in broken legs.
Page 4
Figure 3: Injuries on Blue Crane collision victim (Photo: Vicki Hudson) 2.2.3 Species The species involved in the incident could give an indication of whether the bird was a victim of an overhead line collision or not. Experience in South Africa indicates that storks, flamingos, bustards, cranes and pelicans are particularly vulnerable to overhead line collisions (see appendix 1). 2.3 2.3.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE COLLISION RISK ASSOCIATED WITH OVERHEAD LINES Voltage Levels of Overhead Lines Involved All overhead lines pose a collision risk to birds. Research in South Africa suggests that there is a correlation between the physical size of the overhead line structure and its collision risk potential and that mortality rates increase with voltage magnitude. This is probably related to the height of the overhead shield wire [Anderson 2001]. However, there are exceptions to this general finding, for example where a small reticulation line borders on a particularly attractive area for birds such as a dam or wetland it can be as hazardous as a large overhead line.
Page 5
Figure 4: High bird collision risk with overhead line crossing wetland (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 2.3.2 Body Size and Flight Behaviour Species that possess a combination of a heavy body and small wing surface relative to their body weight are less maneuverable and therefore more prone to collisions. Many of them are terrestrial species, such as cranes, bustards and storks that spend the majority of their time on the ground and therefore have never experienced strong environmental pressures to evolve maneuverability as a flight characteristic. Another group is rapid flying gregarious species such as waterfowl [Alonso & Alonso 1999(b)]. Species that congregate in large flocks are also generally more vulnerable to collisions than solitary species [Alonso & Alonso 1999(b)]. Flocking reduces the space for negotiating obstacles, as well as reducing the visibility ahead for the trailing birds (see appendix 1). 2.3.3 Flight Height and Habitat Use The height at which birds fly is an important factor in collision incidents [Alonso & Alonso 1999 (b)]. During long distance migration flights, many larger birds fly at altitudes well above the height of overhead lines. Most collisions probably occur during short distance, low altitude flights, with a high frequency of overhead line crossings. Experience in the field indicates that these flights are mostly between foraging and roosting areas.
Page 6
2.3.4
Age Young birds (inexperienced flyers) are more vulnerable to collisions than experienced adult birds.
2.3.5
Resident versus Migratory Birds Most birds are tied to a fixed territory during the breeding season, and have an intimate knowledge of this territory. This reduces the chances of an overhead line collision. However, outside the breeding season individuals tend to form nomadic flocks depending on foraging and roost site availability, and move into unfamiliar areas. In extreme cases, they will undertake long distance migrations. Collision risks increase when birds move into unfamiliar terrain as has particularly been noted with storks and bustards in Southern Africa [Anderson 2001, van Rooyen & Ledger 1999].
Figure 5: Flock of nomadic Blue Cranes (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 2.3.6 Weather Collisions are often associated with inclement weather. High velocity winds increase the collision hazard for species crossing overhead lines at low altitudes, by decreasing their flight control and forcing them to fly lower than usual. During periods of heavy fog, mist or precipitation, many birds reduce their flight altitude, thereby bringing them into contact with overhead line structures [APLIC 1994]. Clear, full moon nights allow birds to fly after sunset,
African Centre for Energy and Environment (ACEE) Eskom Resources & Strategy Page 7
during which time enough light is available for flight, but overhead lines will not necessarily be visible.
Figure 6: High risk flying conditions due to mist increase collision risk (Photo: Kevin McCann) 2.3.7 Time of Day Many species leave roost sites before sunrise and return well after dark, times at which low light conditions prevail and visibility is poor. In addition to this, some species, notably flamingos migrate at night, when overhead lines are invisible [van Rooyen, Nelson & Kambouris 2001].
Figure 7: Flamingo flying at dusk (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)

