The Search for Better Health Water Treatments: - Sedimentation/ flocculation - Ion exchange - Filtration - Absorption Koch: - Kochs

postulates 1) The organism causing the disease must always be present when there are signs & symptoms of the disease 2) Organism must be isolated from host & grown as a pure culture. 3) Organisms from the pure culture are injected into health host must produce same signs & symptoms. 4) Organism is re-isolated & grown as a pure culture identified as same organism as original culture. THRUSH - Fungus: candida. - Caused by imbalance of micro flora: acid/ alkaline imbalance. - Symptoms: itching, swelling, yeasty discharge, soreness. - Treatment: anti fungal drugs Defence Barriers: - Skin: prevents entry of pathogens - Mucus membranes: trap pathogens & flush them out. - Cilia: Push pathogens out. - Chemical barriers: stomach acid, swallows pathogens. - Bodily secretions: contain chemicals that kill pathogens. Pasteur: - Swan neck flask experiment. - Disproved spontaneous generation - Heating removes pathogens pasteurisation. - Developed vaccines IMMUNE RESPONSE - Helper T. Cells: initiate immune response, alert - B. Cells, they produce - Antibodies which bind to antigen & attack infection. - Killer T. Cells destroy invading pathogen - The dead cell is then engulfed phagocytosis. - Suppressor T. Cells slow down the immune response - Memory B & T Cells are left in case another encounter occurs. - Prion: infectious protein, without DNA, causes disease. - Viruses: minute organism, injects DNA into host cell, reproduces, takes over cell. - Bacteria: microscopic, prokaryotic, without membrane, bound organelles. - Fungi: eukaryotic, multi cellular, no cell walls. Non-Infectious Diseases: - Inherited Diseases: mutations, impaired body function, e.g. down syndrome. - Nutritional Deficiencies: deficiency of vitamin C = scurvy. - Environmental Diseases: lifestyle or something in the environment, e.g. smoking or minamata disease.

DOWN SYNDROME

Maintenance of Health:

- Occurrence: random, formation of reproductive cells, if mother is 35+. - Symptoms: muscle tone, odd shaped skull, delayed mental & social skills. - Cause: non-disjunction of chromosome 21, 3 chromosomes instead of 2. - Treatment/Management: advancements in medical technology enable 80% of sufferers to reach the age of 55+.

*Genes: production of certain proteins essential for basic cell processes. *Mitosis: bodys ability to repair itself by producing cells, e.g. healing faster. *Cell differentiation & Specialisation: different cells that function in different ways e.g. immune respoce.

Blueprint of Life EVOLUTION - Palaeontology = fossil record - Biogeography = same species different areas common ancestor - Comparative embryology = similarity in embryos common ancestor. - Comparative anatomy = anatomical structures homologous common ancestor, e.g. pentadactyl limb. - Biochemistry = comparison of molecules in organisms share common sequences. MENDEL - Determined that factors (genes) could be inherited. - Characteristic = height. Allele = tall/short. - Factors that are the same = homozygous. - Factors that are different = heterozygous. - Factors that is expressed = dominant - Factors that arent expressed = recessive. - Phenotype = outward appearance of an organism e.g. tall/short - Genotype = alleles that are present on the chromosome. DARWIN/WALLACE *Divergent Evolution closely related species experience different environments & different characteristics are selected. Evolve over time into different species. *Convergent Evolution Two unrelated species develop similar structures, physiology or behaviours in response to similar selective pressures in their environment. SUTTON & BOVERI - Discovered the role of chromosomes. - Boveri worked on sea urchins. - Sutton worked on grasshoppers. - associated behaviour of chromosomes with Mendels inheritance factors & concluded that chromosomes were the carriers of hereditary units. - Their work became known as the Sutton & Boveri chromosome hypothesis.

MEIOSIS & MITOSIS - Meiosis: sexually produces with sperm and egg cell = half chromosome number, new gamete combinations. - Mitosis: a sexually = identical genetic

GAMETES - Gamete formation = halving of chromosome number (diploid haploid) - Sexual reproduction = combining gametes (haploid diploid) results in

copies of parent cells. Separation and duplication of chromosomes.

variability of offspring. - Formed during meiosis: processes of variation = random segregation & crossing over.

