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SWINBURNE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (SARAWAK CAMPUS) FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2 Semester 2, 2012

Laboratory Report 1

WIND TUNNEL EXPERIMENT AEROFOIL AND PRESSURE CYLINDER TEST

By

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

Lecturer: Dr. Basil, T. Wong

Due Date: 9th November 2012 (Friday), 5pm

Date Performed Experiment: 9th November 2012 (Friday), 5 pm

Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

1.0

Introduction

The aim of the wind tunnel experiment is to measure the drag and lift distributed on pressure cylinder and NACA0012 Aerofoil with different angle of attack. Apart from that, the pressure distribution along the pressure points on the pressure cylinder and surface of aerofoil is being measured as well.

2.0
1.

Objectives
To identify the relationship between the velocity of air flow, angle of attack, drag and lift, and pitching moment acting on aerofoil. To observe the pressure distribution on the pressure cylinder and aerofoil. To comprehend the fundamental concepts and theories of aerodynamics.

2. 3.

3.0

Theory

The shape of an aerofoil causes the air along the top surface to speed up resulting in a negative pressure and the air on the lower section slow down resulting in a positive pressure. The combination of these two pressure regions leads to a lift force being generated as illustrated in Figure 1 and 2 below.

Figure 1: Distribution of Pressure and Viscous Shear Acting on an Aerofoil (Crowe, C. T., et. al., 2010, p. 364)

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

Figure 2: Pressure and Viscous Forces Acting on a Differential Element of Area (Crow, C. T., et. al., 2010, p. 365)

Drag Force,

1 FD = ( p cos + sin )dA = C D AV 2 2 A 1 FL = ( p sin + cos )dA = C L AV 2 2 A

Eq. [1]

Lift Force,

Eq. [2]

Pressure Coefficient, C p =

p p0 = 1 4 sin 2 1 V 2 2
2( p t p )

Eq. [3]

Velocity of Air Flow, V =

Eq. [4]

Pitching Moment,

M = C M qSc

Eq. [5]

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

4.0
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Experimental Apparatus
LS 18013 educational wind tunnel 3 Components Balance Test Model Test Model holder stand 3 Components Balance Display Unit NACA 0012 Aerofoil with pressure tapping Pressure Cylinder 16 Way pressure display unit

4.1

Wind Tunnel

Figure 3: The wind tunnel employed in the experiment to produce laminar air flow and generate pressure distributions on the pressure points on test models

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

4.2

16-Ways Display Unit

Figure 4: 16-Way Pressure Display Unit

4.3

Pressure Cylinder

Figure 5: Pressure Cylinder

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

4.4

NACA0012 Aerofoil

Figure 6: NACA0012 Aerofoil

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

5.0
5.1
1.

Experimental Procedures
Pressure Distribution on Pressure Cylinder and NACA0012 Aerofoil
The 16 Ways Pressure Display Unit, test model holder stand and aerofoil as well as the pressure cylinder with tapping are set. The 16 Ways Pressure Display Unit is switched on. The wind tunnel is switched on. The RUN button on the frequency inverter is pressed. The frequency (wind speed) is adjusted to 10 Hz. The flow in tunnel is allowed to stabilize for 2 to 3 minutes. 7 and 10 pressure recordings of NACA0012 Aerofoil and pressure cylinder respectively are recorded. Step 6 is repeated for 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, and 45 Hz. Step 1 to 8 are repeated for Pressure Cylinder. The data are analysed and the graph of pressure reading against pressure point are plotted.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. The graphs finding are discussed.

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

6.0
6.1

Results and Calculations


Part A: Pressure Distribution on Pressure Cylinder

The pressure distributions on the pressure cylinder obtained from the experiment are tabulated in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Pressure Distributions on Pressure Cylinder Obtained from Experiment
Pressure Point Reference Pressure (Bar) Frequency (Hz) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 1 0 2 -0.0065 3 -0.0017 4 -0.0016 5 -0.0013 6 -0.0003 7 -0.0055 8 -0.0014 9 -0.002 10 -0.0008