2.3.8
Land use Land use can influence the potential for bird collisions with overhead lines because it can increase the attractiveness of habitats near overhead lines for foraging. Cultivated grain and pasture crops are often seasonally attractive to many species (for example cranes and storks), and are also often bordered on or bisected by overhead lines. This is especially so in arid areas where irrigated crops attract large numbers of birds. Therefore, the close proximity of overhead lines to regular feeding areas increases the potential for collisions through the increased daily low-altitude movements across these overhead lines between feeding areas traversed by lines. The hazard is further increased in agricultural areas where disturbances from farming activities, hunting or deliberate scaring of birds foraging on crops (or insects in the crops) results in birds being flushed into the air increasing the potential for colliding with overhead lines.
Figure 8: Agricultural fields are a favourite foraging area for many bird species (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 2.3.9 Topography Topographical features influence local and migratory movements of birds [APLIC 1994]. Features such as mountains, river valleys and shorelines are commonly used as flight corridors. Topographic features may also influence the visibility of overhead lines. Conductors may be obscured against a background, increasing the potential for collisions.
Page 9
Figure 8: River course forming typical flight path (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 10
3.
SPECIES INVOLVED IN COLLISION INCIDENTS Countless bird species have been recorded as collision victims with overhead lines. However, research has mostly concentrated on the impact of collisions on rare and threatened species, as unnatural mortality could contribute to the decline and eventual extinction of a species. Birds of conservation concern known to be vulnerable to overhead line collisions include various species of cranes, bustards, storks, vultures, eagles, flamingos, ibises, swans and geese (see Appendix 1). These species are mostly heavy-bodied birds with limited maneuverability; it is therefore very difficult for them to take the necessary evasive action to avoid colliding with overhead lines. When collision mortality is recorded on overhead lines, the services of an experienced ornithologist should be obtained to assist with the identification of the species. This is very important, as the conservation status of the species should influence the decision as to whether and what mitigation action should be taken.
Page 11
4. 4.1
MITIGATION TECHNIQUES MARKING OF POWERLINES Mitigation techniques have generally focused on making the overhead line more visible to birds [Alonso & Alonso 1999(a)]. Many marking devices have been applied, and show varying degrees of effectiveness. The two types that are commonly used are Bird Flight Diverters and Bird Flappers. A special fluorescent device for night-time collisions has been developed in South Africa.
4.1.1
Bird Flight Diverters Bird Flight Diverters (BFDs) were developed in Europe. Various studies have proved that the attachment of these devices onto overhead line conductors can significantly reduce the bird collision rates, by increasing the visibility of the overhead line [Alonso & Alonso 1999(a)]. However, some studies have found the contrary [Anderson 2001].
Figure 9: Bird Flight Diverter (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 12
Shieldwire marked with BFDs
Figure 10: Transmission overhead line shieldwire marked with BFDs (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 4.1.2 Bird Flapper Bird Flappers have been used in South Africa since 1995, but only since 2001 has a mechanically acceptable product been commercially available. The Bird Flapper has proved to be more effective than the Bird Flight Diverter (BFD) in comparative experiments [Anderson 2001, van Rooyen, Nelson & Kambouris 2001]. It has largely replaced the BFD as a mitigation device for bird collisions with overhead lines in South Africa. The bird flapper is installed on the overhead shield wire.
Figure 11: Bird Flapper (Photo: Barry Hill)
Page 13
Figure 12: Bird Flappers on a reticulation line (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 4.1.3 Fluorescent tubes
A South African manufacturer developed a special device to address nocturnal collisions with overhead lines. Flamingos are particularly vulnerable due to their habit of migrating at night [Williams & Velasquez 1997]. It is about one metre long and consists of a Perspex tube with a fluorescent tube inside. It is mounted on the conductors and is illuminated (or fired) by the ambient electrical field generated by the live phase conductors. It has been used in South Africa and Botswana, and is reported to have worked well for curbing flamingo mortality on overhead lines. No precise scientific data is available on the effectiveness but it is generally claimed to work well. Unfortunately, no information could be obtained on the lifetime of the device.
Page 14
Figure 13: South African manufactured fluorescent bird marker (Drawing: Mace Technologies) 4.1.4 Attachment methods and spacing Anti-collision devices are usually fitted using helicopter based live line techniques. Unfortunately, the high costs associated with helicopter flying time are a major stumbling block for any initiative that involves large scale fitting of devices to overhead lines. Research in the Netherlands has shown that spacing intervals have a major influence on the effectiveness of anti-collision devices [Koops & De Jong 1982]. In South Africa, the same has been found [Anderson 2001]. See Figure 14 for a suggested marking method with Bird Flappers.
5m
5m
Bird Flapper Shield wire
Bird Flapper
Figure 14: Marking method with Bird Flappers on overhead shield wires (viewed from above). Note that both the wires shown above are the shield or ground wires (flappers staggered).
Page 15
4.1.5
Removal of Overhead Shield Wire Because of the generally high levels of lightning activity in South Africa, nearly all overhead lines of 44 kV and above are fitted with protective shield wires. Most collisions on high voltage overhead lines are as a result of the presence of shield wires. These are significantly smaller in diameter than the phase conductors, which are often configured in bundles of 2, 3 or 4 individual conductors. The result is that birds tend to see the large conspicuous phase conductors, fly higher to avoid them and then collide with the shield wire. The removal of the shield wire in the affected sections, (but not over the entire length of the line), could therefore be a mitigation option. However, the feasibility of this would depend on the intensity of the local lightning activity, the line voltage, and distance from the nearest substation and the assessed risk to the network as a whole. Specialist technical guidance should always be sought before such a measure is to be considered.
4.1.6
Line Route The best mitigation technique is to route the overhead line along a route compatible with birds from the beginning. Integrated planning, which takes into account all the abovementioned factors, will allow the options that have the least impact on the environment to be selected. However, economic and technical considerations usually, but not always, carry more weight than biological issues in the decision making process.
Page 16
5. 5.1
ELECTRICAL FAULTS CAUSED BY BIRD EXCRETIONS POLLUTION VS STREAMER There are two ways in which bird excretion causes electrical faults on the towers of overhead lines, namely: 1) Repeated pre-deposition of excreta on ceramic line insulators 2) Bridging or (partial bridging) of the air insulation (live conductor to the tower structure) by means of a long ejected streamer of electrically conductive excreta Pre-deposition of excreta can cause what is known as a pollution flashover in the same way as do other forms of insulator pollution. The pollution flashover mechanism may be described as follows (in very simplified terms): Pre-deposited pollution may with time form a coating on ceramic (glass and porcelain) insulators. This coating is normally not conductive, but the addition of moisture could change that. When appropriate moisture levels are added to the pre-deposited pollution, the coating of pollution could become conductive and dry band arcing may develop on the insulator skirtings as a result of leakage current. As heat starts to build up, the arcing increases in size. As the individual arcs continue to increase in size, a continual arc may eventually develop across the entire insulator string. At this stage, a phase to earth flashover could take place. (For a description of the light wettinglight pollution flashover mechanism, see Bologna et.al 2001). In the case of silicone rubber polymer type insulators , the insulation properties of the insulator is not compromised by the mechanism described above to the same degree as with ceramic insulators. The hydrophobic qualities of the silicone rubber polymer insulator skirting prevents the formation of a continual plane of water which acts as a conductive path, thereby significantly reducing the probability of dry band arcing.
Page 17
Figure 15: Bird polluted insulator string on a 132kV overhead line (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) In the case of a bird streamer induced fault, the power arc created by the conductive excreta tends to follow a vertical path from the live conductor and related hardware directly across the air gap to the horizontal cross-arm of the tower. The burn mark caused by the arc root in this position is a distinguishing characteristic of the streamerinitiated fault, and can help to identify a fault as bird-related or not. By contrast, the path of the arc associated with a pollution flashover is usually across the insulator itself. In South Africa, experience seems to indicate that bird streamer faults are far more numerous than bird pollution faults. Between 1996 and 1999, 34% of all faults on the 275kV transmission grid in South Africa were calculated to have been caused by bird streamers, with only 4% attributed to pollution during the same period [Taylor et.al. 1999].
Page 18
Bird streamer
Figure 16: Yellowbilled Stork producing a bird streamer (Photo: Johann Knobel)
Figure 17: Bird pollution arc path vs. bird streamer arc path (Photo: Hein Vosloo) 5.2 TYPICAL INDICATORS OF A BIRD STREAMER FAULTING PROBLEM Bird streamers as a source of faults on overhead lines can be very difficult to identify, because they leave very little physical evidence that can be used to trace the fault back to the source. However, such faults tend to show a
African Centre for Energy and Environment (ACEE) Eskom Resources & Strategy Insulation
breakdown arc path typical pollution
Air gap breakdown arc path typical streamer
Page 19
characteristic pattern which makes it possible to identify them as having been caused by bird streamers.
5.2.1
Position of Flashmarks Experience has shown that the flashmarks of a suspected bird streamer fault are highly characteristic, but difficult to spot. Typically, the flashmarks will be situated on the steelwork directly above the live hardware and at the live end of the insulator string, i.e. on the yoke plate, first insulator disk or corona ring. There are no burn marks at the dead end of the insulator, as would be the case with a pollution induced fault. With strain towers, the burn marks are similarly situated on the jumper cable and on the tower steel works directly above.
Typical flashmark position Typical flashmark position
Figure 18: Bird streamer flash marks are typically located on the corona ring, yoke plate and directly above the conductor (Photos: Hein Vosloo) 5.2.2 Time of Faults Bird streamer faults tend to follow a highly distinctive bimodal, temporal pattern with peaks usually occurring in the early evening between 18h00 and 23h00 and again in the morning, between 04h00 and 08h00 [Burnham 1995, Macey & Vosloo 2001]. A possible explanation for this lies in the natural foraging behaviour of birds, in that they tend to forage away from the line in daytime, returning early in the evening to roost until the next morning. It is important to note that the provision of artificial food sources, for example, vulture feeding stations, could change the roosting behaviour of the birds and thereby affect the bimodal, temporal pattern typically associated with suspected bird streamer faults [van Rooyen 2001].
Thabazimbi-Amandel Combined 132kV