SEX LINKAGE CO-DOMINANCE - Inheritance pattern due to some genes - An inheritance pattern where both alleles being located on the (x) chromosome only. are expressed. E.g. blood types. - Males only have one carrier chromosome (xy), whereas females have two (xx). - Therefore males only need 1 allele for the gene to be expressed. MORGAN - Worked on the fruit fly. - Using red & white eyed flies. - Results could not be accounted for by Mendelian crosses. - Showed that some genes were sex linked because they were located on the X chromosome. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - Transcription 1. Section of DNA unzips 2. Transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) * Ribosome = site of protein synthesis. 3. mRNA goes through nucleus wall into the cytoplasm & moves towards ribosome and through it, which causes protein to be read. - Translation 4. tRNA (transfer) = transport for AA to ribosome 5. AA becomes polypeptide. 6. AA polypeptide protein. DNA REPLICATION 1. DNA double helix is unwound by and enzyme. 2. The DNA unzips forming 2 single strands. 3. Nucleotides are added to the single strands resulting in 2 identical strands of DNA. BEADLE & TATUM - Showed relationship between genes and polypeptides. - Grew bread mold exposed it to radiation. UV light caused gene to mutate. - Their work showed that genes control phenotypes through proteins. EG one gene affects one enzyme.

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM - Evolution is seen as long periods of little change, followed by short periods of rapid change. - Evolution is a sudden process rather than one of slow & gradual change. - Evidence = fossil record, mass

REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUES - Artificial insemination, artificial pollination & cloning. - Genes are selected for pre-determined characteristics, or artificially selected. - In most cases the donor contributes all

extinctions followed by appearance of new the genetic material which results in species. uniform offspring. - Over generations genetic variability within the species is

Maintaining a Balance ENZYMES - Catalysts - Proteins - Substrates form a temporary bond with them to initiate cell metabolism. - Control all the metabolic processes within the body, work optimally where their temp, ph & substrate concentration conditions are met. If conditions are met enzymes work slower or not at all thus affecting the constant internal environmkent. - Lock & Key Model: When enzyme molecule & substrate form a bond it is called the active site. Enzymes are specific to their substrates. ENDOTHERMS - warm blooded, have physiological structures that enable them to maintain body temp within a narrow range regardless of external environment. - E.g. mammals (red kangaroo) & birds. Responses to temp changes: * Hot conditions lick forearm where blood is close to surface to promote heat loss. Put tail under body to S/A exposed to sun. HOMEOSTASIS - Internal environment is held constant regardless of external conditions (e.g. ph, temp, water & salt). - This allows enzymes optimal conditions to be met, resulting in the body working more efficiently. - 2 stages of homeostasis: * Detecting changes from the stable state e.g. decrease in temp * Counteracting changes from the stable state e.g. shivering = maintenance of stable state.

ECOTOTHERMS - Cold blooded, have approx same body temp as external environment. Body temp fluctuates according to environment. - E.g. reptiles (blue tongue lizard) & fish. Responses to temp changes: * burrows under rocks, allows animal access to regulated amounts of sun (heat from rock). Only come out in afternoon sun allows animal access to sun, but not intense heat.

PLANT RESPONCES TO TEMP CHANGE

- Cold Conditions: extracellular ice formation causes dehydration alter solute concentrations to prevent intracellular freezing. - Hot Conditions: Only open stomates at

WATER IN CELLS - Needs to be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function. - Water is the solvent for metabolic reactions in cells. - Vital for proper functioning that amount & concentration is kept constant.

night to combat high temp and prevent dehydration. REMOVAL OF WASTES - Metabolic wastes are by products from the breakdown of proteins & nucleic acids they are toxic & must be removed ASAP. - They can interfere with the ph of cells and therefore their functioning, can the concentration in the cell, interfere with reactions & normal metabolic activity. MAMMALIAN BLOOD - Co2: attached to haemoglobin &/ transported in plasma in a dissolved form. - O2: attaches to haemoglobin & becomes oxyhaemoglobin. - Water: makes up 90% of plasma. - Salts: carried as dissolved ions in plasma - Lipids: carried in a protein coated package - Nitrogenous wastes: dissolved in blood plasma - Other digestion products: transported in plasma.