Average Pressure (Bar) -0.0002 -0.0004 -0.0008 -0.0012 -0.0017 -0.0021 -0.0028 -0.0035 -0.0066 -0.0068 -0.0071 -0.0075 -0.0079 -0.0084 -0.0091 -0.0097 -0.0020 -0.0025 -0.0031 -0.0039 -0.0048 -0.0059 -0.0070 -0.0082 -0.0021 -0.0028 -0.0039 -0.0052 -0.0068 -0.0085 -0.0101 -0.0101 -0.0020 -0.0031 -0.0046 -0.0066 -0.0087 -0.0101 -0.0101 -0.0101 -0.0010 -0.0022 -0.0040 -0.0063 -0.0090 -0.0100 -0.0100 -0.0100 -0.0061 -0.0073 -0.0090 -0.0102 -0.0102 -0.0102 -0.0102 -0.0102 -0.0020 -0.0029 -0.0045 -0.0069 -0.0093 -0.0100 -0.0101 -0.0101 -0.0025 -0.0033 -0.0044 -0.0057 -0.0070 -0.0088 -0.0100 -0.0101 -0.0011 -0.0016 -0.0024 -0.0034 -0.0047 -0.0057 -0.0071 -0.0086

The average gauge pressure can be obtained by taking the difference of absolute pressure and reference pressures as tabulated in Table 1 above. The numerical computations are carried out by the aid of Microsoft Excel, and the distributions of gauge pressure on the pressure cylinder (in Pa) are tabulated in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Distributions of Gauge Pressure on Pressure Cylinder Obtained from Experiment
Pressure Point Frequency (Hz) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 -20 -40 -80 -120 -170 -210 -280 -350 -10 -30 -60 -100 -140 -190 -260 -320 -30 -80 -140 -220 -310 -420 -530 -650 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Average Pressure (Pa) -50 -120 -230 -360 -520 -690 -850 -850 -70 -180 -330 -530 -740 -880 -880 -880 -70 -190 -370 -600 -870 -970 -970 -970 -60 -180 -350 -470 -470 -470 -470 -470 -60 -150 -310 -550 -790 -860 -870 -870 -50 -130 -240 -370 -500 -680 -800 -810 -30 -80 -160 -260 -390 -490 -630 -780

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

The plot of gauge pressure distribution on pressure cylinder obtained from the experiment versus pressure point is depicted in Graph 1 below.

Pressure Distribution on Pressure Cylinder 1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-100

-200

-300 Average Pressure (Pa)

-400

-500

-600

-700

-800

-900

-1000
f = 10 Hz f = 30 Hz

Pressure Point
f = 15 Hz f = 35 Hz f = 20 Hz f = 40 Hz f = 25 Hz f = 45 Hz

Graph 1: Pressure Distribution on Pressure Cylinder

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

6.2

Part B: Pressure Distribution on NACA0012 Aerofoil

The pressure distributions on the NACA0012 Aerofoil obtained from the experiment are tabulated in Table 3 below.
Table 3: Pressure Distributions on NACA0012 Aerofoil Obtained from Experiment

Pressure Point Reference Pressure (Bar) Frequency (Hz) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

1 0 -0.0001 -0.0003 -0.0005 -0.0008 -0.0011 -0.0015 -0.0018 -0.0023

2 3 4 5 -0.0064 -0.0017 -0.0016 -0.0013 Average Pressure (Bar) -0.0065 -0.0018 -0.0017 -0.0015 -0.0067 -0.0019 -0.0019 -0.0016 -0.0068 -0.0021 -0.0021 -0.0018 -0.0070 -0.0023 -0.0023 -0.0020 -0.0073 -0.0026 -0.0026 -0.0023 -0.0076 -0.0029 -0.0029 -0.0026 -0.0079 -0.0032 -0.0032 -0.0030 -0.0082 -0.0036 -0.0036 -0.0034

6 7 -0.0003 -0.0054 -0.0006 -0.0009 -0.0013 -0.0018 -0.0025 -0.0032 -0.0043 -0.0052 -0.0055 -0.0057 -0.0059 -0.0061 -0.0064 -0.0067 -0.0071 -0.0075

The average gauge pressure can be obtained by taking the difference of absolute pressure and reference pressures as tabulated in Table 3 above. The numerical computations are done by Microsoft Excel, and the distributions of gauge pressure on NACA0012 Aerofoil (in Pa) are tabulated in Table 4 below.
Table 4: Distribution of Gauge Pressure on NACA0012 Aerofoil Obtained from Experiment

Pressure Point Frequency (Hz) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

1 -10 -30 -50 -80 -110 -150 -180 -230

2 -10 -30 -40 -60 -90 -120 -150 -180

3 4 5 Average Pressure (Pa) -10 -10 -20 -20 -30 -30 -40 -50 -50 -60 -70 -70 -90 -100 -100 -120 -130 -130 -150 -160 -170 -190 -200 -210

6 -30 -60 -100 -150 -220 -290 -400 -490

7 -10 -30 -50 -70 -100 -130 -170 -210

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

The plot of gauge pressure distribution on NACA0012 Aerofoil obtained from the experiment versus pressure point is shown in Graph 2 below.