Unknown category faults May 2001 March 2002
3
Number
Dips
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of day
Page 20
Figure 19: Typical bird streamer related faulting pattern (Graph: Chris van Rooyen)
5.2.3
Tower Design The tower design plays a major role with respect to bird streamer related faults. Vertically configured designs with ample perching space on top of the tower away from the cross-arms, experience fewer faults than horizontally configured designs. The reason for this is probably that with the latter, the birds tend to roost relatively close to the conductors, therefore increasing the likelihood of flashovers. With the former, depending on the design, the birds tend to first utilise the available space on top of the tower, further away from the conductors, thereby reducing the risk of flashovers [Vosloo & van Rooyen 2001].
High risk
Low risk
Figure 20: Higher vs lower bird streamer risk designs on 400kV structures in South Afrca (Photo: Hein Vosloo) 5.2.4 Clearance The clearance between the conductor and the earth plane influences the probability of a streamer induced flashover. In one instance in South Africa, excessive faulting was experienced on two horizontal-configurations, parallel 400kV lines of similar design, but with a larger minimum air gap clearance (4.2m vs. 3.2m). The breakdown gradient on the line with the 4.2m air gap is 57.7 kV/m, while the beakdown gradient on the 3.2m line is 75.6 kV/m. Despite vultures utilising both lines, faults occurred only on the line with the smaller clearance [14]. It can be tentatively concluded that either the gradient of 57.7 kV/m for the 4.2m air gap is not high enough to cause a power arc (assuming streamers bridged the gap) or that streamers did not bridge the larger gap (or a combination of both). Reliable data on the breakdown and withstand gradients,
and streamer length will make it possible to predict, for given air gap clearances, whether streamer breakdown can occur or not. Breakdown will also depend on the resistivity of the streamer. This topic is being researched further, but in the meantime it is encouraging that a practical withstand distance seem to have been found for 400kV lines. 5.2.5 Faulted Phase A dominant faulted phase is a strong indication (but not necessarily unique) of bird streamer related faults. It seems that bird streamer related faults tend to be prevalent on the phase which is situated below the highest and/or most convenient perching space on the tower. On vertically configured designs, this usually results in the top phase (or phases in the case of double circuit towers) faulting disproportionately to the other phases as the birds tend to roost on the highest cross-arm [Vosloo & van Rooyen 2001]. With horizontally configured designs, the middle phase is often the dominant faulted phase, but this can be influenced by factors such as wind direction and shade for example birds will often sit on the side of the tower that offers the most shade in the afternoon or the most sun in the morning. [Taylor et.al. 1999].
Figure 21: Large birds usually prefer to roost on the highest part of a tower (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 5.2.6 Presence of Certain Bird Species Large predatory birds tend to create the biggest risk of flashovers. Species such as vultures, herons, certain ibises and stork species, eagles and large hawks are high risk species. The presence of these birds on the towers is a strong indicator that bird streamer faults could be experienced (even up to 400kV) because these birds are capable of producing large streamers that could physically bridge the air gap on a 132kV structure.
Page 22
Figure 22: Eagle, vulture and heron species have all been linked to streamer faults on overhead lines (Photos: Chris van Rooyen) 5.2.7 Presence of Dead Birds near Towers Although electrocution as a result of a bird streamer induced fault is a rare occurrence, it can occur. If dead birds with burn marks are found under structures with sufficient clearances to preclude any possibility of the bird having physically bridged the air gap with its body or wings, it is a strong indication that it could have been electrocuted or burnt by a bird streamer flashover. This must, of course, be correlated with a line fault at that position if at all possible. 5.2.8 Clustering of Faults in Certain Areas The clustering of streamer faults in certain areas could point to birds being attracted to certain sections of the line. This could be related to food for example vulture feeding stations or recently burnt veld (herons and storks), wetlands and/or agricultural activity or population explosions of insects or rodents. It could also be related to nesting activity on the towers, for example, heronries or large raptor nests, or topography vultures prefer to roost on towers that are situated on high topographical features such as hills and mountain ridges.
Figure 23: Agricultural activity and a dam may attract birds (Photograph: Chris van Rooyen
5.2.9
Bird Droppings and Pellets The presence of bird droppings on or near overhead line towers is an indication that birds are using it for roosting purposes. Careful examination of the locality of the heaviest pollution could give an indication of where the favourite roosting spots are. The presence of regurgitated pellets and prey remains under overhead line towers is also evidence that the structure is used by large birds for roosting. Analysis of the pellets can aid in the identification of the species.
Figure 24: Bird droppings under overhead line towers, indicating the presence of large birds (Photo: Hein Vosloo)
Figure 25: Small mammal skull below high voltage tower indicating presence of large raptor (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 24
5.2.10 Seasonality of faults Seasonal upsurges in faults are often related to an influx of migratory or nomadic birds into an area. For example, in South Africa, with a semi-arid climate, the onset of summer (the rainy season for most of the country) is associated with a significant increase in bird numbers and suspected bird streamer faults [Vosloo & van Rooyen 2001]. 5.3 PERCH MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM OF BIRD STREAMERS Perch management through the use of perch deterrents (bird guards) can be used to address the problem of bird streamer faults on overhead line towers. Bird guards have also proved to be very successful in addressing bird pollution of insulator strings and other hardware. However, several factors may influence the effectiveness of this measure. These factors are discussed below. 5.3.1 Critical Distance Experience indicates that a zone of just under one metre, on either side of the 400 kV conductor bundle would need to be protected from bird streamers. Reference For example, in South Africa, fitting bird guards one metre on both sides directly above the phase conductor has become the standard at all voltages (see critical distance in Figure 26 below). It is important to leave roosting space for the birds where they can roost without creating a risk of streamer flashovers. If this is not done, the birds will attempt to force their way onto the bird guards, injuring themselves and even displacing some of the guards with time. Alternatively, they might shift to other towers, perpetuating the problem. In South Africa, no suspected bird streamer faulting has been experienced on voltages over 400kV, presumably because the streamers can not bridge the air gap on structures larger than 400kV sufficiently to cause flashovers (see 5.3.4).
Page 25
1m
1m
Figure 26: A distance of one metre either side of the 400kV phase conductor is regarded as critical in protection against streamer faults (Photo: Hein Vosloo). 5.3.2 Outer Phases Faults will occur on the outer phases if the landing plates on strain structures are not fully protected, leaving roosting space for birds.
Page 26
Figure 27: Incorrectly fitted bird guards leaving the landing plates exposed (Photo: Hein Vosloo). 5.3.3 V-Strings versus I-Strings Although V-strings were originally thought of as more vulnerable to streamer faults than the I-strings, experience has now shown that the latter are also vulnerable and should also be protected with bird guards.
Page 27
5.3.4
Protecting Inside the Tower Faults also occur when birds enter and roost inside the boat of the tower [Vosloo & van Rooyen 2001].
Roosting space
Figure 28: Inadequately protected jumper cable on a 132 kV tower, leaving roosting space for birds within the critical distance (Photo: Hein Vosloo). 5.3.5 Environmental Factors Whilst a comprehensive bird guard fitting strategy along the entire line produces the best results, it is expensive. Cost per structure varies considerably because of differences in the design. Fitting only sections of a line can be very effective, provided the dynamics of the problem, especially the relationship between the sites of bird roosting and environmental factors such as topography, land cover and food sources, are properly understood. The assistance of an ornithological consultant should be obtained in this respect, in order to avoid costly mistakes. 5.4 5.4.1 BIRD GUARD SPECIFICATIONS Description Bird guards are designed to pose a physical barrier to birds to prevent them from perching in high risk areas on overhead line towers. The types used in South Africa and the USA consist of a square base with upright prongs and are manufactured from long life, non-conductive material that does not pose any danger to birds. High-density polyethylene (an organic polymer) has been treated to enable it to withstand extreme environmental conditions. Rods vary in length, depending on the need. The most common design is 500mm, but 800mm rods have also been used. Distance between the rods varies between 100-125mm.
Page 28
Figure 29: Types of bird guards used in South Africa and North America (Photo: Hein Vosloo). 5.4.2 Attachment Methods The preferred method of fitting bird guards is by means of stainless steel straps. This method is effective but has the disadvantage that the guards can only be removed (temporarily) for maintenance work (albeit temporarily) by physically cutting the strap. This can result in a situation where bird guards are removed and not replaced after maintenance. In order to facilitate maintenance work, quick release straps are available from a number of suppliers. These straps permit the partial removal of the bird guard by relaxing the tension on the strap and by pushing the guard out of the way, but without causing it to fall from the tower. Upon completion of the work, the bird guard is returned into position and the strap is re-tensioned. The concept of a quick release strap is a necessary part of a successful bird guard installation programme. 5.4.3 The effectiveness of bird guards in reducing streamer related faults In the course of 2002, Eskom in South Africa embarked on a comprehensive programme for the fitting of bird guards. Between July and December 2000, twenty-one of 48 lines earmarked for treatment with bird guards were completed (NBG1 in the graph below). The rest of the lines were fitted with bird guards by early 2002 (NBG2 in the graph below). Lines that were fitted prior to the programme (KZN lines in the graph below) were also monitored. The three groups of lines that have been fitted with bird guards constitute about 9 000km (one third of the total transmission system). The arrows indicate the time of installation of bird guards for each group of lines.
Page 29
Bird Faults per Groups