- Cells can die if water content in cells is altered significantly. ROLE OF THE KIDNEY - Important for homeostasis by excreting urine & regulating salt & water conditions in the blood. - FISH: *salt water: excrete very concentrated urine to prevent dehydration *fresh water: excrete very dilute urine, to rid themselves of excess water. Structure Arteries Thick elastic walls, made up of 3 tissue layers. Capillaries Thin walls, 1 cell thick Veins 3 layers, not very thick, contain valves. Function Carry blood away from heart, do not pump blood. Materials diffuse through their walls Carry blood back to heart, valves prevent backflow of blood.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

XYLEM - Transpiration Mechanism: 1. Loss of water from the cells in leaves 2. When water is lost thru transpiration in the leaf the next molecule moves up to replace it, pulling the line of molecules

along, creating a concentration gradient that pulls water via osmosis. = PASSIVE transport. 3. Root Pressure plays a minor role internal fluid pressure in the roots builds up & causes water to be pushed up the stem. PHLOEM - Source to Sink theory: 1. Sugar moves into the leaves (the source) by active transport. 2. Then out to parts of the plant (the sink) where they are unloaded or stored. 3. Pressure flow theory: Movement of sugar from leaf cells into the phloem causes water to enter via osmosis. 4. pressure forces the sugar from cell to cell away from the source, along the phloem, until it reaches an area of low pressure, then the sugar moves out of the phloem to the sink. 5. This pressure gradient keeps substances flowing through the phloem. NEPHRON - Filtration & reabsorbtion regulate body fluid composition. - Filters out large proteins. - Reabsorbs water, glucose & inorganic salts and returns them to the blood. - Composition & concentration of urine varies & changes with exercise, diet & metabolism. TRANSPORT: *Active: against the concentration gradient and requires energy. *Passive: (diffusion & osmosis) requires no energy and involves movement of materials from areas of high concentration.

ALDOSTERONE & ADH - Aldosterone: steroid hormone produced by adrenal cortex in the kidney, role is to maintain balance of water & salt in the body. - ADH: Anti-diuretic hormone produced by the hypothalamus, stimulates the nephrons to reabsorb more water, it acts to urine volume & urine concentration.

ENANTIOSTASIS - Maintenance of metabolic & physiological functions in response to variations in the environment. - Allows metabolic functioning to continue, despite fluctuations in the environment.

PLANTS-MINIMISING WATER LOSS *Eucalyptus: have narrow leaves with a waxy cuticle, sunken stomates located only on the underside of the leaf, leaves hang vertically to S/A exposed to the sun.

- Estuarine Environments * Saltbush: form salt crystals on leaves to Osmoconformers: excrete salt, concentrate reflect the heat so that less transpiration urine; composition of body fluids varies occurs, to prevent dehydration. with the environment.

Communication RESPONDING TO A STIMULUS: Stimulus Bright light Receptor Sensory cells in eyes Messenger Nerve Effecter Muscle Response Muscle contracts ANATOMY & FUNCTION OF EYE: *Conjunctiva protects the cornea *Cornea refracts light to form help form an image on the retina. *Sclera white of the eye, tough coat of fibres, protects & maintains shape of eyeball. *Choroid Nourishes retina & prevents internal reflection. *Retina contains light sensitive receptor cells which detects light. *Iris contacts & dilates to adjust amount of light entering eye. *Lens transparent structure which allows light to enter the rear of the eye and refracts light to focus an image on the retina. *Aqueous Humour - water fluid, maintains shape of eye. *Vitreous Humour jelly like fluid, maintains shape of eye. *Ciliary Body supports lens & alters its shape. * Optic Nerve transmits impulses generated in retina to the brain.

REFRACTION - Occurs when a light ray passes from 1 medium to another at an angle other than 90 degrees. - Occurs in the eye when light passes from air to cornea cornea to A. Humour A.

ACCOMMODATION - Ability of the lens to change shape & focus light from objects at a range of distances. - Ciliary muscles adjust the shape of the lens, when they relax lens is less rounded, when they contract

Humour to Lens Lens to V. Humour.

the lens becomes more rounded. Distant objects = fatter lens, suspensory ligaments are taught, ciliary muscles are relaxed. Close Objects = lens is fat, suspensory ligaments are slack, ciliary muscles are contracted.