Pressure Distribution of NACA0012 Aerofoil 1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7

-50

-100

-150

Average Pressure (Pa)

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400

-450

-500
f = 10 Hz f = 30 Hz

Pressure Point
f = 15 Hz f = 35 Hz f = 20 Hz f = 40 Hz f = 25 Hz f = 45 Hz

Graph 2: Pressure Distributions on NACA0012 Aerofoil

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

6.3

Part C: Measurements of Drag, Lift and Pitching Moment

The drag and lift forces acting on NACA0012 Aerofoil as well as the pitching moment collected from the experiment are tabulated in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Drag; Lift and Pitching Moment on NACA0012 Aerofoil

Pump (Hz) Pitch, M (N-m) Drag, FD (N) Lift, FL (N) Alpha, Beta, 15 -0.383 -0.02383 -0.3745 0 11 20 -0.746 -0.0396 -0.7536 0 11 25 -1.205 -0.0366 -1.1914 0 11 30 -1.7766 -0.0852 -1.7678 0 11 35 -2.465 -0.0914 -2.4594 0 11 15 -0.04775 0.01225 -0.05425 5 0 20 -0.1006 0.032 -0.1104 5 0 25 -0.16275 0.05875 -0.1715 5 0 30 -0.2562 0.0684 -0.2574 5 0 35 -0.371 0.107 -0.389 5 0 15 -0.059 0.003 -0.08 15 0 20 -0.123 0.0202 -0.1366 15 0 25 -0.2126 0.0344 -0.2196 15 0 30 -0.326 0.0584 -0.319 15 0 35 -0.46075 0.0795 -0.45625 15 0
Based on the results tabulated in Table 5 above, the distributions of pitching moment, drag force and lift force acting on NACA0012 Aerofoil are plotted against the wind speed as illustrated in Graph 3, 4 and 5 respectively.
Pitching Moment of NACA0012 Aerofoil 15 0 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35

Pitching Moment (Nm)

-0.5 -1

-1.5

-2 -2.5 Alpha = 0, Beta = 1

Wind Speed (Hz) Alpha = 5, Beta = 0 Alpha = 15, Beta = 0

Graph 3: Pitching Moment of NACA0012 Aerofoil

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

Drag of NACA0012 Aerofoil 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 Drag (N) 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 Wind Speed (Hz) Alpha = 5, Beta = 0 29 31 33 35

Alpha = 0, Beta = 11

Alpha = 15, Beta = 0

Graph 4: Distribution of Drag Force Acting on NACA0012 Aerofoil

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test


Lift of NACA0012 Aerofoil 15 0 17 19 21 23 25 27

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

29

31

33

35

-0.5

Lift (N)

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5 Alpha = 0, Beta = 11

Wind Speed (Hz) Alpha = 5, Beta = 0 Alpha = 15, Beta = 0

Graph 5: Distribution of Lift Force Acting on NACA0012 Aerofoil

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

6.4

Part D: Wind Velocity

The stagnation pressures and static pressures in the pitot tube obtained from the experiment are tabulated in Table 6 below.
Table 6: Stagnation and Static Pressures in the Pitot Tube Obtained from the Experiment

Pressure Point Reference Pressure (Bar) Frequency (Hz) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

11 0

12 0.0002

Average Pressure (Bar) -0.0001 -0.0002 -0.0004 -0.0008 -0.0008 -0.0015 -0.0012 -0.0025 -0.0017 -0.0037 -0.0022 -0.0050 -0.0028 -0.0065 -0.0034 -0.0081

The velocity can be computed by Bernoullis equation, in which it states that the stagnation pressure is the summation of static and dynamic pressures. The pressure points 11 and 12 as indicated in Table 6 above are the points at which the stagnation and static pressure acting on respectively. The dynamic pressure and the wind velocity are computed by Microsoft Excel and tabulated in Table 7 below.
Table 7: Dynamic Pressure and Wind Velocity Computed from Bernoulli's Equation