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 NBG2 20 0
NBG1 Lines not fitted
No of Faults
1 2 3 4
KZN lines
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Years
Figure 30: Bird streamer faults for four groups of overhead lines in South Africa and the response to suspected bird streamer faults after the fitting of bird guards (Graph: Hein Vosloo). The results show that the streamer faults for the transmission system at the end of 2001 have been the lowest since 1993. Interestingly, although slightly better, the best values of 2002 are similar to that in 1993. It must be pointed out that South Africa was experiencing a severe drought during the early nineties, as opposed to the wet conditions experienced at the end of that period. The groups of lines fitted with bird guards show a definite and undisputed drop in line faults, while those lines without bird guards still showed a rising trend in faults [van Rooyen, Vosloo & Harness 2003].
Page 30
6.
BIRDS NESTING ON OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES There are a variety of reasons why birds sometimes breed on electricity towers. The lack of alternative nesting sites such as trees and cliffs can force birds to nest on electricity towers as they offer the only suitable alternative. The safe and sturdy substrate offered by electricity towers is attractive, especially in areas where the natural substrate is unsuitable or scarce. In these circumstances, birds often deliberately choose electricity towers over natural sites [Boshoff 1993].
6.1 6.1.1
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BIRDS NESTING ON OVERHEAD LINE TOWERS Flashovers caused by nesting material Large birds such as eagles, vultures, storks and herons use large sticks to build their nests. In the case of large species, these sticks can exceed one metre in length. These nests are very sturdy and can stay in shape for many years, if used annually by the birds. However, it sometimes happens that large sticks protrude below the nest. These sticks can constitute an intrusion into the air gap between the conductor and the grounded structure, which could, depending on the length of the intrusion, result in a flashover during wet conditions. Crows often incorporate wire and other conductive material into their nests. This could constitute a flashover risk if it protrudes into the air gap. Crows tend to opportunistically use plenty of man-made material when building their nests. Pieces of rope and baling twine also get woven into crows' nests. When the rope or twine gets wet, it becomes conductive and may cause flashovers in the manner described above. It was recently postulated that nest-building crows can also cause flashovers when they fly into the air gap with long pieces of wire in their bills.
Protruding wires
Figure 31: Collapsing crow nest with protruding wires (Photo: Chris van Rooyen).
In some parts of Africa, Sociable Weavers build massive colonial nests, with a diameter of up to 7 metres. The nests are made of stiff grass and can weigh up to 1000 kilograms. Redbilled Buffalo Weavers live in colonies and build large untidy nests of sticks with several entrance chambers. These nests are smaller than those of Sociable Weavers, but with time they can cover large areas of the structure. Sociable Weavers occur throughout most of Namibia, and large parts of southwestern Botswana, and South Africa. Their distribution has expanded due to the use of artificial nesting sites such as electricity poles. Electricity poles form ideal nesting structures because they contain a strong horizontal support in the cross-arm, provide free access from below unobstructed by small branches and leaves and provide numerous crevices for the firm attachment of grass straws during nest building. The birds may also have learned that nests on artificial structures are inaccessible to predators. The use of power line poles as Sociable Weaver nesting sites can have a major impact on quality of supply. During rain, the nests cause phase to earth and phase to phase outages. During this process, insulators as well as cross-arms are damaged and veld fires may also result. Research in South Africa has indicated that the best way to deal with the Sociable Weavers that are nesting on distribution poles is to accommodate the birds on the poles. This minimizes the disturbance to the colony, and thus does not cause the birds to split into more colonies, which then causes problems on a number of poles, compounding a problem that was originally specific to the one pole. However, in order to accommodate the bird nests on the pole, it is essential that the birds be encouraged to accept relocated nests that are moved onto accommodative structures. It has been suggested, through the preliminary research, that the percentage success of the accommodative structures is acceptable, as long as the process of moving the nest is followed correctly [Meyer 2002].
Figure 32: Relocated Sociable Weaver nest