MYOPIA - Short sightedness, can see close objects but distant objects are out of focus. HYPEROPIA - Long sightedness, can see distant objects, but close objects are out of focus. CORRECTIVE TECHNOLOGIES - glasses - contacts - surgery

PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS * Rods - Long rod shaped cells, can only see B&W, linked in groups to single neurons, image they form lacks detail, none in the fovea, located around the retina, detect movement, suitable for night vision. * Cones - Conical cells, can see colour, produce detailed images, located at the centre of retina & fovea, suitable for day vision, require high intensity light to stimulate them, contain 3 different photo pigments (red, blue, green),covering the full spectrum of visible light. SOUND STRUCTURES - Nasal cavity - Soft palate - Tongue - Larynx - Vocal cords - Epiglottis. Larynx/ voice box lies directly below the tongue & soft palate. Inside the larynx is the vocal cords, which can adjust pitch by altering their position & tension. Together the larynx, tongue, hard & soft palate make speech possible. When air passes over the vocal cords they produce sounds.

COLOUR BLINDNESS - There are 3 colour sensitive cones in humans. - Colour blindness occurs because 1 or more of the 3 colour pigments is either absent or does not function properly. - Complete inability to distinguish colours is rare. - Most common form is inability to distinguish between brown, red & green.

DETECTION OF VIBRATION *Insects - tympanic membranes (like ear drums) which vibrate when sound reaches them on legs - Mechanoreceptors detect vibration & send message to the brain. - Hairs on the exterior of the body are

ANATOMY & FUNCTION OF EAR *Pinna: external organ which collects sound & directs it into the ear canal. *Tympanic Membrane: thin membrane which vibrates when sound waves reach it. *Ear Ossicles: 3 tiny bones in middle ear, magnify & transfer vibrations to the oval window on the cochlea.

tuned to frequencies made by the same species, used to detect predators/mates. *Fish - Have internal ears located in semi circular canals. - Vibrations of water are conducted to the inner ear. - Hair cells vibrate in response and send a message to the brain. -Detect low frequency sounds with the lateral line system - Neuromats, which contain hairs project vibrations & send messages to the brain. EUSTACHIAN TUBE -connects middle ear with the throat -usually closed, opens when we swallow or yawn. - air can pass through this opening, thus equalising the pressure between middle ear & atmosphere.

*Oval Window: Flexible membrane which transfers vibrations to the cochlea fluid. *Round Window: Flexible membrane to allow displacement of fluid when vibrations are transferred to the cochlea. *Cochlea: Fluid filled spiral tube, detects frequencies of sound. *Organ of Corti: Hair cells which translate vibrations into electrochemical signals. *Auditory Nerve: leads from the cochlea to the brain & transfers the impulse.

PATH OF A SOUNDWAVE - Pinna collects soundwaves, which travel down the auditory canal to the tympanic membrane. - The 1st ossicle vibrates, amplifies the vibration & passes it on to the other 2 ossicles. - The last ossicle is attached to the oval window; this vibration causes the fluid in the cochlea to vibrate. - The hair cells on the organ of corti detect the vibration & pass a message to the brain via the auditory nerve.

Structures used to detect vibrations: Receptor Cells:

Insects Tympanic membranes & Sensory hairs. Mechanoreceptor cells.

Fish Internal ear, lateral line & swim bladder Hair cells & neuromats.

Mammals Cochlea Hair cells in the corti.

NERVES - A nerve is bunch of neuronal fibres which are bound together. - A neurone is a nerve cell, consisting of a cell body, dendrites and an axon, covered by an insulating myelin sheath. CEREBRUM

THRESHOLD - When a neurone fires it is known as the all or nothing response. The reaction either occurs as a maximum or not at all. - The point that causes the neurone to fire is called the threshold of reaction.

- Interpretation of light (vision) & sound are controlled by the occipital lobes at the back of the cerebral cortex. - Sound is processed in 2 areas of the temporal lobe Wernicks & Brochas area.