Pressure Point Frequency


10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

11 12 Average Pressure (Pa) Stagnation Static Pressure Pressure -10 -40 -40 -100 -80 -170 -120 -270 -170 -390 -220 -520 -280 -670 -340 -830

Dynamic Pressure (Pa)


30 60 90 150 220 300 390 490

Wind Velocity (m/s)


7.059312 9.983375 12.22709 15.7851 19.11671 22.3235 25.45271 28.52987

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

6.5

Sample Calculations

The average pressure at pressure point 3 with frequency of 25 Hz has been selected for the sample calculations for Part A (Pressure Cylinder) and Part B (NACA0012 Aerofoil).

6.5.1

Sample Calculations for Part A (Pressure Cylinder)

Based on the experimental pressure distribution on pressure cylinder tabulated in Table 1 above, the reference pressure and average pressure (f = 25 Hz) at pressure point 3 are preference = -0.0017 Bar and pavg = -0.0039 Bar. Therefore, the average gauge pressure as listed in Table 2 (Row 6; Column 4) can be calculated as follows:

p g = ( p avg p reference ) Bar

10 5 Pa 1 Bar 10 5 Pa 1 Bar

= [ 0.0039 ( 0.0017 )] Bar = 220 Pa 6.5.2

Sample Calculations for Part B (NACA0012 Aerofoil)

As listed in Table 3, the reference pressure and average pressure (f = 25 Hz) at point 3 are preference = -0.0017 Bar and pavg = -0.0023 Bar respectively. Thus, the average gauge pressure as listed in Table 4 (Row 6; Column 4) can be obtained from following computation: p g = ( p avg p reference ) Bar 10 5 Pa 1 Bar 10 5 Pa 1 Bar

= [ 0.0023 ( 0.0017 )] Bar = 60 Pa

6.5.3

Sample Calculations for Part D (Wind Velocity)

The average pressure at a frequency of 25 Hz has been selected for the determination of dynamic pressure and wind velocity. As listed in Table 6, the stagnation and static pressures (f = 25 Hz) are pstagnation = -0.0012 Bar and pstatic = -0.0025 Bar respectively with a reference pressure of 0 and 0.002 Bar at pressure points 11 and 12. According to Munson & Okiishi (2009), the density of air at standard atmospheric pressure at a temperature of 20 C is = 1.204 kg/m3. The Bernoullis equation is given by

pstagnation = pstatic +

V 2
2

where

V 2
2

is the dynamic pressure

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test Making the velocity V the subject of the equation gives:

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

V =

2( p stagnation pstatic )

10 5 Pa 2[0.0012 Bar (0.0025 Bar)] 1 Bar = 15.79 m/s 3 1.204 kg/m

7.0
7.1
7.1.1

Discussions
Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Results
Part A: Pressure Distributions on Pressure Cylinder

Based on the plot of pressure distribution on pressure cylinder as depicted in Graph 1 in the preceding section, it was found that the pressure readings of gauge pressure obtained from the numerical computations are negative. This is due to the pressure at each pressure point are measured relative to the reference pressure (atmospheric pressure). Apart from that, at any frequency, it had been observed that the greatest pressure distribution on the pressure cylinder occurred at pressure point 2. The occurrence of this phenomenon is due to the fact that the pressure point 2 is the stagnation point where the local velocity of the air flow is zero in ideal condition. In contrary, the velocity of the air flow at the stagnation point is the smallest (not equal to zero) in real-life application. The deceleration of air particles in the boundary layer is resulted by the divergence of air flow. Another two significant observations in the pressure cylinder test is the pressure drop as the air flow through the pressure point 2 to pressure point 6, and the sudden increase in pressure at pressure point 7 to pressure point 10. As the flow of air passed through the stagnation point, the upsurge in velocity and decrease in pressure of air flow occurred. This can be expounded by introducing the Bernoullis equation. Based on Munson & Okiishi (2009, p. 102), Bernoulli states that the stagnation pressure (or total pressure) is constant along the streamline in which the velocity of the air flow is inversely proportional to the static pressure. The sudden increase in pressure at point 7 is due to the formation of vortices as a result of the occurrence of flow separation as illustrated in Figure 7 below:

Figure 7: Flow Pattern around a Cylinder (Crow, C. T., et. al., 2010, p. 169)