6.1.2
Flashovers Caused by Bird Streamers from the Occupants of the Nest Raptors and other large birds such as herons and storks defecate by projecting a stream of excreta clear of the nest. If the nest is situated in a critical area above the conductor, a streamer by a bird on or near the nest can cause an air gap breakdown and result in a flashover (see discussion of bird streamer faults above).
6.1.3
Flashovers Caused by Bird Pollution from the Occupants of the Nest Another problem associated with bird nests is pollution of the ceramic insulator strings with excreta. If the nest is situated above an insulator string, the disks may get polluted and in time cause an insulation breakdown (see discussion of pollution flashover mechanism above).
Figure 33: African Whitebacked Vulture nest showing pollution of the vertical insulator string. This nest also carries a high risk of streamer faults due to the position above the conductor (Photo: John Ledger). 6.1.4 Fire When nests cause flashovers, the nesting material may catch fire. This in turn can lead to equipment damage or a general veld fire. Apart from the cost of replacing damaged equipment, the resultant veld fire can potentially lead to claims for damages from landowners. 6.2 DEFINITIONS Active nest: The nest forms the core of the territory occupied by a resident pair of birds which use it for breeding purposes. The nest may or may not contain eggs or nestlings, depending on the stage in the breeding cycle.
Page 33
Inactive nest: The nest is located within a vacant or occupied territory and is not used at all for breeding purposes. NB: A NEST WITHOUT EGGS OR NESTLINGS DOES NOT MEAN IT IS PER DEFINITION INACTIVE. An active nest can be recognised by a combination of the following: Whitewash on the nest, the infrastructure around and below the nest, and on the ground below the nest. Prey remains (skulls, feathers, skin, bones and scales) and regurgitated pellets in and below the nest. The presence of nestlings or eggs (only during the breeding season). Nest cup containing green lining (twigs and leaves). The presence of birds on and in the immediate vicinity of the nest.
Figure 34: An active Martial Eagle nest containing an egg and green lining (Photo: Chris van Rooyen). An inactive nest lacks all of the above characteristics
Page 34
Figure 35: Inactive eagle nest. Note lack of green lining in nest cup (Photo: Chris van Rooyen 6.3 LEGAL IMPLICATIONS Actions that are taken with regard to nesting birds on overhead lines could have legal implications, as many birds (particularly raptors and storks) are protected by law in many countries. Disturbing them could thus be a contravention of the law. Care should be taken that the necessary permits are obtained before any work relating to nesting birds is performed. 6.4 6.4.1 SOLUTIONS Large Bird Nests Posing a Risk of Flashovers In the case of active nests of large species (raptors, storks or herons), nest removal is not a very desirable option, for various reasons: Nest removal is not a permanent solution, because the birds could rebuild the nest in the same place or elsewhere and cause new problems. Several large birds, particularly raptors and storks, are threatened, and the removal of their nests could result in breeding failure or abandonment of the area. Bad public relations. Many landowners cherish their raptors and/or storks, and are very protective of them. If the nest is deserted, nest removal could be an effective remedy, and no permit will be required.
Page 35
When a large, active nest poses a problem to the power supply because of nest material intruding into the air gap, future problems can be avoided by trimming any sticks from time to time that could potentially cause flashovers. The advantages of this approach are: Minimum interference with the birds' breeding activities (if done outside the breeding season) Less invasive than nest relocation, therefore less chance of birds deserting the nest. The potential problem is confined to the structure where the nest is located. Good public relations.
If an active large nest poses a chronic and serious risk to the power supply, either through nest material or streamers from the occupants of the nest, it may be necessary to relocate the nest to a different structure or to a different place on the structure. Relocation of raptor and stork nests can be successful if done in conjunction with a nesting platform, and if bird guards are placed in the area from where the nest was removed to prevent them from rebuilding the nest at the same spot. Ideally, the nesting platform must be placed in an area that has plenty of shade and leaves them enough space to access the nest. The advantages of this approach are: Long term solution Minimum interference with the birds breeding activities, if done outside breeding season The potential problem is removed, without impacting on the birds breeding success. Good public relations
Figure 36: Example of a nesting platform in the waist of a 400kV tower (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 36
Breeding raptors (and some storks) are generally known to be very sensitive to disturbances at their nests and readily desert a nest if it is disturbed beyond their threshold of tolerance. Some species can be remarkably tolerant of extended periods of disturbance, for example, certain falcon species. Others, especially large eagles, can be the very opposite and will readily desert an active nest at the slightest provocation. The greatest risk is at the beginning of the breeding season when eggs have not yet hatched, and at the end of the breeding season when the chick might be frightened into premature flight and injure or kill itself. When any form of work (maintenance, nest trimming, nest relocation) is required on a overhead line tower containing an active raptor or stork nest with eggs and nestlings, a conflict of interest between the utility crew and the breeding birds is more than likely. However, several steps can be taken to accommodate the interests of both parties. If the work is not urgent, it should be postponed till after the breeding season. A suitably qualified and experienced ornithologist should be present to assist with on site advice during the work operation. Depending on the situation on site, suitable mitigation measures could include: Restriction of the activity time on the tower to a minimum If necessary, lowering of the eggs or nestling(s) to the ground for safekeeping by a suitably qualified person until the work has been completed.
6.4.2
Crow Nest Posing Risk of Flashovers Removal of active nests is not recommended for the following reasons: Some raptor species make use of crow's nests. In such a case, the nest is regarded as a raptor nest and may not be removed, unless a permit is obtained from the relevant authority. Removal of the nest will trigger nest building behaviour from the crows and the problem will soon re-appear in the same spot or elsewhere if no additional mitigation measures are taken. If the nest is deserted, nest removal could be an effective remedy.
Relocation of crows nests to a nesting platform can be successful if used in conjunction with a nesting platform and bird guards are placed in the area from where the nest was removed to prevent them from rebuilding the nest at the same spot. The nest should be relocated to an area away from the conductors to prevent pieces of metal falling into the air gap. Ideally the nesting platform must be placed in an area that has plenty of shade and will not tempt the crows to fly into the window between the conductor and the grounded steel beams of the tower, but leaves them enough space to access the nest. Crows are territorial; therefore it is unlikely that another pair will build their nest on the same structure. It may however happen that a resident pair builds more than one nest on the same structure. It is therefore advisable to cover all high risk nesting areas on the structure with bird guards to prevent any nest building there. The advantages of nest relocation are: Long term solution.
Page 37
No impact on protected species that use crows nests for breeding purposes, for example, falcon species.
Figure 37: Bird guards correctly placed to deter crow nests (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 38
7.
ELECTROCUTIONS Electrocutions of birds on overhead lines are an emotional issue as well as an important cause of unnatural mortality of raptors and storks. It has stimulated much research in Europe, USA and South Africa [van Rooyen & Ledger 1999].
7.1
ELECTROCUTION MECHANISM Electrocution in this instance refers to the scenario where an animal (usually a bird) causes an electrical short circuit by physically bridging the air gap between live components and/or other live and grounded components. This in turn causes a lethal current to flow through the body of the animal. Burn marks and contracted claws are typical signs of electrocution.
Burn marks
Contracted claws
Figure 38: Electrocuted Tawny Eagle (Photograph: Chris van Rooyen) 7.2 7.2.1 FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF ELECTROCUTION Line Design and body size Two design factors make a line hazardous to an animal: (1) live components that can be contacted simultaneously by the animal and (2) grounded hardware and an energised component that can be contacted simultaneously by the animal. Electrocution risk is therefore essentially a function of clearances and body size.
Page 39
Phase to earth electrocution on an 88kV steel structure
Imminent phase to phase electrocution
Figure 39: Example of a phase to earth electrocution (left) and an imminent phase to phase electrocution (right). (Photographs: John Ledger and Chris van Rooyen) Examples of high electrocution risk designs:
88kV Kite steel
88/132kVk
Phase-earth electrocution risk
Page 40
11/22kV pole transformer
11/22kV vertically configured
Grounded components
Phasephase and phase earth electrocution risk
Phasephase electrocution risk for vultures
132kV Steel/concrete
Grounded components
Grounded components
Phase-earth electrocution risk Phase-earth electrocution risk
Page 41
Phasephase electrocution risk
Ground wire
Arcing horns
Phase-earth and phase-phase electrocution risk
7.2.2. Moisture Wet feathers increase conductivity and hence increase the risk of electrocutions. Experiments to determine the conductivity of a live eagle conducted in the USA revealed the following [Nelson 1979]: wet feathers burned at 5,000 to 7,000 volts making these voltages dangerous to eagles when wet; there was no measurable current through a dry feather at 70,000 volts; there is little or no possibility of electrocution of dry eagles from wing-tip contacts with two electric conductors; skin-to-skin contact were in the order of ten times more dangerous than contacts between a wet eagle and two conductors, and about 100 times more dangerous than contacts between conductors and dry feathers; the hazard to wet birds is much greater than that to dry ones, and increases even more because, when wet, the birds lose some flight capability and control. The chances of a birds being electrocuted when wet, are increased by their habit of spreading their wings to dry out (known as sunning).
Page 42
Figure 40: African Whitebacked Vulture in sunning posture (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 7.2.3 Fighting, mating and flocking Fighting, mating and gregarious roosting increase the risk of electrocution in that the birds could loose their footing and plunge between conductors, while birds sitting together close to each other between live parts increase the risk of them bridging clearances.
Figure 40: Gregarious roosting increases the risk of electrocution (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)
Page 43
7.2.4
Age The age of birds is another contributing factor and young birds are particularly vulnerable to electrocution. Young inexperienced birds are generally clumsy at flying and perching on structures. This increases the risk of loosing their footing and making contact with live components.
Figure 41: Young birds are generally clumsy when attempting to land (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 7.2.5 Topography Lethal poles on higher topographic relief increase the risk of electrocutions. This can be ascribed to the greater view of the surrounding terrain, thus making them more attractive as perches. Vultures in particular greatly favour poles that are situated against hill slopes, presumably because less energy is expended to get airborne.
Favourite perch
Page 44
Figure 42: Raptors prefer to perch on poles on higher topographic relief (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 7.2.6 Alternative perches Lack of alternative perches forces birds to sit on electricity poles. Most electrocution problems in South Africa are experienced in areas where few large trees are found.
Figure 43: Lack of alternative perches increases the risk of electrocution (Photograph: Chris van Rooyen) 7.2.7 Food sources Food outbreaks (for instance grasshoppers or rodents) or other sources of food (for example open air abattoirs) draw birds to an area, and increase the risk of electrocution
Figure 44: Vultures at a carcass (Photo: Gerhard Verdoorn)
Page 45
7.3 7.3.1
SPECIES Vultures These birds are particularly at risk of being electrocuted due to their large wingspan, which can easily bridge the horizontal distance between phase-toearth or phase-to-ground components of reticulation and sub-transmission networks. The gregarious nature of the species lends it to multiple electrocutions especially when an animal carcass is located in close proximity to a structure. Their gregarious nature and habit of roosting together makes them particularly vulnerable to electrocution on vertically configured reticulation structures, as they tend to attempt to sit on the conductors and insulators which are very unstable perches for large birds. In the process, they often end up between the conductors.
Figure 45: The Lappetfaced Vulture is very vulnerable to electrocutions on vertically configured reticulation structures (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 7.3.2 Large eagles Medium to large eagle species such as the Martial Eagle, Black Eagle, Crowned Eagle and Tawny Eagle can bridge the horizontal distance between phase-to-earth or phase-to-ground components of reticulation and subtransmission networks. They often use electricity pylons to hunt and to roost on. It will often after a successful hunt, perch on electricity pylons to devour their prey. Structures posing the biggest risks are terminal or pole mounted transformer structures and T-structures with pin insulators.
Page 46
Figure 46: Large eagles like Black Eagles are vulnerable to electrocution on reticulation structures (Photo: Chris van Rooyen) 7.3.3 Owls Large owls like the Spotted Eagle Owl, Cape Eagle Owl and Giant Eagle Owl are particularly vulnerable to electrocution on pole mounted transformers and switchgear.
Figure 47: Owls are very vulnerable to electrocution on pole mounted transformers 7.3.3 Guineafowl Guineafowl are highly gregarious and roost on overhead lines (conductors and hardware) often causing conductor sag and flashovers on vertically configured lines.
Page 47
Figure 48: Helmeted Guineafowl (Photo: Albert Froneman) 7.3.4 Primates Baboons and monkeys often get electrocuted on various types of electrical infrastructure. The problem is often associated with areas of agriculture where the animals raid crops.
Figure 49: Chacma Baboon with burn marks from electrocution (Photo: Eskom) 7.3.5 Genet cats Cat-like animals with long slender body, short legs and a long tail. They are predominantly nocturnal and rest during the day in holes in the ground or holes
in tree-trunks. They feed on mice, rats, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, birds and snakes. Often causes flashovers within substations and on pole-mountedswitching-gear when it climbs onto equipment in search of nesting birds.
Figure 50: The Smallspotted Genet often get electrocuted in subsbtations when pursuing nesting and roosting birds (Photo: Chris van Rooyen). 7.3.6 Giraffe Species is characterised by their long neck. The tallest Giraffe on record measured 5,88m (by Shortridge during 1934, Kenya). This is exceptional as the average height is about 4,9m to 5,2m for males and 4,3m to 4,6m for females. Measurements taken in South Africa of male Giraffes ranged from 4,86m to 5,27m. The species are often electrocuted on reticulation networks where the ground clearance is less than 5,2m. 7.4 7.4.1 MITIGATION MEASURES Bird safe designs The best way to avoid bird electrocutions is to use low risk designs in the first place.
Page 49
Examples of low risk designs for birds:
Jumper cables are suspended below the cross-arm
Insulators are suspended below the crossarm.
Insulators are suspended below the crossarm. Note absence of groundwire
Note covered jumper cables and switchgear mounted on the transformer box
Page 50
7.4.2
Modification of bird unsafe structures Examples of modified structures

Perch to lure birds away from hardware
Insulated centre phase
Insulating sleeves Gapped ground wire
Perch deterrents Perch deterrents
Page 51
Standard ACSR conductor, i.e. Squirrel, Fox Mink or Hare depending on the requirements for the specific installation should be used for the jumpering on MV auxiliary structures. The ASCR conductors are then covered with LDPE LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) pipe. The pipe is black in colour, is UV stabilised and has an inside diameter of 20mm and an outside diameter of 24mm. Covering ASCR with LDPE pipe has the following advantages: Mechanically strong. The ASCR conductor is reinforced with steel and is therefore mechanically strong. Moisture is not trapped in the conductor. The pipe fits loosely over the conductor, water will therefore drain automatically allowing the conductor to dry out. The current rating of the jumpers and the line conductors are the same. The LDPE pipe can accommodate all the standard MV conductors. The overall diameter of Hare conductor is 14.2 mm, the inside diameter of the LDPE pipe is 20 mm. Easy to install. The pipe is simply slipped over the conductor.
The covered jumpers must in all instances be treaded as bare, live conductor. The phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground and safety clearances that are required for bare jumpers must be maintained. The LDPE covering will therefore not be stressed continuously. The pipe is only required to provide momentary insulation when the wings of a bird touch two phases or a small animal touches a jumper. The sixty second power frequency withstand voltage of the 2mm thick LDPE pipe is in excess of 19kV (phase-to-ground voltage for a 33kV network) and the breakdown voltage is approximately 38kV. LDPE pipe is thus more than adequate for the standard voltage range of the MV standard, i.e. 11kV, 22kV & 33kV. 7.4.2 Primates (Baboons and monkeys) Jumper downleads on pole-mounted transformers can be insulated. Bushings can be insulated with bushing covers. Electric fencing can be effective, but only if no large trees are close by with branches overhanging the fence (the animals may gain access via tree branches). 7.4.3 Genet cats A product known as the 3M Electrostatic Animal Guard has been used to prevent Genet cats from climbing onto equipment. The device generates a non-lethal charge that repels the animal. The device is placed on the top skirt of bushings on the LV side of equipment within substations. Another product that has been used is the squirrel guard that creates physical barriers and is placed around the bottom skirt of bushings. It must be pointed out that these devices have had mixed results in the field in South Africa. Good results have been obtained with electric fences, provided no gaps are left for the animals to obtain access. The problem of genet cat electrocutions needs further research.
Page 52
Figure 51: Electrostatic Animal Guard (Photo: Eskom)
Figure 52: Squirrel guards (Photo: Eskom) 7.4.4 Giraffes The following table could be used when determining minimum clearances for Giraffes for new and existing powerlines:
Page 53
1 * SYSTEM NOMINAL VOLTAGE
2 * MINIMUM ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE IN MM
3 SURVEY TOLERANCE IN MM
4 HEIGHT OF GIRAFFE ACCEPTED IN MM
5 MINIMUM CLEARANCE FOR GIRAFFES IN MM 5 700 5 820 5 930 6 040 6 270 6 340 6 700
11 200 200 5 300 22 320 200 5 300 33 430 200 5 300 44 540 200 5 300 66 770 200 5 300 88 840 200 5 300 132 1 200 200 5 300 Table 1: Suggested minimum clearances for giraffes (Source: R. Kruger) * Standard electrical and working clearances S.L.D.G. 2-2/0, Table 1.
Please note that the minimum clearance in column 5 is all higher than the specified minimum clearances according to Section 15 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, No 85 of 1993 (which is a minimum of 5.2m for 11kV). It must be stressed that aspects such as topography and must be taken into account during the design. All live cables on switchgear, pole mounted transformers and should also be above the recommended height (table insulated (see above). 7.5 the type of structure points and bridging off line substations 5), or alternatively,
BUSINESS RISKS ASSOCIATED TO ELECTROCUTION OF ANIMALS Electrocutions may have a serious organisational impact on system reliability, and may have major economic impact. Nearly all industrial sectors are computerised and even with automatic reconnection, a flash caused by an electrocuted animal can be destructive to the industry. This can be extremely annoying to customers, especially the agricultural sector: since even a flash in the electricity supply causes single phase pumps supplying water to dams and livestock to trip, which in turn have to be started manually. Apart from the direct and indirect organisational impact caused by electrocution incidents, birds and birding can have a substantial local, regional and international economic value. The worth of South Africas birds in net present value is some R1.64 - 3.48 billion with each bird species being worth R2.2 - 4.7 million in present terms [Turpie & Ryan 1998]. Hence, the importance of reducing electrocution of animals through the implementation of cost effective mitigation measures has benefits to both the electrical industry and to society as a whole.
7.6
ORGANISATIONAL IMPACT OF BIRD ELECTROCUTIONS As many as 77% of Norwegian power companies have recognised birds as energy breakers. A survey of 560 electric utilities in the USA by Southern
Page 54
Engineering company found that animals are the third leading identifiable cause of all power outages, and birds cause more outages than any other animal. According to the surveyed utilities, raptors and other birds were the number one cause of transmission outages in the Western United States. Animals are the second greatest cause of all Edisons substation outages. Animal caused substation outages on Georgia Power Company systems last an average 50.62 minutes and cost US$15,000 (U.S.) each. In a study conducted by Harness (1998) 82% of precise raptor electrocution dates were tied to power outages. Dedon & Colson (1987) reported average revenue lost through bird-caused outages amounting to US$354,129 per year during the period 1983 through 1986 on Pacific Gas and Electric Companys electricity networks. The average annual repair cost for bird-caused outages during the same period was approximately US$226.000. Although the direct annual revenues lost for birdcaused outages may not be great, customer interest in a reliable system is paramount and necessary in a competitive market place (Dedon & Colson 1987). In South Africa, a minimum of 10 700 animal-related outages with a total duration of 25 630 hours were reported on Eskom systems, affecting approximately 136 533 customers over a 16 year period. Birds caused approximately two thirds of these outages (Naidoo 1997). Records from the Eskom Distribution North Western Region (one of Distributions seven regions) outage reports over a seven month period (January 1997 to July 1997), indicated that 449 wildlife interactions occurred. The organisational impact in terms of loss of revenue was R206 657.00, and a total of 6573 customers were affected (R. Kruger unpublished data). Electrocution of Cape Griffons caused momentary interruptions and longer interruptions of 19, 44, 55, 68, 70 and 137 minutes were reported by Ledger (1984). Furthermore, Ledger (1984) reported damage to centre phase conductor, or actual breakage of one or more strands of the conductor due to prolonged arcing from phase to earth. One such incident resulted in a 14 hour interruption that occurred on the Whites-Slurry 88 kV kite construction line, in the North-West province in South Africa. Electrocuted Cape Griffons have caused fires in grasslands (Ledger & Annegarn 1981), and during 1998 Eskom received a compensation claim for a fire in grassland, reportedly caused by a Vulture being electrocuted, resulting in the conductor being burned off and starting a grassfire (R Kruger unpublished data). 7.7 LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS FOR REPORTING OF ANIMAL ELECTROCUTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MITIGATION MEASURES Although there is legislation protecting animals in southern Africa, none mandates the reporting of electrocuted animals. In contrast to this, Moon Lake Electric Association in the USA was sentenced to three years probation in 1999 for electrocuting 17 eagles and hawks. The utility pleaded guilty to six violations of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Eagle Protection Act. Under the settlement Moon Lake agreed to pay a $100,000 fine and enter into a Memorandum of Understanding with conservation authorities, aimed at modifying their system to make it electrocution safe for birds. This court case have proved to be a wake-up call to utilities without sound environmental management programs, and the negative publicity Moon Lake
Page 55
Electric Association attracted, has certainly tarnished their image and reduced their market share. 8 DISTURBANCE AND HABITAT DEGRADATION During the construction phase and maintenance of overhead lines, some habitat destruction and alteration inevitably takes place. This happens with the construction of access roads, and the clearing of servitudes. Servitudes have to be cleared of excess vegetation at regular intervals in order to allow access to the line for maintenance, to prevent vegetation from intruding into the legally prescribed clearance gap between the ground and the conductors and to minimise the risk of fire under the line which can result in electrical flashovers. Construction and maintenance activities could have an impact on birds and animals (including livestock) present in or in close proximity to the servitude, both through alteration of habitat and disturbance caused by human activity. 8.1 DISTURBANCE Overhead lines are an important nesting substrate for large raptors and storks. These birds can be highly susceptible to disturbance, for example helicopter line inspections, and should this disturbance take place during a critical time in the breeding cycle for example when the eggs have not hatched or just prior to the chick fledging, it could terminate the breeding effort. Livestock or game may panic when helicopter line inspections and maintenance are conducted. This could lead to injury or death when they collide with fences or stay wires during a stampede. 8.2 HABITAT DEGRADATION Sensitive habitat, particularly wetlands, should be avoided as far as possible during the construction of overhead lines, as access roads can cause major damage to these sensitive systems. If wetlands cannot be avoided, careful planning of construction activities should prevent any access roads from impacting on wetlands. Wetlands must be rehabilitated to their original condition if the wetlands have been damaged by construction activities. Many threatened species, for example certain crane species, are entirely dependant on wetlands for their survival.
Page 56
9.
HOW TO RECOGNISE ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL ANIMAL INTERACTION PROBLEMS In the following section, indicators of various types of animal interaction problems will be discussed, which could help to identify the actual or potential problem at hand. The purpose of this section is to provide a quick reference to the identification of an actual or potential wildlife interaction problem.
9.1