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

In order to compare the experimental pressure distributions on the pressure cylinder obtained from the pressure cylinder test and the theoretical results which had been studied by Bertin & Cummings (2009, p. 123), a plot of pressure coefficient with respect to the variation of angle associated with each pressure point is required. The pressure coefficient of the experimental pressure distribution with the corresponding angle of each pressure point can be determined by Eq. [3]. The computations are carried out by using Microsoft Excel, and the pressure coefficients are tabulated in Table 8 below.
Table 8: Pressure Coefficients (Cp) of Experimental Pressure Distribution on Pressure Cylinder

Pressure Point 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Angle Theta, Degree Radians 0 0 13.5 0.235619 27 0.471239 40.5 0.706858 54 0.942478 67.5 1.178097 81 1.413717 94.5 1.649336 108 1.884956 121.5 2.120575 135 2.356194

Pressure Coefficient, C p = 1 4 sin 2 1 0.782013048 0.175570505 -0.68713107 -1.618033989 -2.414213562 -2.902113033 -2.975376681 -2.618033989 -1.907980999 -1

The plot of experimental pressure coefficients versus angle of each pressure point are shown in Graph 6 below.

Pressure Coefficient (Cp) vs. Angle () 1 0.5 Pressure Coefficient (Cp) 0 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3 -3.5 Angle ()
Graph 6: Plot of Pressure Coefficient (Cp) vs. Angle ()

45

90

135

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

Figure 8: Theoretical pressure distribution around a circular cylinder, compared with data for a subcritical Reynolds number and that for a supercritical Reynolds number. [From Boundary Layer Theory by H. Schlichting (1968)] (Bertin, J. J. & Cummings, R. M., 2009, p. 123)

By comparing the experimental pressure distribution obtained from the pressure cylinder test and the theoretical results studied by Bertin & Cummings (2009, p. 123) as illustrated in Figure 8 above, the plot of experimental pressure distribution follows the same trend and acts consistently to the series of theoretical pressure distribution. But, if comparisons are made based on the plot of experimental pressure distribution as shown in Graph 1, there has large deviations in pressure distributions with respect to theoretical results at the frequencies or wind velocities which range from 30 Hz to 45 Hz due to the occurrence of experimental errors which will be discussed in subsequent section. 7.1.2 Part B: Pressure Distribution on NACA0012 Aerofoil

Based on the plot of experimental pressure distribution on NACA0012 Aerofoil in Graph 2, it had been observed that the pressure distributions at each of the pressure point are approximately similar to each other except the pressure readings at pressure point 5, 6 and 7. As illustrated in Graph 2 above, the pressure distributions at pressure point 5, 6 and 7 have large deviations from the pressure distributions at other pressure points. As a verdict, the experimental pressure distributions are relatively close to the theoretical results in which the pressure distributions at each of the pressure point must be equal.

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test 7.1.3 Lift Distribution on NACA0012 Aerofoil

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

According to the distribution of lift force on NACA0012 Aerofoil as tabulated in Table 5 above, the readings of the lift force are negative. This is due to the fact that the lift force is acting in the vertical direction in which the direction of gravitational acceleration is assumed to be positive. Based on the plot of distribution of lift force on NACA0012 against the wind velocity as depicted in Graph 5, the lift force acting on the NACA0012 Aerofoil is proportional to the velocity of the air flow. The general definition of lift FL = C L 1 SV 2 can be employed in the interpretation of this 2 phenomenon. Based on the definition of lift, the velocity of the air flow is crucial parameters which affect the magnitude of lift. In addition, the increase in angle of attack () will also result in upsurge of the lift force since the lift force can be expressed in terms of angle of attack as the Kutta condition proposes, FL l = V0 or FL = V02S . 7.1.4 Distribution of Drag on NACA0012 Aerofoil

Based on the distribution of drag force on NACA0012 Aerofoil as shown in Graph 4, it had been observed that the drag is proportional to the velocity of the air flow for angle of attack of 5 and 15 degrees. On the other hand, for an angle of attack of 0 degree, the increase in velocity of air flow results in the reduction of drag force. For angle of attack of 5 and 15 degrees, the phenomenon of increase in drag force as the velocity of air flow increases can be expounded by the general definition of drag FD = C D 1 SV 2 . The inter2 relationship between drag force and wind velocity are clearly interpreted. According to the general definition of drag, the velocity of the air flow is a significant parameter in which the drag forces are greatly influenced. Apart from that, the variation in the angle of attack (5 to 15 degrees in this case) does not leads to large increment in drag force as for an aerofoil with low angle of attack, the drag force acting on it are primarily skin friction drag which induced by viscous shear as mentioned by Crowe (2010, p. 385).