ELECTROCUTIONS The following indicators (usually in combination) are indicative of a BIRD ELECTROCUTION problem in a specific area: Unexplained auto-reclosure type faults that occur in clear weather conditions on voltages from 11kV to 88kV and sometimes 132kV. Presence of large birds in the area where the faults occur, especially vultures, eagles, crows, herons, Egyptian Geese, Spurwing Geese, Hadeda Ibis and Helmeted Guineafowl. Absence or scarcity of alternative roosting and perching substrate like cliffs, trees and buildings. Agricultural activity, especially irrigation and fallow lands. Arid habitat with water reservoirs coupled with pole transformers in close proximity. Presence of bird carcasses lying directly under the pole. BIRD STREAMERS The following indicators (usually in combination) are indicative of BIRD STREAMER induced faults in a specific area: Faults occur mostly at night on voltages from 66kV up to 400kV. Absence or scarcity of alternative roosting and perching substrate like cliffs, trees and buildings. Typically, flash marks will be situated on the steelwork in the middle of the tower directly above the live hardware and at the live end of the insulator string on the yoke plate, first insulator disk or the corona ring. There are no burn marks at the dead end of the insulator, as would be in the case of a pollution induced fault. In the case of strain towers, the burn marks are similarly situated directly above the conductor on the tower steel works The presence of large bird species potentially capable of perching on, or known to perch on towers. Several species can cause excreta-related faults, but the main suspected culprits are large raptors (eagles and vultures), and certain species of herons and water birds. Typical indicators of a possible bird problem are the presence of large birds breeding on electricity towers or in trees nearby, or birds roosting communally on the towers. The presence of bird excreta on and below the tower. Often, in the case of raptors and herons, the ground below regular roosts will also be littered with regurgitated pellets consisting of prey remains such as bones, hair and scales. The presence of food sources such as vulture restaurants, wetlands and dams. Agricultural activity, especially freshly ploughed or planted fields and irrigated crops.
9.2
Page 57
9.3
Line fault patterns showing a clustering of faults could be linked to food sources, breeding colonies or suitable habitat like wetlands. Breeding large eagles, on the contrary, display evenly spread faults along the line, which coincides with territories if these birds. Seasonality of faults. Birds respond very quickly to favourable environmental conditions. If faults show a seasonal pattern, they could be related to annual rainfall in an area, which results in good veld conditions, which means food is readily available. Sudden upsurge of faults. Unusually good rains can cause birds to flock to an area and start breeding. This in turn can lead to an upsurge of faults when the birds roost on the powerlines in the vicinity. Presence of bird carcasses under the electricity structures. COLLISIONS The following indicators (usually in combination) are indicative of a BIRD COLLISION problem in a specific area:
Unexplained auto-reclosure type faults that occur at dawn and dusk in clear weather conditions on 11kV and 22kV lines. Presence of large birds in the area, especially waterbirds, cranes, storks and bustards. Presence of water bodies. Agricultural activity, especially freshly ploughed and planted fields and irrigated crops. Bird carcasses found mid-span and not directly under the electricity structures. Sudden upsurge of faults caused by good rains that cause birds to flock to an area.
Page 58
10.
CONCLUDING REMARKS Overhead lines constitute an unnatural intrusion into the natural environment, and as such have an impact on it. In the case of birds, these impacts can be positive or negative, depending on the context and surrounding circumstances. Most of the negative impacts can be effectively addressed provided the problem is well understood. It is intended that the knowledge imparted in these pages will assist the reader to better deal with and manage those impacts in a sustainable manner.
Page 59
11.
REFERENCES Alonso J A and Alonso J C, Collision of birds with overhead transmission lines in Spain. In: Ferrer M and Janss F E (eds), Birds and powerlines, Quercus, Madrid, 1999, pp57 - 82. Alonso J A and Alonso J C, Mitigation of bird collisions with transmission lines through groundwire marking. In: Ferrer M and Janss F E (eds), Birds and powerlines, Quercus, Madrid, 1999, pp113 124. Anderson, M D, The effectiveness of two different marking devices to reduce large terrestrial bird collisions with overhead electricity cables in the eastern Karoo, South Africa. Karoo Large Terrestrial Bird Powerline Project, Directorate Conservation & Environment (Northern Cape), Kimberley, 2001. Avian Powerline Interaction Committee (APLIC), Mitigating Bird Collisions with Power Lines: The State of the Art in 1994. Edison Electric Institute, Washington D.C. 1994, pp77. Bologna F F, Britten A C, Mahatho N, Reynders J P, Light Pollution And Light Wetting On Ceramic (Glass) Insulators As A Cause Of Unknown Flashovers On Transmission Lines. Cigr 4th Southern Africa Regional Conference 2-4 October 2001, Cape Town South Africa 2001. Boshoff A E, Density, breeding performance and stability of martial eagle Polemaetus bellicosus breeding on electricity pylons in the Nama Karoo, South Africa. In: Birds and the African Environment. Proceedings, Eighth Pan African Ornithological Conference, Wilson R T (ed), Muse Royal de lAfrique Centrale, Tervuren, 1993, pp95 104. Burnham J T, Bird streamer flashovers on FPL Transmission lines. 1995 IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery 10(2). Dedon, M. F. & Colson, E. W. 1987. Bird-caused outages in the PG&E electric distribution and transmission system. Pacific Gas and Electric Company. San Ramon, California: 1-49. Harness, R. E. 1998. Steel Distribution Poles Environmental Implications. 5th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls: 4 8 August 1998. Midrand, South Africa. Koops F B J and De Jong J, Vermindering van draadslachtoffers door markering van hoogspanningsleidingen in de omgeving van Heerenveen. 1982 Electrotechniek 60 (12): pp641 645. Ledger, J. A. 1984. Engineering Solutions to the Problem of Vulture Electrocutions on Electricity Towers. The Certificated Engineer 57: 92-95. Ledger, J. A. & Annegarn, H. J. 1981. Electrocution hazards to the Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres in South Africa. Biological Conservation 20: 15-24. Macey R E and Vosloo W L, Outages of the Brand-se-Baai 132kV Feeder- The Pollution Problem That Wasnt. Cigr 4th Southern Africa Regional Conference 2-4 October 2001, Cape Town South Africa 2001.
Page 60
Meyer, S, Measures to manage Sociable Weavers on Eskom Distribution Lines in the Northern Cape. Report No. RES/RR/01/13658. Eskom Resources and Strategy Research Division. 2002. Naidoo, S. 1997. Animal Interaction with Electrical Network: Examination of Historical Records. Unpublished Confidential Research Report No TRR/T97/028. Eskom, Technology Group: p3. Nelson, M.W. 1979. Powerlines Progress Report on Eagle Protection Research. Unpublished Report. Boise, Idaho Taylor, P V, H F Vosloo, C C E Wolmarans, A C Britten, P Naidoo, D A Hoch and van Rooyen C S, 1999. "Unknown" category of MTS line faults; bird streamers as a cause of transient earth faults. Progress Report, Eskom Transmission Group, July 1999. Turpie, J. K. & Ryan P. G. 1998. The Nature and Value of Birding in South Africa. BirdLife South Africa Research Series No 1. University of Cape Town, Rondebosch: 41. van Rooyen C S and Ledger J A, Birds and utility structures: Developments in Southern Africa. In: Ferrer M and Janss F E (eds), Birds and powerlines, Quercus, Madrid, 1999, pp205-230. van Rooyen C, Nelson P and Kambouris D, Strategic partnerships as a mechanism to address wildlife interactions with powerlines: The South African approach. Session 15, Proceedings of the Cigr Fourth Southern Africa Regional Conference, Somerset-West, Cape Town, 2001, pp1-7. van Rooyen C, Nelson P and Kambouris D, Strategic partnerships as a mechanism to address wildlife interactions with powerlines: The South African approach. Session 15, Proceedings of the Cigr Fourth Southern Africa Regional Conference, Somerset-West, Cape Town, 2001, pp1-7. van Rooyen C, Vosloo H and Harness R, Watch the birdy! Eliminating bird streamers as a cause of line faults on transmission lines, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, September/October 2003. van Rooyen, C S, Investigation into fault risk behaviour by vultures on electricity structures. Report No RES/RR/01/15714. Eskom Resources and Strategy Group, Research Division, Germiston, South Africa, 2001. van Rooyen, C S, Investigation into fault risk behaviour by vultures on electricity structures. Report No RES/RR/01/15714. Eskom Resources and Strategy Group, Research Division, Germiston, South Africa, 2001. Vosloo H F and van Rooyen C S, Report on lessons learnt from the National Bird Guard Project. Report to Eskom Transmission Group, Eskom, Megawatt Park, Sandton, November 2001.
Page 61
Vosloo H F and van Rooyen C S, Report on lessons learnt from the National Bird Guard Project. Report to Eskom Transmission Group, Eskom, Megawatt Park, Sandton, November 2001. Williams A J and Velasquez C, Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus rubber. In: The aAtlas of sSouthern African bBirds, Volume 1: Non-passerines, Harrison, J.A., Allan, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V & Brown, C.J. (eds). Bird Life South Africa, Johannesburg, 1997, pp112 - 113.
Page 62
12.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Chris van Rooyen is the manager of the EskomEWT Strategic Partnership, a joint programme of Eskom, the South African national utility, and the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT), a conservation body. The programme is aimed at addressing the problems of negative interactions between wildlife and electricity structures. He also consults to various utilities in Africa, North America and New Zealand and is the author of several papers on the subject.
Contact details: Endangered Wildlife Trust Private Bag X11 Parkview 2122 South Africa Tel: +27(0)11 486 1102 Fax: +27(0)11 486 1506 Cell: +27(0)82 454 9570 email: chrisv@ewt.org.za
Page 63
13.
APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 POWERLINE COLLISION SENSITIVE SPECIES OF CONSERVATION CONCERN Cranes Very large, longlegged birds with relatively short bills. They inhabit wetlands and open grasslands. Form large flocks when not breeding. They all have complex social systems and are extremely vocal. They have slow, laboured flight and fly with their necks outstretched. Bustards Medium to very large terrestrial birds, with long, sometimes very slender necks, and long necks. Variable in colour but usually various shades of brown, black and grey. Reluctant to fly, the birds tend to crouch or run when alarmed.
Page 64
Flamingos Large birds adapted to feed in saline waters, usually found at lakes, coastal lagoons, and seasonal waterbodies. Often undertake long migratory flights at night, which makes them highly vulnerable to powerline collisions. Congregate in large numbers when conditions are favourable. Storks Large birds with long necks and legs, relatively short tails and very broad wings. Most species have striking white and black plumage. Storks nest singly or semi-colonially in trees, cliffs or on transmission towers. Some species are long range migrants. Often attracted to grass fires.
Page 65
Vultures Large birds with long, very broad wings. Most have heads that are unfeathered to some degree, and weak feet. Some species gather around carcasses, fighting and jostling for space to feed. Others are solitary birds that scavenge on small carcasses and even bones. Very seldom kills. Eagles Medium to large birds of prey with long, broad wings and (usually) feathered legs. They are noted for their soaring and hunting abilities. They differ from vultures in having feathered necks and heads, and powerful claws used to kill prey. May scavenge if the opportunity arises. Pelicans Large, heavily built birds with grey, black and white plumage. The exceptionally long bill has a pouch which is used to scoop up fish. They are found in both salt- and freshwater habitats. Although ponderous in flight, pelicans are accomplished soarers and gliders.
Page 66
Swans, ducks and geese Small to large freshwater dwelling birds with blunt, flattened bills. They either dive or upend in the water in search of food. Geese regularly graze grass in open fields. Flight is fast and direct with neck outstretched. Nest is built on the ground, in trees or even on transmission towers. Ibises and spoonbills Medium-sized birds with elongated, curved or flattened bills, long legs and variable plumage coloration. They feed by probing in shallow water, mud or grass. Spoonbills feed by moving their bills from side to side in shallow water.
Page 67
Page 68