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test 7.1.5 Pitching Moment

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

According to Bertin & Cummings (2009, p. 217-218), pitching moment is one of the component of total moment generated from the resultant force acting at a distance from the center of gravity of the airplane as manifested in Figure 9 below.

Figure 9: Reference axes of the airplane and the corresponding aerodynamics moments (Bertin, J. J. & Cummings, R. M., 2009, p. 217)

Based on Figure 9 above, it can be clearly seen that the pitching moment is the moment about the lateral axis (y-axis of the coordinate system) due to the distribution of drag and lift forces acting on the aerofoil that must be counter-balanced. The pitching moment generated as a result of distribution of drag (form drag and skin drag), and lift can be calculated by introducing the moment coefficient which can be mathematically expressed as CM = M/qSc, where M, q, S, and c are the pitching moment, dynamic pressure, planform area, and chord length respectively. According to the plot of pitching moment versus the velocity of air flow as illustrated in Graph 3 from Section 6.3, as the velocity of the air flow increase, the pitching moment increases. The occurrence of this phenomenon can be explained based on the dimensionless relationship between moment coefficient and dynamic pressure as discussed above. The increase in the velocity of air flow will result in the upsurge of pitching moment due to the increment of dynamic pressure. Apart from that, based on the plot of pitching moment against the velocity of air flow, there is only a slight variation in pitching moment with small increment of angle of attack.

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

7.2
1.

Experimental Errors and Suggestions


Cause of Experimental Errors: The vibration of air pump is induced with the increase in velocity of air flow. This is due to the fact that both the air pump and wind tunnel are placed on a same table. Therefore, as the pumping of air is initiated, and vibration is induced, the entire wind tunnel as well as the test models (Pressure Cylinder and NACA0012 Aerofoil) inside will vibrate as well. Thus, this will leads to the occurrence of experimental errors in the reading of pressure distributions. Suggestion: The air pump should be placed on a different table so that the vibrations induced during the suction process can be greatly reduced. Apart from that, a small gap or vacant spaces should be provided so that the readings of pressure distribution on the test models will not be affected by the vibrations induced by the air pump.

2.

Cause of Experimental Errors: Human errors will occurred in the measurement of angle associated with each of the pressure point on the pressure cylinder. This will results in small percentage of errors in pressure coefficients computed from the experimental pressure distributions. Suggestion: A manufacturers catalogue should be provided, so that all the dimensions of the test models are clearly stated, and the measurements of the angle associated with each of the pressure point can be neglected. As a result, the probabilities of the occurrence of human errors during collection of data can be diminished.

3.

Cause of Experimental Errors: The flow of air through the air pump was not steady in the beginning of experiment, in which consequences the occurrence of fluctuations of pressure readings shown in the display unit. Suggestion: In order to minimize the possibilities of the existence of this experimental error, it is strongly recommended that the pressure readings can be taken after a period of 10 to 15 minutes for steady flow after the velocity of air flow has been adjusted, since a certain period of time is required for the air pump to operate to its optimum conditions.

8.0

Conclusions

Based on the experimental results obtained from the aerofoil and pressure cylinder tests, it can be concluded that this experiment possesses the ability to bear out the fundamental theories of aerofoil and fluid flows across cylinder such as drag and lift, and pitching moment are valid. As a verdict, the objectives of this experiment were accomplished.

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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Wind Tunnel Experiment Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test

Stephen, P. Y. Bong (4209168)

9.0

References

Bertin, J. J. & Cummings, R. M., 2009, Aerodynamics for Engineers, 5th Edn., Pearson Education, Inc., United States of America. Crowe, C. T.; Elger, D. F.; Williams, B. C. & Roberson, J. A., 2010, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 9th Edn., John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, Asia. Lab Sheet: Wind Tunnel Experiment (Aerofoil and Pressure Cylinder Test) Munson, B. R.; Young, D. F.; Okiishi, T. H.; Huebsch, W. W., 2009, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 6th Edn., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., United States of America.

HES5340 Fluid Mechanics 2, Semester 2, 2012

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