The Management of Wildlife Interactions With Overhead Powerlines

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

The Management of Wildlife Interactions With Overhead Powerlines

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

AFRICAN CENTRE FOR ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

The Management of Wildlife Interactions with Overhead Power Lines

African Centre for Energy and Environment (ACEE)

Figure 7: Flamingo flying at dusk (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)

Figure 9: Bird Flight Diverter (Photo: Chris van Rooyen)

Shieldwire marked with BFDs

Figure 11: Bird Flapper (Photo: Barry Hill)

Bird Flapper Shield wire

breakdown arc path typical pollution

Air gap breakdown arc path typical streamer

Thabazimbi-Amandel Combined 132kV

Bird Faults per Groups

Figure 32: Relocated Sociable Weaver nest

Phase to earth electrocution on an 88kV steel structure

Imminent phase to phase electrocution

88kV Kite steel

Phase-earth electrocution risk

Phase-earth electrocution risk

11/22kV pole transformer

11/22kV vertically configured

Phasephase and phase earth electrocution risk

Phasephase electrocution risk for vultures

Phase-earth electrocution risk Phase-earth electrocution risk

Phase-earth electrocution risk

Phasephase electrocution risk

Phase-earth and phase-phase electrocution risk

Figure 44: Vultures at a carcass (Photo: Gerhard Verdoorn)

Examples of low risk designs for birds:

Jumper cables are suspended below the cross-arm

Insulators are suspended below the crossarm.

Insulators are suspended below the crossarm. Note absence of groundwire

Modification of bird unsafe structures Examples of modified structures

Insulated centre phase

Insulating sleeves Gapped ground wire

Perch deterrents Perch deterrents

Figure 51: Electrostatic Animal Guard (Photo: Eskom)

1 * SYSTEM NOMINAL VOLTAGE

2 * MINIMUM ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE IN MM

4 HEIGHT OF GIRAFFE ACCEPTED IN MM

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi